4.

For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant. Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadros number). Solve problems and analyse information from secondary sources to perform calculations involving Avogadros number and the equation for calculating the m number of moles of a substance: n . M

4.1

4.8

To measure how much or the quantity of a certain element, molecule or compound, it is impractical to count all the atoms. Instead, a standard measurement is brought in, known as the mole. The mole is: A unit of measurement for a number of items (i.e. dozen is twelve). Exactly 6.022 10 23 (the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12). One mole of atoms, molecules, eggs is always 6.022 10 23 . This number ( 6.022 10 23 ) is also known as Avogadros number.

The mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12, and is also known as Avogadros number. A mole of elements: 1 mole of gold is still equal to 6.022 10 23 number of particles (197g). 1 mole of sodium is still equal to 6.022 10 23 number of particles (22.99g). Molar mass is the mole of compounds. A mole of cars contains 6.022 10 23 . If each car had 2 headlights, it would have 2 times 6.022 10 23 particles. Diatomic molecules are like this (i.e. 1 mole of O2 has two times 6.022 10 23 particles).

Therefore, if we are asked the molar mass of H2O, we would calculate:

2 1.008 16.00 18.016

Hence, we can use this to find the molar masses of different compounds. Take the compound MgSO4.7H2O.
24.31 1 32.07 16.00 4 7 16.00 7 1.008 2 246.492

Calculating number of moles: To calculate the number of moles in a substance, the following formula is used:
n N Na

Where n is the number of moles, N is the number of particles, and Na is Avogadros number ( 6.022 10 23 ). For example: 1.
n

Find the number of moles present in 3.2 10 24 of copper.

3.2 10 24 6.022 10 23 n(Cu ) 5.3mol

2.
4

Find the number of atoms in 4 moles of iron.

N ( Fe ) 6.022 10 23 N ( Fe ) 2.409 10 24

3.
n

How many moles are present in 9.45 10 23 molecules of gas?

9.45 10 23 6.022 10 23 n( x) 1.57 mol

4.
5.4

How many atoms are there in 5.4 moles of sulfur?

N (S ) 6.022 10 23 n( S ) 3.252 10 23

When doing any form of calculation, there are three tips: Write out the equations in full. Substitute into equations. Give all units.

Calculating moles and mass: When given an amount/weight of a substance, how do we find out how many moles it contains? We use the formula:
n m M

In this equation, n represents the number of moles, m is the mass of the substance and M is the molar mass. For example: 1. What is the mass of 5.2 moles of KCl?

m( KCl ) 35.45 39.10 m( KCl ) 5.2 74.55 m( KCl ) 387.6 g 5.2

2. Calculate the number of moles of copper present in a sample with a mass of 254.20g?

254 .20 63 .55 n(Cu ) 4mol n(Cu )

3.

Calculate the number of moles of magnesium sulfate in a sample which has a relative molecular mass of 361.11g.

361.11 24.31 32.07 16.00 4 n 3mol n

4.

What is the mass of 5.6 moles of O2?

m 32.00 m 32.00 5.6 m 179.2 g 5.6

5.
n(C )

What is the mass of 6.72 10 24 atoms of carbon?

6.72 10 24 11.15908336... 6.022 10 23 m(C ) 11.15908336... 12.01 m(C ) 134.02 g

4.3

Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept.

Gay-Lussac found that there was a simple relationship between gases involved in chemical reactions. Gay-Lussacs law of combining volume states: When gases combine at the same temperature and pressure, they do so in volumes that bear a simple ratio to each other and gaseous products, this means that volumes are in the same ratios as moles. Example: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g) There would be 100mL of hydrogen, 50mL of oxygen and 100mL of water produced. This idea would not work if it is not a gas. This is a direct outcome of Avogadros law: Equal volumes of gas (at the same temperature and pressure) contain equal number of particles. The practical contribution is that it is now possible to substitute gas volumes for moles of gaseous substances in chemical reactions.

4.4

Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept.

Dalton developed atomic theory stating that: Matter is composed of tiny invisible atoms. The atoms of one element are identical. Chemical reactions involve the joining or splitting a part of atoms in whole number ratios.

Gay-Lussacs theory: Gay-Lussac had shown hydrogen and oxygen reacted in a 2:1 ratio, so as Dalton considered hydrogen and oxygen to be atoms the equation to him was: O + H + H O H + O H. Dalton could not accept this as it appeared the oxygen was split. Avogadro solved this, by proposing the theory of molecules. Equal molecules are the same as equal volumes. H2 (100mL) + Cl2 (100mL) 2HCl (100mL)

Avogadros law states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules: Avogadros law equal volumes of gas (at same temperature and pressure) contain equal number of molecules. This is important in developing mole concept: This led to the idea of mole ratios in equations. Allowed chemists to use quantitative analysis of compounds and reactions to determine formula of compounds. Therefore, relative atomic masses of elements, and thus was critical in mole theory.

Mole and volume of gases: According to Avogadros law: Equal volumes of gases (at the same temperature and pressure) contain equal numbers of molecules. Since a mole is 6.022 10 23 , and a mole of any gas will occupy the same volume of another mole of gas at the same temperature and pressure. 0 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere is known as standard temperature pressure (STP) and has a volume of 22.71L. 25 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere is known as standard laboratory conditions (SLC) and has a volume of 24.79L.

The equation for number of moles and volumes:

n V mV

The number of moles is n and V is the volume of gas in L and mV is a molar volume (either 22.71L or 24.79L). Consider the following examples: 1. Nitrogen and hydrogen combine to form ammonia. How many molecules of hydrogen are needed to make 40 molecules of ammonia?

2N + 3H2 2NH3 Therefore, there are 60 molecules. 2. 60mL How many millilitres (mL) of hydrogen are needed to make 40mL of ammonia?

3.
10

Calculate the volume of 10 moles of N2 gas at SLC.

V (N2 ) 24.79 V ( N 2 ) 10 24.79

V ( N 2 ) 247.9 L

4.

Calculate the number of moles of methane gas in 5L at STP?

5 22 .71 n(CH 4 ) 0.22 mol n(CH 4 )

4.3

Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen.

The law of mass conservation: Mass is conserved in a chemical reaction. This law is the foundation of all modern chemical analysis. For example: Orange-red mercury (II) oxide decomposes on heating to form silvery mercury liquid and oxygen gas. Balanced chemical equation is: 2HgO (s) 2Hg (l) + O2 (g) 500g of mercury was heated in excess oxygen until it was completed reacted. The mass of the oxide product was 540.0g. 1. Determine the mass of oxygen that combined with the metal. 540g 500g + excess Therefore, excess oxygen mass is 40g. 2. The percentage by mass of the metal and oxygen in the oxide.
40 100% 7.4% 540

Oxygen:

Metal:

500 100% 92.6% 540

3.

The number of moles that reacted for mercury and oxygen respectively.
40 32 n(O2 ) 1.25 mol n(O2 )

500 200 .6 n( Hg ) 2.5mol n( Hg )

4.6

Process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical equations in terms of mole ratios.

Recall: 2 atoms of magnesium and 1 molecule of O2 to form 2 units of MgO. 2 moles of magnesium and 1 mole of O2 twill form 2 moles of MgO.

Balanced equation: 2Mg + O2 2MgO There are four main types of problems. Mass/mass type problems: How much magnesium oxide would be produced when burning 5.38g of magnesium? Write a balanced equation: 2Mg + O2 MgO Since the mass of magnesium is 5.38g. We can then convert mass to moles.

5.38 24.31 n( Mg) n( MgO) 0.2180172768 n( MgO) 0.22mol n( Mg)

Then, we find the mole ratio, and thus solve the equation:
n( MgO ) 0.2180172768 (24 .31 16 ) 8.8 g

Volume/volume type problems: Volume ratio statements can only be made when all substance in equation are gases. For example:

Find the volume in litres, of oxygen needed to combust 5L of ethane at 400o and pressure of 101.3 kPa. Pressure and temperature remain constant throughout. Firstly, we must write the equation: 2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O 7 C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O 2 Then, we work out the mole ratios. C2H6 is equal to 5L. Therefore, there are 17.5L of oxygen (based on the balanced equation above). Another example question: A mixture of 1L of CO and 1L of oxygen is reacted to produce CO2. Find the volume in litres of the mixture after the reaction. The temperature and pressure remain constant. 2CO + O2 2CO2 The ratio is 1:0.5:1. Therefore, the volume of mixture is 1L + 0.5L is equal to 1.5L.

Mass/volume problems: Remember, one mole of any gas occupies: 22.71L at STP and 24.79L at SLC.

Example: What volume of CO2 is produced at STP when 20g of calcium carbonate is heated? Writing a balanced equation: CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) Finding out the number of moles of a known substance:
n(CaCO3 ) 0.2mol 20 100.08

Finding out the mole ratio, we see that it is 1:1, meaning that n(CO2 ) n(CaCO3 ) . Thus, we can work out the volume of gas using known mole amounts.

V (CO2 ) 22.71 0.2 V (CO2 ) 4.538L

Limiting reagent type problems: Most calculations, you will be told the amount of chemicals and you will assume excess. However, when given a certain amount of reactants, you may need to find the limiting reagent.

For example: The balanced equation given is, where there are 6 moles of calcium and 10 moles of oxygen. 2Ca (s) + O2 (g) 2CaO (s) Calcium becomes our limiting reagent, because diving through, calcium is less, and thus the limiting reagent in the reaction. Another example: 72.92g of HCl is reacted with 32.69g of zinc to produce hydrogen and a salt, calculate the mass of the salt produced, showing all working. Firstly, we must write the balanced equation: 2HCl + Zn H2 + ZnCl By calculating the moles:
72.92 35.45 1.008 2.000109715mol n( HCl ) 32.69 65.41 0.4997706773mol n( Zn)

When dividing through the mole ratio (2:1), we see zinc is the limiting reagent. Using the limiting reagent, we can find the moles and masses of unknowns.
n( Zn ) n( ZnCl 2 ) in the ratio 1:1.

m M m( ZnCl2 ) (65.41 2 35.45) 0.4997706773 n( ZnCl2 ) m( ZnCl2 ) 68.12 g

4.5

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae.

Empirical formula shows the ratio in which atoms are in a compound (i.e. CH3).

Molecular formula shows exact number of atoms present in a molecule of the compound (i.e. C2H6). Structural formula the arrangement of atoms in the molecule.

Condensed structural formula provides details needed to expand it to full structural formula (i.e. CH3CH3). We can also use the differences between empirical and molecular formulae in questions. For example: A compound was gravimetrically analysed and the percentage by weight of each element determined. The results of the analysis were 70% iron and 30% oxygen. Use this data to determine the empirical formula of the compound. We first let 100g of the compound. Therefore, we have 70g of iron and 30g of oxygen. Then, we calculate the number of moles.
70 1.253mol 55.85 30 n(O ) 1.875mol 16.00 n( Fe)

Thus, we find the mole ratio (1.253:1.875). Divide by the smallest number, and Fe:O (1:1.5). Therefore, the smallest whole number is Fe2O3. In this way, gravimetric analysis allows chemists to calculate empirical formula of a compound.

4.7

Perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal to non-metals in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula.

Aim: To calculate the empirical formula of magnesium oxide. Hazards: Substance/Equipment Magnesium Hazard UV emitted from burning, Precaution Use skin and eye protection.

may cause eye damage Crucible Method: Extremely hot

Do not look directly at it while burning. Do not touch while hot

1. Clean 5cm of a magnesium ribbon so it is free from corrosion. Weight the magnesium on an electric balance. 2. Weigh clean porcelain crucible and lid. 3. Place the magnesium ribbon in the crucible which is supported on a tripod using a pipe-clay triangle. 4. Heat crucible with hot blue Bunsen flame until ignition of magnesium begins, replace lid and allow reaction to go to completion. 5. Remove from heat source and allow crucible to cool to room temperature. Re-weigh to determine mass of the crucible/lid and contents. Results: Item/substance Mass of magnesium Mass of crucible/lid Mass crucible/lid and product Mass of reactant Mass of product Mass of oxygen from the air Mass (g) 0.459 30.245 31.001 0.459 0.756 0.297

Calculate the empirical formula of the oxide, showing full working. Balanced equation: 2Mg + O2 2MgO
0.459 24 .305 n( Mg ) 0.018885003 ... n( Mg ) 0.756 40 .305 n( MgO) 0.018756978 ... n( MgO)

Dividing by the lowest: Magnesium is about 1, and oxygen is about 1 (1:1 ratio). Therefore, the empirical formula must be MgO. Accuracy and reliability: Reliability of the analysis can be improved by repeating the experiment or combining results from many groups. Accuracy can be improved by ensuring all magnesium has reacted. Cooling should be done in a desiccators to prevent absorption of moisture.