Diagnostic Methods For Outdoor Polymeric Insulators

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
Vol. 14, No. 5; October 2007
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Diagnostic Methods for Outdoor Polymeric Insulators

S.M. Gubanski, A. Dernfalk1, J. Andersson and H. Hillborg2
Chalmers University of Technology Gothenburg, Sweden 1- presently with STRI, Ludvika, Sweden 2 - ABB Corporate Research, Vsters, Sweden
ABSTRACT
Composite insulators are considered mature products and a broad range of insulator types is nowadays available, including line insulators, hollow-core insulators and apparatus insulators, for applications ranging from distribution voltages to the highest transmission voltages. This development has created a need to elaborate diagnostic methods and tools for determining the quality of composite insulators. A review on recognized insulator faults and methods for their detection is provided. Index Terms Outdoor insulation, composite insulation, fault diagnosis.
INDEX
1 2
2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7
Introduction Composite insulators

Benefits Problems/faults Problems on surfaces Mechanical failures Handling Vandalism Birds and rodents Biological contamination Interfaces
3
3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.6 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2
Diagnostic methods
In-service inspection techniques Visual inspection Light emission imaging Thermal measurements Acoustic measurements Measurements of electric field distribution Hydrophobicity Diagnostic methods under development Laser induced fluorescence Quality control of internal interfaces
Summary References
1 INTRODUCTION
THE selection and acceptance of outdoor insulators in high voltage equipments rely on the assurance of good and longterm stable properties of these products. Life times ranging for a few decades and very low failure rates are desired. Polymeric insulators have become popular in high voltage applications, steadily increasing their share on the market when compared to the traditional insulators made of porcelain
Manuscript received on 26 February 2007, in final form 24 May 2007.
or glass. The composite construction of polymeric insulators, based on a load bearing glass fiber reinforced (GFR) epoxy rod or pipe covered with an elastomeric housing, provides attractive properties. Compared to the traditional glass and ceramic insulators, modern composite insulators are significantly reduced in weight. Different polymeric materials have been used for the housings of composite insulators for assuring a good protection against external environmental factors. Among the materials, the ones based on polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS) and commonly named as silicone rubber (SIR) appear especially attractive. Other materials used are ethylene-propylene-diene monomer rubber (EPDM), ethylene-vinyl-acetate (EVA) and so-called alloy rubbers, the latter being blend of EPDM and silicone. Housings made of SIR provide long-term hydrophobic properties of insulator surfaces as well as the ability to recover the hydrophobicity, which significantly increase the reliability of insulators in highly contaminated areas. Following the broader introduction of composite insulators about 35 years ago, there appeared problems, which had to be solved before a general market acceptance could be achieved. These were mainly related to the resistance of housing materials to erosion, tracking and corona cutting, to the protection against brittle fracture of GFR core components, and to the quality of adhesion between core and housing; the latter caused by insufficient knowledge on material properties needed as well as arising from errors during quality control, during installation and handling [1]. By solving many of these problems through intensive research and development, composite insulators are today considered as mature products. Now a broad range of insulator types is available, including line insulators, hollow-core insulators and apparatus insulators, for voltage levels ranging from distribution voltages to the highest transmission voltages [2-4].
1070-9878/07/$25.00 2007 IEEE
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S.M. Gubanski et al.: Diagnostic Methods for Outdoor Polymeric Insulators
Several review articles and books treating degradation in composite insulators were published during the previous years of experiences with composite insulators [5-10], including a special Digest issue of IEEE Transactions on DEI [11]. However, a few detailed questions on the long-term performance of composite insulators still remain unresolved. These include the question of polymer housing integrity, the performance of load-bearing epoxy structures and the issue of good longterm adhesion between the different parts of the composite insulators. Especially the knowledge concerning influence of the different interfaces present in composite insulators is still scarce. There is therefore a need for developing suitable diagnostic tools and to agree on accelerated ageing tests for checking the quality of interfaces in composite polymeric insulators. The complexity of this matter can be illustrated by a list of factors that influence the long-term performance of interfaces, i.e. electric stress and its distribution, moisture ingress, oxidation, biological attacks, presence of contaminations, mechanical and thermal stresses, etc. The main purpose of this paper is to provide a review on the research aiming at development of diagnostic tools for outdoor polymeric insulators. Methods applicable in field conditions as well as in production processes were of primary interest here. For a better correlation of the methods to the problems appearing in outdoor insulators, the latter are reviewed as well.
2 COMPOSITE INSULATORS
Composite insulators can be manufactured by different techniques. However, today the most commonly used technique is one-shot molding [6]. The whole insulator housing is then injection molded directly around the core in one piece and, in this way, the housing can be chemically bonded to the core. Insulator housings can also be made by means of spiral winding technique. It is a very flexible technique, enabling large variations in diameters and lengths, without high tool costs [12-14]. End fittings are made of metal and the most common materials are: cast, forged or machined aluminum and forged iron or steel [15]. The end fittings can be attached to the core by different methods. Today, swaging (crimping) and gluing are most common [13], but the use of wedges also occurs in some applications. Swaging is the strongest type of attachment per unit area of the rod [15]. 2.1 BENEFITS The reason for using composite insulators varies significantly between utilities [7,16,17], but one of the most common reasons is connected with the low weight. The weight of a composite insulator is normally only about 10% of its equivalents made of glass or porcelain [15]. This makes it attractive in several aspects, especially as most of them are associated with cost reductions. First, they enable
lighter tower designs or increase of transmission capacity of existing lines by installation of more circuits in the same towers [18-20]. Another issue is the environmental impact. Increased power demand has to be met through construction of new lines, but the available space is in many regions limited. In these cases, the use of composite insulators can become a solution by enabling light, esthetically pleasing tower designs that require little space [18-21]. A comparison of a conventional line with a so-called ''tennis racket tower'' line utilizing composite insulators in Switzerland yielded right-of-way-cost reduction by 50% [20]. At locations where tower spans are long, for example in mountain areas and river crossings, inter-phase spacers are mounted to prevent conductors coming too close to each other. In such applications the use of composite insulators may be the only possible solution, due to favorable weight and elasticity [20]. In addition, smaller size as well as lower weight of composite insulators decreases shipping costs, compared to equivalent devices made of porcelain. This is also favorable during construction works, where cranes or other lifting devices become not required [19]. Evaluation of the cost reduction associated with using composite insulators varies among utilities. In a questionnaire by the Non-ceramic Insulators Technical Committee of Japan, utilities around the world (North America, Europe, Australia and Japan) were requested to estimate the difference between using composite and conventional insulators when constructing new lines [7]. It is important to remember that construction of new lines involves not only replacement of traditional insulators by composites but also use of new types of towers as well as reduced costs of right-of-way. Seven of the 15 responding utilities reported that the total material and construction costs were reduced up to 20%, while six utilities said that it was reduced further by 20-50%. Only two utilities said the cost was increased by up to 20%. Regarding replacing conventional insulators in service by composite ones to reduce maintenance and fault restoration costs, five and two utilities reported costs reduction up to 20% and by 20-50%, respectively. Only one utility reported that the costs were ''a little higher''. The cost of purchasing composite insulators varies between different parts of the world. In North America, composite insulators have been less expensive than porcelain and glass insulators since the early 90's [15]. Insulators installed on a 500 kV line in the US in 1995 were reported to be 45% less expensive. In Australia in 2001, composite insulators were 20-30% cheaper than conventional porcelain disc insulators [22]. Comparison of costs for installing long rod porcelain insulators or composite insulators in Czech Republic, assuming the same expected lifetime as well as maintenance costs, revealed that the differences were dependent on voltage level [23]. For 110 kV lines, porcelain insulators were about 5-10% cheaper. However, at voltage levels of 220 kV and 400 kV composite insulators were about 15% and 25% cheaper, respectively.
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Circuit breakers, surge arresters, current and voltage transformers utilizing polymeric insulators with hollow cores put special demands on the insulator materials. In such applications the insulators can be stressed mechanically through high pressures from inside and also from cantilever duties. In cases where faults lead to explosion, the use of composite insulators considerably lowers the risk of damage to people and property [19,20]. It is desirable in high voltage insulator applications to limit the leakage currents. This can basically be done through increasing leakage distances or improving insulator shape, but the choice of material also influences leakage current level. The surface of a polluted porcelain or glass insulator can become completely wetted, while some polymeric materials, such as for example SIR, exhibit excellent water-repellent properties, i.e. they are strongly hydrophobic. This is one of the main reasons why SIR insulators are favored for application in contaminated areas. Service experiences shows that SIR insulators have usually better performance than EPDM, porcelain and glass insulators in polluted environments [6,24-28] and the hydrophobic property of insulator surface is considered the main factor responsible for their high pollution flashover withstand [19,29,30]. Under certain circumstances, such as exposure to discharges and pollution, SIR surfaces may temporarily lose their advantageous hydrophobic properties. Luckily, SIR exhibits the excellent property of being able to recover hydrophobicity when left to rest [31,32]. Migration of low molecular weight (LMW) polymer fraction from the bulk to the surface of the material is considered to be the main mechanism behind this recovery [31,33,34]. Exposure to prolonged dry band arcing or corona discharges, causes polymeric materials used for outdoor insulation to lose hydrophobicity and become wettable [32,35-38]. Moreover, a long contact with water have been shown to reduce hydrophobic propertied of SIR and the effect is attributed to reorientation of methyl groups from the surface [33,34,39]. On the other hand, exposure to solar radiation has been shown to enhance hydrophobicity and its recovery rate on polluted SIR surfaces under tropical climate [40]. In colder climates, aged SIR insulators were reported to be less hydrophobic during autumn and winter than during summer [27] and parts of sheds protected from sunlight showed certain reduction of hydrophobic properties, compared to exposed ones. 2.2 PROBLEMS/FAULTS The early generations of composite insulators experienced rather severe problems, such as; tracking, erosion, corona cutting, loosening of end-fittings and insufficient bonding between shed material and fiber core [41]. These problems were almost eliminated through the development of new manufacturing techniques and the use of new and better materials, but still there is a certain skepticism against composite insulators among some
utilities [42]. Obviously there is a need for developing diagnostic methods that can distinguish between faulty and healthy insulators. Several utilities have reported ''difficulties to detect faulty insulators'' as a major reason for not using composite insulators [7]. In order to start dealing with this, the nature of the different fault types has to be known. Insulator faults can be divided into two main types; mechanical and electrical. They are however rather intimately connected, since an electrical fault often may give rise to a mechanical problem and vice versa. Severe pollution exposure was reported to cause erosion, tracking and puncturing of silicone insulators in Mexico after only two years of service [43]. Punctured silicone insulators in China failed mechanically and caused line drops [44]. In England, EPDM insulators installed in 1983 suffered from extensive erosion under very heavy pollution [25]. Further visual observations revealed splitting of housing material, holes between sheds and sheath, burn tracks along the fiber rod, and cracking which lead to puncture. Pollution testing of composite insulators in laboratory revealed that high salinity levels resulted in partial arcs and flashovers rather than in erosion [45,46]. Lower salinity levels yielded erosion and/or tracking damages similar to what has been observed in the field [43,45,46] and the effect was attributed to the difference in mobility of partial arcs. 2.2.1 PROBLEMS ON SURFACES Aging of polymeric insulators is to a large extent controlled by the climatic conditions prevailing at the site of installation, but insulator design and presence of pollution are also very important factors. Mold lines, for instance, tend to accumulate contaminants giving rise to increased localized discharge activity and subsequent erosion [46]. If enough housing material is removed to expose the GFR rod, the latter may experience tracking [15]. Corona from insulator hardware and eventually from water drops on insulator surfaces has been considered as one of the possible aging reasons [38,47,48]. The first and most important observation is that corona reduces hydrophobic properties of SIR. Discoloration, erosion and shed cutting have also been observed [47]. These damages are attributed to the influence of ions and gases from the discharge, ozone and nitrogen oxides, and possibly UV radiation [49]. However, corona problems can often be avoided through proper use of field grading devices. Water droplets on polymeric surfaces distort the field distribution in their vicinity and possibly cause corona discharges [48]. The reason for this is twofold. First, relative permittivity of water is high, which enhances the field strength in the surrounding air [38]. Secondly, water droplets deform in the direction of the field, making their curvature smaller and increasing the field further. The field strength needed to start corona from water droplets on SIR
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surface is about 0.4 kV/mm. Phillips et al [47] conducted experiments on 500 kV composite insulators with SIR housing to study water drop initiated corona. E-field along the insulators was calculated and it exceeded the level of 0.4 kV/mm on sheaths and at junctions between sheds and sheaths, but not on shed surfaces. Later laboratory experiments revealed that the regions around the shedsheath junctions were most affected by water drop corona. Steps in the development of aging and flashover process of polymeric insulators were suggested in [19,38,50] and can be summarized in the following. A new insulator performs well due to its excellent hydrophobic properties, but with time passing it collects pollution, which become encapsulated by the low molecular weigh polymer, making the pollution layer hydrophobic. Water drops localized on the surface give then rise to corona in regions of high field, causing local loss of hydrophobicity. Here some of the pollution is dissolved into the water and forms a thin conductive layer, which changes the electric field distribution and increases the field strength in new regions, initiating new corona discharges. This process continues, and a conductive wet path between the insulator ends develops. Thereafter, the current flowing in this layer causes the path to dry in regions where its density is high, yielding dry-band arcing. Arcing causes further loss of hydrophobicity, erosion of the surface and increase in leakage current. When the wet period ends, the insulator will dry and start to recover its hydrophobicity and if it is allowed to recover completely, before the next wet period, the process will start from the beginning. If not, the process will resume. Depending on the insulator design and choice of material, such process may go on for many cycles. A bad design may however cause severe erosion of both sheath and sheds, leading with time to electrical or mechanical failure. The reduction of hydrophobicity of SIR due to arcing, i.e. dryband or flashover, is less severe than due to corona [38,48]. This is attributed to the fact that the energy spectrum in arcs is very different from that in corona discharges. The flashover mechanism of SIR insulators is significantly different from that on glass or porcelain insulators, which is attributed to the hydrophillic properties of ceramics [30,50]. Wetting of a polluted porcelain surface results in a continuous water film and dry-band arcs can develop directly. The drying of the remaining part of insulator and subsequent elongation of the arc causes the insulator to flashover. On a SIR surface the situation is different. The first steps are similar to what has been described regarding the corona deterioration above. Moreover, the conducting layer that develops is usually thin. It limits the current flow and consequently the flashover voltage increases [19,38,50]. 2.2.2 MECHANICAL FAILURES Mechanical failure of an insulator can lead to fatal consequences. Interestingly, in the case of SIR insulators, most observed failures were of mechanical nature [17, 38].
These failures can be divided into three categories; normal break of GFR rod, slip at end fittings and, so-called, brittle fracture. Mechanical failures are not common, compared to the number of units installed. Only 133 out of the 692,000 insulators included in a Cigre study from 2000 were reported to have failed due to broken rods [17]. However, in a less extensive survey from Japan on the use of composite insulators utilities reported that brittle fracture was the second most common reason of failure after manufacturing defects [7]. GFR rod is considered to be completely elastic up to the damage limit, where the glass fibers start to break irreversibly, changing the rod structure [21]. It was found that as long as the load remains below this damage limit, the time of life of a rod is not affected [15]. To ensure reliable operation in service, the ultimate strength is set equal to the damage limit, which can be accurately detected in laboratory using acoustic methods. Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the long-term strength characteristics of GFR rods with crimped steel end fittings [51]. The main conclusions of this 20-year test were that composite insulators have very stable time-load characteristics and that there was no significant reduction of their ultimate strength. Slip of the end fitting was a problem in the first generation of composite insulators [41]. Luckily, this is one of the least common types of failures today [7,16,17]. Swaging, which is the most common method of attaching end fittings to GFR rods today, works fine as long as the tools are in good condition, and the difference between the diameters of the core and the hardware is not too large. Worn tools may give rise to cracks in the rod, and differences in diameters may cause cracks in the hardware. At present, no measures are taken to detect cracks in the core [15], except for routine tension proof test where it may be discovered. Water ingress in combination with rods damaged during crimping has been reported to cause puncture and breaking [44]. Dissection revealed carbonized tracks along rod/housing interface or inside the rod. Failures due to defects on metallic parts of end fittings seem to be very rare [17]. The fact that brittle fracture can happen, even at low service loads, is a reason of concern [15,42,52,53]. The fracture surface has two regions; one characterized by a sharp cut perpendicular to the rod axis, and one where the rod breakes through normal delamination. The smooth region usually occupies at least half of the cross section [54]. Brittle fracture is considered to be caused by stress corrosion and can be initiated by simultaneous application of mechanical stress and diluted acids [54,55]. It occurs mostly close to the high voltage end where both electrical and mechanical stresses are high. Kumosa et al presented recently reviews on the problem [8,56,57]. Kuhl listed defected end sealing, improper choice of bonding resin,
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weak interface between fibers and resin, and, finally, use of glass fibers containing boron as intimately connected to this type of failure [55]. Cores with boron-free fibers were introduced in 1983, and none of them has so far experienced any brittle fracture [55]. 2.2.3 HANDLING Failures of insulators made of toughened glass due to damages caused by ''rough handling'' in connection with installation are rare [15]. Porcelain insulators can be damaged easily, but still the installation damage rate is low. Composite insulators, on the other hand, are not obviously fragile but can still be easily damaged. A number of failures of composite insulators in service have been attributed to improper handling during transportation or installation [15,58,59]. Unfortunately, some manufacturers claimed in the past that composite insulators were tough, indestructible and highly resistant to damage [42] and this misconception is still rather common [58,60]. To deal with the handling problem, Cigre working group 22.03 prepared a handling guide for composite insulators [61] and it contains recommendations on how to handle insulators, starting from the point they leave their manufacturer until they become energized. A general point is that all contacts with sharp edges should be avoided. Moreover, lifting, transportation and installation at site are identified as most dangerous for insulator integrity, making training of personnel critical. Cracking of the rod can for instance be induced through too large cantilever loads during installation. Walking or crawling on the installed insulator during maintenance may damage the sheds. One of the manufacturers has even introduced a special ''walking test'' [62]. 2.2.4 VANDALISM A factor difficult to control is related to vandalism, i.e. gun shooting or throwing stones at insulators, which results in insulator damage. Several utilities in North America have experienced extensive problems with glass suspension insulators due to vandalism [7,15-17]. The reason is most probably that the shells of these insulators fracture spectacularly when hit. In case of porcelain insulators, the vandalism problem is smaller, since the shells do not break entirely on a hit, which makes them a less attractive target. However, the mechanical strength in the remaining parts is probably not lowered too much, since droppings of lines due to gunshot damages are rare [15,63]. The reasons why composite insulators are considered to be more desirable in vandalism prone areas are that they are less attractive targets to gunshots. High resistance to vandalism was reported to more important to utilities in the U.S., Canada, Latin America and South Africa, compared to the rest of the world [16,17]. Burnham and Waildelich [63] performed gunshot damage tests on both ceramic and composite insulators to compare
their resistance. They concluded that composite suspension insulators were separated more easily than ceramic equivalents. However, even severe gunshot damage to composite insulators did not necessarily resulted in immediate failure. One manufacturer has reported on gunshot resistance tests to confirm that gunshots do not damage the glass fiber core when the sheds are hit [64]. Severe damages may be seen from the ground using standard binoculars, if not seen by the naked eye [63], whereas minor damages, are difficult to detect and they may cause problems later if the insulator remains in service. Insulators in hunting areas should thus be inspected regularly [15]. 2.2.5 BIRDS AND RODENTS Animals may influence performance of insulators as well. Flashovers of insulators due to conductive bird dropping, so called bird streamers, which short out the air gap along insulator string, have been identified as reason for flashovers by several utilities around the world [15,65,66]. The phenomenon is not directly connected to the type of insulators used, but composite insulators experience more severe damages from the flashovers. In addition, often more uneven voltage distribution along composite insulators make them more sensitive to this problem [65]. Furthermore, if field grading rings are used, the situation may get even worse [15]. Flashover due to bird dropping was estimated to be the reason for about 14 % of the composite insulator failures in China [66]. In Australia, parrots destroyed a number of composite long rod insulators on a 275 kV transmission line before it was energized [22]. In many cases the housing material were more or less completely removed, exposing the GFR rods. Due to this event, special protective covers were developed [22, 67]. No damages have been observed on the energized line since 1998. Hodgkinson reported similar bird damages caused by galahs and cockatoos that chewed non-energized insulator housings on a 330 kV line [67]. Also here, damages were not observed any longer after energizing the line, suggesting that the voltage may be deterrent. However, severe damage to energized composite insulators with SIR housings caused by birds was reported from Switzerland [18] . In this case crows were found to peck on both sheds and sheath, eating away large portions of the housing material on horizontally mounted tension insulators, in some cases exposing the rods. Attempts to increase tear resistance were made, but the problem continued. Similar damages were also seen in Spain [68]. Bognar et al [62] performed wet flashover voltage measurements on insulators, in which parts of sheds were removed to simulate damages caused by bird picking. The resulting reduction of flashover voltage appeared however negligible. Other animals that can cause damage to insulators are rodents. However, these problems appear mainly during
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storage and the damages may thus be discovered before installation [61,62]. 2.2.6 BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION Reports on biological growth on outdoor insulators revealed that microbiological colonization of ceramic as well as composite insulators can take place in all parts of the world [13,24,69-80]. The contamination may be caused by different microorganisms, such as algae, fungi or lichen. Composite polymeric insulators are here of special interest since ageing and different kind of structural changes on surfaces of polymeric housings make engineers concerned about their withstand capability and long-term performance. Majority of reports on biological growth on ceramic insulators [15,24,71,76,79,81,82] refer to experiences from tropical or subtropical environments, characterized by high rainfall, high humidity, elevated temperatures and intensive sun irradiation. The characteristic feature often found is a substantial reduction (by 25-70%) of the wet flashover voltage due to the presence of this contaminant. Composite insulators, unlike ceramic ones, contain organic substances that could eventually be digested as nutrients by microorganisms. SIR is known to exhibit high resistance to biological degradation. One of the reasons is that the material consists of inorganic as well as organic components, and that microorganisms like fungi cannot digest the inorganic parts [83]. A number of reports were published on biological attacks on non-ceramic insulators [13,24,29,59,70-78,80,8491], about half of them from tropical environments. Insulators made of SIR, epoxies and blends of silicones and EPDMs have been found to support growth of bacteria, algae, fungi and lichen. However, not too much information is available on the growth on EDPM insulators. Microorganisms colonizing bio-resistant substrates tend to form a film on the surface of the material. Such a biofilm consists of a mixture of different microorganisms embedded in a highly hydrated matrix of extracellular polymeric substances, mainly polysaccharides and proteins. Mixed populations of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and algae often coexist in the film [92]. In addition, particulate matter such as clay, humic substances, corrosion products etc. can be incorporated. Results of extensive investigations aiming at determining which microorganisms colonize non-ceramic insulators were presented recently by Wallstrm and Karlsson [91]. Insulators colonized in service from Sweden, Tanzania and Sri Lanka were examined for presence of algae, bacteria and fungi. The biological growth on all of the tested insulators showed similar characteristics, as all were dominated by unicellular green algae in combination with bacteria. Filamentous fungi were present as well. Additives, fillers and unreacted material leaching out of the polymer may provide a food source for the microorganisms in the biofilm. Consumption at the surface leads to concentration gradients, resulting in diffusion from the bulk of the polymer and subsequent deterioration. For instance, consumption of
plasticizers leads to mechanical degradation of the remaining polymer through increased embrittlement and loss of mechanical stability [92]. Additives used in the production of silicone rubber insulators can give nutrients to biological growth. A series of tests performed [93] showed that while silicone rubber with no fillers added cannot support biological growth, some commercially available silicone rubber mixtures can. These results strongly suggest that some component or combination of components in commercial mixes promote the ability of the silicone rubber material to support mold growth. Although the presence of biofilm interfere with the function and the properties of the substrate material [92, 94], generally, the impact of biological growth on the electrical performance of composite insulators remains rather low. Biofilms have an ability of retaining water on the insulator surface, which results in increased leakage current levels under wet conditions. However, since the conductivity of the growth is relatively low, the observed current amplitudes are probably uncritical. Presence of growth may also alter hydrophobicity, sometimes even masking it completely. Due to this, wet flashover voltage levels have been found to be reduced by approximately 30%. To protect a polymeric material from microbiological attack, different measures can be taken. In general, the addition of different types of additives depending on application, together with an optimization of the base polymer formulation will make the material more resistant to biodegradation. For example, addition of the flame-retardant zincborhydrate to different silicone rubber formulations has yielded suppression of fungal growth [95]. Further improvements can be obtained by addition of so-called biocides, i.e. active ingredients that kill or inhibit reproduction of microorganisms [83]. This method has for instance been suggested by Gubanski et al [76]. 2.2.7 INTERFACES Interfaces in composite insulators can be of different nature, e.g. macroscopic as well as microscopic ones. The macroscopic interfaces of the solid-solid type can be found between the GFR core and the housing (sheath), between the GFR core and the metal fittings and between the housing and metal fitting. These interfaces also form the triple point between the GFR core, the fitting and the housing, which is one of the most sensitive points in insulator construction. Insufficient quality of this point appeared to be responsible for many of the reported insulator failures caused by moisture ingress, including the brittle fracture of the GFR core [96]. Microscopic interfaces are found in the GFR core between epoxy resin and glass fibers and in the housing material between the polymeric matrix and the filler. In addition, depending on the manufacturing technique, there may be interfaces between the sheath and sheds, i.e. between the same or similar polymeric systems. Such interfaces may also appear as a result of possible minor repairs of damaged housings, for example in form of cut-marks or losses of shed pieces.
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The interface between housing and air is a large macroscopic interface directly exposed to the external environment. Its behavior and possible degradation are not however treated in this paper as typical interface problem. On the other hand, the interface between GFR core and the sheath is the largest internal macroscopic interface in composite insulator. Lack or loss of adhesion (delamination) of this interface, which is in direct relation to the bonding strength between two different polymeric systems, may result in development of internal degradation or even internal tracking [97]. For insulators and equipment used for the highest voltage levels (>345 kV) interfaces are extremely critical. In hollow core insulators, showing less sensitivity to housing degradation [98-100] the quality of interfaces becomes especially important. Because of applications in different types of apparatuses (bushings, measuring transformers, breakers, etc.), the distributions of electric field inside and outside of the insulators can differ significantly, which further complicates the behavior of the interfaces, especially if bonding detachments are present. In order to achieve a reliable long-term stability of interfaces in composite insulators it is essential to avoid defect formation during manufacturing process by careful selection of adequate primers and adhesives. The adhesion bonds must be able to resist a variety of stresses. Possible scenarios that may lead to loss of adhesion and to formation of interfacial voids include degradation processes due to by hydrolysis, partial discharges and thermal decomposition. It is important to stress however that presence of voids and delamination sites at the interfaces must not necessarily be harmful to an insulator. Everything depends on the defect size and on the type of stresses acting. An insulator containing minor defects can remain in service for years before the faults start to endanger its functionality. However, if the growth rate of voids at the interface is high, the risk for loss of desired properties becomes higher. Duration of such a process can vary significantly and it is therefore essential to attain knowledge on the rate of defect growth in composite insulation systems in a long-term perspective. There exist a number of yet unsolved questions regarding the severity of different types of interfacial defects. Andersson et al [101,102] investigated the quality of interfaces formed during shed repairs by observing the influence of harsh environmental and electric stresses on mechanical properties (mechanical strength and elongation at break) of the joints obtained either by cured HTV silicone rubber or by RTV glue. The tensile testing showed that samples containing cured interfaces maintained their mechanical strength after the ageing. At the same time the mechanical strength of the RTV glued samples was reduced. A reduction of the elongation at break was also found on the samples stored in highly humid environment, indicating that moisture alone can affect the mechanical properties of joints. Deterioration mechanisms inside interfacial defects between unbounded epoxy core and silicone rubber housings were also studied when exposed to partial discharges [103]. Optical inspections of the tested areas revealed that erosion could be
found on the epoxy substrate in form of small cavities in the vicinity of the discharging electrode and small acidic droplets of decomposition byproducts (1-5 m in size). Signs of adhesion weakening were locally detected. Cracking patterns were also seen on the SIR unbounded surface, most likely caused by joint action of electrical discharges and ozone, indicating oxidative crosslinking of this material. Infrared analyses suggested a build-up of a thin degraded layer on epoxy as well as for degradation of the primer.
3 DIAGNOSTIC METHODS
The aim of diagnostics is, in general, to get relevant information about the state of technical systems [104]. In insulator applications this means that diagnostics should be an aid in making decisions about if and when maintenance or replacement should be done. It is basically associated with reducing costs and minimizing risk of damage to people and property. For insulators made of glass or porcelain, several inspection methods are available to detect faulty insulators in service [15]. In the case of composite insulators, the situation is more complex. Though several techniques have been proposed for assessing the state of insulators in service [17, 105,106], it is still difficult to accurately correlate measured parameters with presence of defects [106, 107]. For some insulator users [7,42] the lack of appropriate diagnostic methods is seen as one of the main disadvantages, and thus work on development of diagnostic methods for evaluation of the composite insulator conditions should continue [11, 16, 42, 68, 108-110]. An IEEE task force evaluated a number of methods used to detect faulty composite insulators before installation [111]. A number of insulators containing artificial defects were manufactured and tested. The defects were: wires, silver paint, metal shavings or copper dust placed in the interfaces between housing and rod, cracked rods soaked in water, cuts in housing material exposed to salt fog and improperly attached end fittings. The insulators in imminent danger of failure, i.e. the insulators with embedded wires, were found to puncture when energized at rated voltage. By measuring resistance between two movable electrodes using a megger or a hot stick tester, limited information was obtained, although with help of the hot stick tester one could identify the insulators with buried wires bridging almost the full insulator length. Measurements of leakage current, partial discharges (PD) and radio interference voltage (RIV) could detect insulators with embedded wires as well. RIV was found to be the most sensitive technique since it also could identify insulators containing silver paint. However, the fact that discharges had to be caused by the defects, and not by anything else, restricted applicability of PD and RIV measurements to laboratory environment only. Further, no heating could be observed on the insulators when energizing them even up to 80 % of the dry ac flashover voltage for 20 minutes. This suggested that most of the techniques
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evaluated would have detected the insulator units that were about to fail within a short time. Tian et al [112] checked several techniques as means to evaluate the integrity of composite insulation and tools for live line work. By measurements of PDs, performed on 300 mm long segments, faulty insulators were identified through significantly reduced inception voltage and increased apparent charge. IR observations on hollow composite tubes stressed at nominal voltage for 70 minutes showed temperature increases of about 7 C on two of seven tubes tested. These two tubes failed later during a subsequent withstand test. 3.1 IN-SERVICE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES In 1996, Cigre Working Group 22.03 [105] presented a review discussing advantages and disadvantages of the most common techniques used to evaluate the electrical integrity of composite insulators in service; including visual inspection, image intensification, IR thermography, directional acoustic emission and electric field measurement. It was concluded that none of the evaluated techniques alone was able to identify all types of defects. This finding led to a recommendation to use a combination of at least two different techniques. Recently, the same working group reported on the use of inspection techniques applied by 74 utilities around the world, not including the U.S. [17]. More than 40 % of the responding companies were primarily inspecting insulators visually, from towers and ground. Evaluation of hydrophobicity, IR thermography and night vision observations were all less attractive and applied by roughly 15 % of the responding utilities. Only a few utilities used RIV, electric field and ultrasonic measurements.
3.1.2 LIGHT EMISSION IMAGING Light amplification equipment can be used to detect presence of surface discharge activity on insulators [106]. These are often indications for beginning of erosion damages or cuts in the housing material. During night, discharges may be seen directly by naked eye or by using standard night vision equipment [114]. However, most of the photons emitted from discharge have energies corresponding to wavelengths in the region 300-400 nm, i.e. outside the region of standard night vision equipment and the human eye. Consequently, by utilizing UV-A sensitive equipment the detection limit can be enhanced significantly, and possibly damaging discharges can be detected at an early stage [105]. Most corona imaging devices use optical filters with maximum transmission at the wavelengths corresponding to peaks in the light emitted by the discharge [115]. The main drawback is that the measurements have to be performed during night to avoid sun radiation, which is several orders of magnitude stronger than the signal from the discharge. However, instruments able to detect discharge activity during daytime were also developed [114-119]. A system developed by Vosloo et al [114] utilize the fact that corona occur close to the peak of supplying voltage, to separate light emitted by corona discharges from light radiated by the sun. It records two images, one with and one without corona, using an UV image intensified video camera synchronized to the supplying voltage. After making some image processing, the result is an image of the corona discharge on the surface of the object observed. Another approach to avoid interference from sun radiation is to detect radiation in the 240-280 nm region, the so-called UV solar blind band. In this region, the intensity of light emitted by corona is much weaker than in the 300-400 nm region, but on the other hand there is less background radiation from the sun, since it is efficiently blocked by the atmosphere. This feature was utilized in a corona-viewing device built by Lindner et al [115], who claimed outdoor observations of corona discharges during a bright day from a distance of 95 m. 3.1.3 THERMAL MEASUREMENTS IR thermography has shown to be efficient for finding defects on composite insulators. The reason is that degradation of materials under electric fields is, in many cases, associated with heat generation. Also surface discharges, possibly damaging the surface, can be detected using IR thermography. Appearance of elevated temperature spots, resulting from current flow in the interface between housing material and GFR rod, were found to be suitable for detecting punctures, cracks and tracking damages. However, the temperature increase induced is usually quite small and makes the technique sensitive to environmental conditions of the measurement. This is a major disadvantage and according to de Tourreil [120] and Vaillancourt et al [121] interpretation of IR results may be affected by strong winds, dew, rain
3.1.1 VISUAL INSPECTIONS Visual inspection is the most common technique used by utilities to identify defected composite insulators in service [7, 16,17,105]. In order to get reliable results, the observer should be positioned close to the insulator, i.e. preferably climb a tower, use a bucket truck or helicopter [105,113]. Further, due to the small size of defects, use of high power binoculars or telescope is desirable. The examiner should look for defects on the housing material like erosion, cracking, splitting, gunshot holes or puncture, as well as damages on moisture seals at end fittings and flashover damages to hardware [15,105,106]. These, though being basically external damages, may also provide indications of internal faults, like internal tracking. If an exposed rod, damaged end seals or seriously tracked and eroded sheath are observed, the insulators should be considered for immediate replacement. However, it is important to note that in order to get good results, the examiner should be familiar with the design and the materials, as well as the typical failure modes of the insulator type.
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temperature distribution, for example from sun radiation, and rapid temperature changes. It was therefore suggested that best results could be obtained if measurements were performed at night. Spangenberg and Riquel [122]reported on experiences with IR thermography for detecting internal defects in composite insulators by studying insulators with artificial defects. The technique could detect short wires located close to, or connected to, the high voltage end. Further, an insulator with burnt core, as well as an insulator with a real defect where the rod was partly exposed could be identified. It is important to note that for being detectable, defects did not necessarily need to be located on the side directed towards IR camera. Investigations performed at STRI [123] revealed that corona discharges alone did not generate enough heat for making them detectable by means of IR thermography. However, the accompanying reduction of hydrophobicity due to corona discharges gave rise to dry-band arcing, which increased the surface temperature, thus enabling detection from ground. The results were found to be partly influenced by sun radiation, but more important, by the relative humidity of the surroundings. 3.1.4 ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS It is well known that discharges generate audible noise, which can be detected using sensitive microphones. Phillips et al [124] investigated the possibility of using airborne ultrasonic emission to detect faulty insulators and concluded that internal defects covered by a sheath were more or less impossible to detect with this method. On the other hand, Lundgaard et al [125] proposed an acoustic method for in-service detection of PDs in medium voltage cable terminations and joints. As the coupling between the outer surface of the termination and the surrounding air was weak, a fiberglass wave-guide was used, which was introduced for improving the coupling between object and detector. Studying silicone rubber and EPDM cable terminations in laboratory and in the field, they found the sensitivity to be about 10 pC. However, field measurements were more complicated because of disturbances introduced by external discharges. Ultrasonic techniques can be used in two ways. Either an operator listens to acoustic signals produced by the object to be studied, as acoustic emission, or to echoes of sounds coupled into it. The latter method is known as active or non-destructive ultrasound and has been proposed for diagnostics of polymeric insulating materials [125-129]. For example information about location and nature of flaws may be obtained from analyses of parameters like amplitude, frequency content and phase shift of the returning signal. Flaws, like voids and delaminations, will for instance give rise to reflections that can be used to determine their depth. To study this, measurements on cast resin samples with different flaws were performed and the rate of success was above 95 %. Further, it was found that ultrasonic inspections of medium voltage polyethylene cables could identify voids (0.1 mm) on the interfaces at the semi-conducting sheath. Scanning laser acoustic microscopes (SLAM) utilizing high frequency ultrasonic waves, usually in the range MHz-GHz,
were used to evaluate the inner structure of composite materials in [130,131]. Delaminations and misorientations of fibers in GFR rods [131] as well as irreversible structural changes in epoxy resins [132] could be detected. By combining an positioning system for the ultrasonic probe with data optimization and advanced data processing electrical treeing and breakdown channels in silicone rubber can be detected, even though the obtained images could not resolve the finer structures [133]. 3.1.5 MEASUREMENTS OF ELECTRIC FIELD DISTRIBUTION Electric field distributions around insulators are influenced by the permittivity and conductivity of materials used, as well as by its geometry. In addition, the presence and nature of defects as well as pollution and moisture also affects this distribution to some extent. To prove the applicability of the electric field method to composite insulators, Vaillancourt et al [113] performed laboratory tests of 735 kV insulators with both simulated and real defects. The first defects were accomplished by putting 26 cm long copper wires into cuts made in the housing material close to the high voltage end. Such a defect was identified easily. It yielded an increase of the field at the end of the defect and lowered it close to the end fitting. Next, cuts in the middle of the insulator were fitted with copper wires of different lengths and with semi-conducting films. The smallest defect detectable was a wire 8 cm long. The last objects studied were three insulators removed from service with visible splits at the high voltage ends (8, 16 and 42 cm long) and only the longest one could be recognized. When, on the other hand the defects were soaked with water, also the middle range defect became visible. The authors concluded that electric field measurements seem to be facilitated by presence of water trapped inside defects [121]. Cheng et al [134] indicated that sensitivity of the investigations may be confined to the position of the defect, i.e. a better sensitivity at HV end of insulators. The authors also pointed to the influence of corona rings. Chen et al [135] conducted similar investigation to find the applicability and sensitivity of electric field measurements under dry and clean conditions, as well as how these are influenced by water and pollution. The authors concluded that disturbances in the field distribution due to presence of water make diagnostics of faulty insulators very difficult. 3.1.6 HYDROPHOBICITY Traditionally the state of hydrophobicity on material surfaces is established through measuring contact angles. The most commonly used method is the so-called sessile drop technique [135]. However, the sessile drop method is applicable in laboratory environment only. Thus a lack of methods for estimating hydrophobicity of insulator surfaces in the field led to development of the STRI hydrophobicity classification method [29], which now have been adopted by the IEC [136]. The disadvantage of this method is that the measure is dependent on operator judgment.
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To deal with this problem, Berg et al [137] proposed use of digital image analysis for estimating the average hydrophobic properties of surfaces. Application of such procedure, where computer software interprets the image, makes the examination more objective and increases its accuracy. Tokoro et al [138140] also applied image analysis to study hydrophobic properties of SIR. These approaches were however not developed further for measurements on field installed insulators. 3.2 DIAGNOSTIC METHODS UNDER DEVELOPMENT A continuous search for reliable and robust diagnostic techniques has been taking place over the recent years. Below examples of selected attempts are illustrated. 3.2.1 LASER INDUCED FLUORESCENCE For detection of biological growth on insulator surfaces a technique based on laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectroscopy was recently proposed [88,141,142]. In LIF, the molecules or atoms on the surface under study are first excited by means of a laser pulse. Thereafter, the light emitted as the molecules or atoms relax from a higher to a lower energy state are recorded. The emitted light will partly have the same wavelength as the incoming radiation, but some emitted light will consist of photons with longer wavelengths. The spectrum of the emitted light depends strongly on the characteristics of the surface and is, in fact, a fingerprint of the surface condition. Utilizing the fact that chlorophyll fluoresce strongly at 685 nm when excited at shorter wavelengths, it has been shown that algae can easily be detected [88,141]. The effect is illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Measurements were performed outdoors in normal daylight, and the distance between the insulator under study and the laser system was 60 m. Further, by recording a LIF spectrum in a number of points when scanning the field of view, the result can be presented as an intensity image containing also spatial information. Techniques, based on LIF, for detection of presence of fungi on silicone rubber surfaces have also been developed [143,144]. The method is based on principal component analysis of the obtained spectra, i.e. a mathematical post processing, allowing for automatic differentiation of spectra from regions with and without the growth.
Figure 2. Long distance images (60 m away) of a composite insulator covered at its right edge by biofilm; photograph image (left), LIF image with main fluorescence intensity 400-800 nm (middle) and LIF image with main fluorescence intensity 670-700 nm.
Figure 3. Photo of insulator attacked by fungi (left), automatically identified sheds (middle) and regions classified as growth (right).
When areas of growth are identified, using any detection method, measures characterizing its distribution may be of interest. Estimation of parameters like covered area and amount of covered creepage can obviously be performed manually, but the result is improved if methods based on digital image analysis are utilized [88, 145]. Using photographs of insulators partly covered with growth as input, methods have been developed for automatic identification of the insulator. Once identified the surface area covered by growth can be calculated, taking the surface curvature into account (Figure 3). Obviously, theses techniques are not limited to studies of regular photographs, but can be applied to images of any origin, such as LIF, UV or IR. 3.2.2 QUALITY CONTROL OF INTERNAL INTERFACES Several techniques have been applied for detection of interfacial defects, such as delaminations, cracks, voids and inferior quality of interfacial adhesion, in polymeric products. Thermal stressing by boiling in water followed by electrical testing has bee commonly used and is described in standards [146,147]. Infrared (IR) mapping by thermography is also used [148-150], where
Figure 1. LIF spectra of clean (left) and algae covered (right) silicone rubber surface.

50 mm
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applications of pulsed, modulated, transmission or reflection modes have been discussed. The basic concept is to cause heating of the defected area by different means and to register the thermal image by an IR camera. The location and size of defect scan is then evaluated. The effectiveness of the technique depends on the thermal properties of the materials involved, as thermal conductivity and diffusivity. However, there are only few reports on the use of this technique for composite insulation systems for high voltage applications. Ultrasonic devices have been applied to analyze the quality of adhesion between concrete and coatings [151], and to detect presence of voids in insulation systems [152,153]. Voids in the millimeter range could be detected in polyester and epoxy resins. Other types of flaws detected include voids, cracks, delaminations and treeing [154-157]. Typical drawbacks of non-destructive ultrasonic testing are the slow rate of analysis, often involving point-by-point analysis by a hand-held probe and interpretation of complicated waveforms, requiring a skilled operator. Another drawback is the use of a coupling agent between probe and surface for improving the acoustic signal. The processes can however be speeded up by automation of the testing procedure. In a recent work, Euromold N.V. presented an automated ultrasonic testing procedure for HV-joints (Figure 4) [158]. By performing testing in water, no coupling agent was needed between the probe and the surface. The presented data showed that detection of micro-voids in the order of 100 micrometers in HV joints (245 and 420 kV) was possible, as shown in Figure 5. Computer Tomography (CT) is an effective method for finding voids/delaminations in the mm region. The measured object is presented as a number of cross sections using a rotating X-ray source. The method is too expensive/complicated for use as a tool in production, but can be useful for occasional testing at external facilities. An example of an internal void (artificially created by not using primer) between silicone rubber housing and flange in a hollow core insulator is shown in Figure 6.
3 mm
Figure 5. Amplitude maps of a fast step scan (left) and two detailed scans (right) 10. Internal defects (voids) are observed as black dots.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Detection of void along the Al flange detected by CT: survey scan (a) where the position of the cross section (b) is represented by the dotted line. Color code in the cross section image: epoxy tube - white, silicone rubber grey, air - black.
Figure 4. Automatic ultrasonic measuring system for high voltage joints.
Shearography is yet another method for finding flaws, delaminations and debonded areas within composite systems. It is an optical method highly sensitive to material deformations under mechanical and/or thermal loads. Investigated surfaces are brought into vibrations by a laser beam and the image is detected as an electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) signal [159]. The test object is first imaged without the stimulation for reference and later also in the stimulated state. The finally evaluated signal is the difference between the reference and stimulated signals. Shearography has proved useful to detect delaminations (a few cm2) of soft cover materials, such as silicone rubber, from the underlying substrate material (marked black in Figure 7).
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[3] G. Zhicheng, Z. Fuzeng, W. Guoli, J. Zhidong, and W. Liming, Challenge of ultra high voltage transmission technology in China, in Proc. 14th Int. Symp. on HV Eng., Beijing, China, 2005. Xidong L, S. Wang, and F. Su, Experience with composite HVDC and HVAC insulators in China: from design to operation, Proc. 2003 World Insulator Congress and Exhibition, pp. 15-22, Marbella, Spain, 2003. J. L. Goudie, M. J. Owen, and T. Orbeck, A review of possible degradation mechanisms of silicone elastomers in high voltage insulation applications, in Proc. IEEE Conf. on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena, pp. 120-127, Atlanta, GA, USA, 1998. R. Hackam, Outdoor HV composite polymeric insulators, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 6 (5), pp. 557585, 1999. T. Kikuchi, S. Nishimura, M. Nagao, K. Izumi, Y. Kubota, and M. Sakata, Survey on the use of non-ceramic composite insulators, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 6 (5), pp. 548-556, 1999. L. S. Kumosa, M. S. Kumosa, and D. L. Armentrout, Resistance to brittle fracture of glass reinforced polymer composites used in composite (nonceramic) insulators, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, vol. 20 (4), pp. 2657-66, 2005. J. P. Reynders, I. R. Jandrell, and S. M. Reynders, Review of aging and recovery of silicone rubber insulation for outdoor use, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 6 (5), pp. 620-631, 1999. N. Yoshimura, S. Kumagai, and S. Nishimura, Electrical and environmental aging of silicone rubber used in outdoor insulation, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 6 (5), pp. 632-650, 1999. S. M. Gubanski, Modern outdoor electrical insulation, IEEE Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, Digest of Literature on Dielectrics - Modern Outdoor Electrical Insulation, vol. 6 (5), 1999. T. G. Gustavsson and S. M. Gubanski, Design & manufacturing of prototype insulators for installation at the Anneberg station, in Proc. Nordic Insulation Symp. (Nord-IS '01) pp. 289-298, Stockholm, Sweden, 2001. K. Kunde, R. Hennings, M. Kuhl, A. Schtz, H. Jansses, and U. Stietzal, New experience with composite insulators, in Proc. Cigr Sesson 1998, Paper No 15-206, 1998. D. Windmar, Moving from polymeric material to HV electrical apparatus with fully-integrated insulator - a case study, in Proc. 2001 World Insulator Congress and Exhibition, pp. 106-114, Shanghai, China, 2001. R. S. Gorur, E. A. Cherney, and J. T. Burnham, Outdoor insulators, Ravi S. Gorur Inc., 1999. Cigr Working Group 22.03, Worldwide service experience with HV composite insulators, Electra, vol. 130, pp. 67-77, 1990. Cigr Working Group 22.03 (convener C. de Tourreil), Worldwide service experience with HV composite insulators, Electra, vol. 191, pp. 27-43, August, 2000. Innovative compact line design at Energie Ouest Suisse, Insulator News and Market Report, vol. 7 (2), pp. 20-28, 1999. J. Mackevich and M. Shah, Polymer outdoor insulating materials. Part I: Comparison of porcelain and polymer electrical insulation, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 13 (3), pp. 5-12, 1997. K. O. Papailiou, Composite insulators are gaining ground - 25 years of Swiss experience, in Proc. 1999 IEEE Transmission and Distribution Conf., vol. 2, pp. 827-833, USA, 1999. D. Dumora, New compact composite insulation for environmental, economic and safety considerations, in Proc. 2001 World Insulator Congress and Exhibition, pp. 168-181, Shanghai, China, 2001. B. Pokarier, Assessing ten years of experience at Powerlink using new insulator technologies, in Proc. 2001 World Insulator Congress and Exhibition, pp. 11-19, Shanghai, China, 2001. V. Sklenicka and I. Zeman, Utilization and service experience with composite insulators in Czech power system, in Proc. 2001
The common for all the methods is that they are nondestructive, which eventually allows for using them for controls during manufacturing process or even in the field. Unfortunately, none of them is applicable for a routine daily testing, as they are expensive, time consuming and not automated enough.
[4]
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[11]
[12] Figure 7. Live image of a surge arrester (a) and an example of corresponding phase image by shearography (b). The interference pattern indicates presence of an internal void.
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4 SUMMARY
Composite insulators have been commonly accepted on the market for many years. There is therefore a need for understanding limits and threats appearing during their use. The paper presents main types of reported problems and faults in composite insulators. It also reviews the work performed to develop reliable and robust methods for insulator diagnostics. Among the problems listed, the necessity for securing good quality of interfaces has been considered as one of main concerns. This issue has become especially important with relation to the ever increasing use of hollow core insulators for diverse applications in high voltage devices. New unconventional methods for quality control are therefore presented also.
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Henrik Hillborg received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Polymer Technology from the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1994 and 2001, respectively. The topic of the Ph.D. was on loss and recovery of hydrophobicity of silicone rubbers after exposure to electrical discharges. Since 1995 he has been working with polymeric materials in different HV applications at ABB Corporate Research in Vsters, Sweden. During 2002-2003 he worked as postdoctoral researcher at the University of Twente, the Netherlands. His research interests concentrate on silicone rubbers, electric field grading materials and polymer nanocomposites.

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Vol. 14, No. 5; October 2007