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A BATTERY CHARGER USING PHOTOVOLTAIC AS A SOURCE

MOHD HAFIEZ IZZWAN BIN SAAD

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Electrical Engineering Department of Energy Conversion (ENCON)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2009

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Dedicated, in thankful appreciation for support and encouragement to my beloved mother, father, brothers, sisters, friends and beloved supervisor.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Tan Chee Wei for the encouragement, guidance, comments and friendship given throughout this project. Without his ideas and advices, this thesis would not have been the same as presented here.

My special appreciation goes to my family who has been so tolerant and gives full of supports towards me in order to complete this project. Thanks for their encouragement, love and emotional supports that they had given to me.

Last but not least, my appreciation goes to all my colleagues and others whom involve either directly or indirectly in process to finish up this project.

Thank You.

ABSTRACT

This thesis reports the design and simulation of a photovoltaic (PV) charger system with a specific specifications. The specifications are based on a real datasheet values. The DC electricity produced by PV module issued to charge a battery using a DC-DC converter in order to step down the voltage level. A Buck converter has been chosen in this project. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controller is applied to trigger the power switch (MOSFET) at a desired frequency. In this project, an Integrated Circuit (IC) SG3524 is used to control the switching of the power MOSFET. However, an SG3524 alone does not able to trigger the power MOSFET because the amplitude of PWM is rather small. Therefore, an MOSFET driver circuit using IC MC34151 is added to amplify the PWM signal. For safety purposes, an opto-isolator, IC 6N137 is added between PWM controller IC SG3524 and IC MC34151. This opto-isolator protects the circuit by providing an electrical isolation to the circuit so that the electronic components function under safe operation. The proposed circuit is designed and simulated using MATLAB/Simulink with calculated parameters, such as, the value of inductor, output capacitor as well as the load. Finally, a DC-DC buck converter is implemented and tested in laboratory.

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ABSTRAK

Tesis ini melaporkan simulasi dan rekabentuk sistem cas solar dengan spesifikasi tertentu. Spesifikasi-spesifikasi adalah berdasarkan nilai-nilai pada helaian data yang sebenar. Arus terus elektrik yang dihasilkan oleh tenaga solar digunakan untuk mengecas bateri dengan menggunakan penukar arus terus. Penukar arus terus buck dipilih untuk menurunkan nilai voltan pada aras tertentu. Kawalan penjana gelombang denyut (PWM ) digunakan untuk memacu suis kuasa MOSFET pada frekuensi tertentu. Dalam projek ini, litar bersepadu (IC) SG3524 digunakan untuk mengawal pensuisan suis kuasa MOSFET. Walaubagaimanapun, litar bersepadu SG3524 yang disambung terus ke suis kuasa MOSFET tidak dapat memicu suis kuasa tersebut. Ini adalah disebabkan oleh isyarat penjana gelombang denyut (PWM ) yang terlalu rendah. Dengan itu, litar pemacu MOSFET digunakan untuk menaikkan isyarat PWM tersebut. Litar pemacu MOSFET digunakan bersama litar bersepadu IC MC34151. Sebagai langkah keselamatan, pemisah cahaya (opto-isolator) digunakan sebagai sempadan antara PWM dan suis kuasa MOSFET. Litar bersepadu IC 6N137 digunakan sebagai pemisah cahaya. Pemisah cahaya ini akan melindungi litar dari sebarang kerosakan litar pintas. Dengan ini, litar dapat berfungsi dalam keadaan selamat. Selepas itu, litar yang telah dipersetujui akan direkabentukkan dan disimulasikan dengan menggunakan MATLAB/Simulink. Simulasi adalah didasarkan pada nilai-nilai kiraan dan analisis seperti induktor, kapasitor, dan juga beban. Pada akhir projek ini, penukar arus terus buck dihasilkan melalui ujian yang dijalankan di makmal.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE

TITLE PAGE DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF SYMBOLS LIST OF APPENDICES

i ii iii iv v vi vii xi xii xiv xv xvii

INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Introduction Problem Statement Objectives Scope of the Project Thesis Structure

1 1 2 2 3 4

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Photovoltaic Systems 2.1.1 Introduction to Photovoltaic Systems

6 6 7

viii 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.2 Type of Photovoltaic Systems Photovoltaic As a Generator Solar Cell Solar Cell Model Standard Rating of Photovoltaic Module 10 13 14 15 18 20 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 27 30 30 31 32 35 37

DC-DC Converters 2.2.1 2.2.2 Introduction DC-DC Converters 2.2.2.1 Buck Converter 2.2.2.2 Boost Converter 2.2.2.3 Buck Boost Converter 2.2.3 Buck Converter 2.2.3.1 Analysis of Buck Converter 2.2.4 Control Principles of Buck Converter

2.3

Battery Storage 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 Introduction Battery Storage in Photovoltaic Systems Fundamental Concepts of Battery Lead Acid Battery

2.4

Summary

ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION 3.1 Photovoltaic Model 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 Photovoltaic Cell Model Analysis Photovoltaic Cell Model Simulation

38 38 38 39 41 41 44 46

Power Converter Stage 3.2.1 3.2.2 Power Converter Stage Analysis Power Converter Stage Simulation

3.3

Summary

ix 4 HARDWARE DEVELOPMENT 4.1 4.2 Introduction Power Converter Stage 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Power Switch Power Diode Inductor Input and Output Capacitor Load 47 47 47 48 48 49 49 49 50 52 53 55

Pulse Width Modulation Controller Stage MOSFET Driver Circuit Printed Circuit Board Layout Summary

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 5.1 5.2 Introduction Simulation Results 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.3 5.4 Photovoltaic Cell Model Buck Converter

56 56 56 56 58 63 67

Experimental Results Summary

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 6.2 Conclusion Recommendations

68 68 69

REFERENCES APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D APPENDIX E

70 74 76 78 81 82

x APPENDIX F APPENDIX G APPENDIX H APPENDIX I 88 95 100 102

xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3

Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Comparison Between Converters Typical Electrical Characteristic of MSX-60 PV Module Specification of Buck Converter Buck Converter Specification

9 23 39 41 44

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16

Stand-alone System Equipment and Layout Grid Connected Equipment and Layout Hybrid System Equipment and Layout PV Generator Terms Operation of a PV Cell Circuit Diagram of the PV Cell A typical current-voltage I-V curve for a solar cell Basic circuit of buck converter Boost Converter Buck-Boost Converter Circuit of Buck Converter Circuit when switch is closed Circuit when switch is opened Voltage Mode Control Current Mode Control A Comparison of the different definitions of battery capacity and the state of charge

10 12 13 14 15 15 16 21 22 23 24 24 25 28 29

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xiii 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Subsystem block of photo current Subsystem block of diode current PV cell model block Pulse-width modulator with feedback block system Buck converter block system Functional Block Diagram of SG3524 Graph of oscillator frequency vs. timing resistance of SG 3524 Schematic diagram of PWM controller circuit for SG3524 Schematic diagram of MOSFET driver circuit PCB Layout (a) Power Stage Buck Converter (b) PWM Controller Circuit (c) MOSFET Driver Circuit Matlab module I-V Characteristics Curve Matlab module PV Curve (a) Sawtooth Waveform (b) PWM Waveform 5.4 (a) Input Voltage (b) Inductor Current (c) Output Voltage (d) Output Voltage Ripple 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Sawtooth and PWM Waveform Gate Voltage Output Inductor Current Output Input Voltage and Output Voltage Output 40 40 40 45 45 51 51 52 53

54 54 55 57 58 59 60 61 61 62 62 63 65 65 66

5.1 5.2 5.3

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PV DC AC PWM PCB MPPT SOC

Photovoltaic Direct Current Alternating Current Pulse Width Modulation Printed Circuit Board Maximum Power Point Tracker Standard Operating Conditions (Photovoltaic) State of Charge (Battery)

STC AM NOCT S D L C R CCM DCM DOD MOSFET IC ESR

Standard Test Conditions Air Mass Nominal Operating Cell Temperature Switch Duty Cycle Inductance Capacitance Resistance Continuous Conduction Mode Discontinuous Conduction Mode Depth of Discharge Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Integrated Circuit Equivalent Series Resistance

xv

LIST OF SYMBOLS

W IL Si Rs Id G Ga m k Tc e Io I sc V oc Vt V max I max P max P in A Vs f

Watt Photo Current Silicon Series Resistance Diode Current Irradiation Ambient Irradiation Idealizing Factor Boltzmanns Gas Constant Absolute Temperature of the Cell Electronic Charge Dark Saturation Current Short circuit current Open Circuit Voltage Thermal Voltage Maximum Voltage Maximum Current Maximum Power Input Power Efficiency Cell Area Voltage Source Frequency

xvi Rt Ct V gs Ah Ah Timing Resistor Timing Capacitor Gate Voltage Ampere-hour Ampere-hour efficiency

xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE

PAGE

A B1 B2 B3 B4 C D

MATLAB SCRIPT OF MSX-60 PWM CONTROLLER STAGE DRIVER CIRCUIT BUCK CONVERTER COMPLETE CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER DATASHEET OF MSX60 DATASHEET OF VALVE REGULATED LEAD ACID BATTERIES

74 76 76 77 77 78

81

DATASHEET OF REGULATED PULSE WIDTH MODULATORS SG3524 82 88 95 100

F G H I

DATASHEET OF POWER MOSFET IRF540N DATASHEET OF POWER DIODE MUR1520 DATASHEET OF HIGH CURRENT POWER INDUCTOR DATASHEET OF ALUMINIUM HOUSED WIREWOUND RESISTORS

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction

Solar energy is also known as photovoltaic (PV). It has been developed since 1970s whereby the human race can get a substantial portion of its electrical power without burning fossil fuels (coal, oil or natural gas) or creating nuclear fission reactions. Photovoltaic can bring electricity to the people who live in the rural areas located more than 100 kilometers from the nearest electric grid connection in their country. For instance, an ordinary resident who lives in the rural area, the electricity is very important as it allows her to do housework such as cleaning the whole house, washing clothes and also cooking. She can also use the electric lamp instead of using kerosene lamps. Besides, she can earn some money for her family by sewing using the electric sewing machine. More to the point, photovoltaic can also provide electricity to the remote transmitter stations in the mountains allowing better communication without building a road to deliver diesel fuel for the generator.

Nowadays, the applications of photovoltaic are spread widely around the world. Goes to the fact, these applications help human a lot in their daily life. Much electrical stuffs also get much easier to use. PV charger system is one of application used to store

2 the energy from sun to the battery. Therefore, human can use electricity even though they are in the jungle, remote area or other places, which are located far away from the grid-connected system.

1.2

Problem Statement

Nowadays, the usage of renewable energy like photovoltaic becomes the vital sources. PV electricity is highly appreciated by the public all over the world. It is unique for many applications of high social value such as providing electricity to people who need it in remote areas and lives far away from the grid-connected system. In

standalone installations, it must use storage such as battery to provide electricity when the sunlight is not available.

The growing market for renewable energy technologies has given an impact in a rapid growth in the need of power electronics. For example, inverter is used to convert DC to AC and chopper is used to convert DC to DC. Therefore, the technology of power electronics is crucial in order to design the photovoltaic charger system.

1.3

Objectives

Objectives that need to be met in this project are:

To study the characteristics of photovoltaic, buck converter and battery. To stimulate the photovoltaic charger system by using MATLAB/Simulink. To implement the buck converter into prototype as a converter for the photovoltaic charger system.

3 1.4 Scope of the project

There are three main parts that must go through in this project which are analysis, simulation and hardware implementation. Before doing any analysis and designing the whole project, literature review is needed to provide a good theory and understanding. The input of knowledge can be obtained in various sources such as internet, journals, books, magazine, articles and so on.

Analysis and simulation are done by applying PV charger system concept into the calculation and simulation. Then, the PV cell model and buck converter model was designed and simulated by using Matlab/Simulink. The purposes are to observe the PV model output characteristic and output response of buck converter.

After that, the model will be implemented into hardware. The hardware is divided into three stages which are power stage, pulse-width modulation (PWM) controller stage, and gate driver stage. Then, the hardware is implemented on the breadboard to verify the circuits. After ensure that the output voltage is well regulating at a desired output, printed circuit board (PCB) layout for the hardware is designed by using PROTEUS 7 PRO. Then, from the designated layout, the circuits are transferred into the printed circuit board (PCB) separately through the appropriate process. Finally, the hardware testing and troubleshooting are conducted at the laboratory. After that, the results from hardware is obtained. Lastly, the simulation result and hardware result are compared and discussed.

4 1.5 Thesis Structure

Chapter 1:

Introduction

This chapter describe about background of PV charger systems including PV history and the importance of photovoltaic for human being. Besides that, problem statement of this project mainly in the charger system aspect also described as well. Objectives and the scope of project also can be obtained in this chapter.

Chapter 2:

Literature Reviews

Literature reviews contained all the basic information about PV systems, DC-DC converter, and also battery storage. These include type of PV systems, advantages and disadvantages of PV, and so forth. The basics operations of solar cell model also included in this chapter. After that, basic operations of DC-DC converter will be discussed included the control principle of the converter. Lastly, the information about the battery storage will be discussed included fundamental concepts of battery, and basic chemical operation of lead-acid battery.

Chapter 3:

Analysis and Simulation

This chapter will present the analysis and simulation of PV cell model and power stage buck converter. The result of PV cell model and buck converter model are simulated using MATLAB/Simulink will be discussed in this chapter.

5 Chapter 4: Hardware Development

This chapter describe about the components that have been used for power stage buck converter such as power switch, inductor, capacitor, and so on. Besides, the PWM controller stage and MOSFET driver circuit also described in this chapter. Lastly, the design of the power stage buck converter in PCB layout will be discussed.

Chapter 5:

Results and Discussions

The simulation results of PV cell model and power stage buck converter using MATLAB/Simulink will be discussed. After that, the experimental results obtained from power stage buck converter will be shown and discussed.

Chapter 6:

Conclusions and Recommendations

Chapter 6 will concluded the work based on the result and discussion obtained from this project and suggested some recommendation for future work improvement and development for this project.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Photovoltaic Systems

In 1838, physicist Edmund Becquerel, at the age of nineteen, was became the first scientist in publish observations about this natural photovoltaic phenomenon of materials. Edmund's reported observations were considered very interesting yet there were seemingly no practical applications. This first observation of the photovoltaic effect in a solid, led to experimentation and speculation in to possible uses of a selenium solar cell. In 1883, inventor Charles Fritz produced a solar cell with a conversion efficiency of 1-2 percent. This invention that produced usable electricity from sunlight caused a considerable amount of excitement for the potential use. However, industrial or commercial applications did not materialize [1].

Modern solar electric power technologies came about in 1954 when Bell Laboratories experimentation with semiconductors unexpectedly found silicon doped with certain impurities was very sensitive to light. The final result was the invention of the first practical solar modules with an energy conversion efficiency of around 6 percent. Over the last few decades, NASA has used photovoltaic cells extensively proving the technology to be an excellent means to supply electrical power for the

7 communications, instruments, and controls in spacecraft. The current space station has a large solar electric system for generating electricity [1].

Photovoltaic being produced today have greatly improved conversion efficiencies and much more cost efficient production methods. With today's large scale production of solar cells the cost of the cells have now become affordable and cost efficient for many applications requiring electricity. Solar electric systems are now installed on tens of thousands of homes, businesses, communications stations, and countless other applications, supplying all or part of their electrical energy needs.

2.1.1

Introduction to Photovoltaic Systems

The fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, which maintain our industrial world, will be surely running out sometime in the twenty-first century. Moreover, burning such fossil fuels causes the global air pollution, leading to global warming and acid rain problems. The development of alternative clean energy resources is, therefore, one of the most urgent subjects with which contemporary scientists have to struggle. Utilization of solar energy seems to be the most promising and potential, and an important subject that a number of researchers in the world are now studying. A variety of ways for utilizing solar energy are known, for example, thermal energy by heat collectors, electrical energy by silicon solar cells, and chemical energy by photosynthesis, where the latter is referred to as the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy. The significant problems commonly are because of the low cost performance, the low energy conversion efficiency, and the lack of persistence. In order to replace solar energy for fossil energy on an economical basis, it is necessary to overcome these problems as soon as possible [2].

The world trend nowadays is to find a non-depletable and clean source of energy. The most effective and harmless energy source is probably solar energy, which for many

8 applications is so technically straight forward to use . Thus modern solar technologies have been penetrating the market at faster rates. The solar technology that has the greatest impact on our lives is photovoltaic. Not in terms of the amount of electricity it produces, but because of the fact that photovoltaic cells work silently, not polluting and also can generate electricity wherever sun shines, even in places where no other form of electricity can be obtained [2].

Photovoltaic is a technology that generates direct current (DC) electrical power. It is measured in Watts (W) or kilowatts (kW) from semiconductors when they are illuminated by photons. As long as sunlight is shining on the solar cell, it generates electrical power [3].

Over the years, photovoltaic has emerged to become an application of recognized potential and has attracted energy and it becomes the most important energy source among all the sources. The solar energy is different from the other sources as its available energy is several tens of orders of magnitude greater than our annual consumption. Therefore, photovoltaic systems that use solar irradiance from the sun have a high potential to be one of the best renewable energies. There are many PV applications can be applied, such as PV power stations, building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV), PV as a source for transportation and so forth. Typically, the advantages and the disadvantages of photovoltaic are almost completely opposite of conventional fossil-fuel power plants. Table 2.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic systems.

Table 2.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic. Advantages of photovoltaic Fuel source is vast and essentially infinite Disadvantages of photovoltaic Fuel source is diffuse (sunlight is a relatively low-density energy) No emissions, no combustion or radioactive fuel for disposal (does not contribute perceptibly to global climate change or pollution) Low operating costs (no fuel) No moving parts (no wear) Ambient temperature operation (no high temperature corrosion or safety issues) High reliability in modules (>20 years) Poorer reliability of auxiliary (balance of system) elements including storage Modular (small or large increments) Quick installation Can be integrated into new or existing building structures Can be installed at nearly any point-of-use Lack of widespread commercially available system integration and installation so far Daily output peak may match local demand Lack of economical efficient energy storage High public acceptance Excellent safety record High installation costs

10 2.1.2 Type of Photovoltaic Systems

Photovoltaic power systems can be classified as:

i. ii. iii.

Stand-alone PV systems. Grid-connected PV systems. Hybrid PV systems.

i.

Stand-alone PV systems

Many photovoltaic systems operate in stand-alone mode. This mode of system consists of a PV panel as generator, regulator unit, battery as energy storage, inverter and AC load as shown in Figure 2.1. A stand-alone system involves no interaction with the utility grid. The battery bank stores energy when the power supplied by the PV modules exceeds the load demand and releases it when PV supply is insufficient [4].

Figure 2.1: Stand-alone System Equipment and layout [4].

ii.

Grid-connected PV systems Isolated areas are dependent on batteries, whereas places in town have the option

of using a power grid, depending on their power consumption and power suppliers. Connecting to a power grid allows the power generated from the panels to be back-fed to

11 the grid when the sun is out, and to run the structure off the line when the sun is down. The cost of purchasing a DC to AC converter with a grid controller, compared to using batteries, varies by the size of the system. Reliance on a grid eliminates the need to replace faulty batteries that plague the long-term operation of stand-alone systems. The drawback to grid-connected systems is the number of panels that are needed to provide enough power for the utility company to consider connecting the system to the grid [5]. A grid-connected system must meet the following criteria to function: voltage regulation, frequency regulation, power factor control, harmonic distortion controls, and quick response time. The amount of power a system generates determines if the energy provided will decrease the amount of the electric bill, or if the excess energy produced would be sold to the power company [5]. Figure 2.2 represents the system required to connect the panel to the power grid. A DC to DC converter is needed to hold a near constant output voltage. To maximize the output of the panel, a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) controller is used. A MPPT is a boost converter for a single panel or a buck converter when multiple panels are combined in series. The converters produce a near constant voltage value that increases the efficiency of the inverter. The capacitor removes any small variations in the near-constant input voltage to the DC-AC converter. The inverter monitors the power grid to match the standard voltage and frequency. The controller continuously compares the frequency of the grid with the inverter, and adjusts the duty ratio to counter frequency variations [5].

12

Solar Panel

DC-DC

DC-AC

Controller

Load

Figure 2.2: Grid Connected Equipment and Layout.

iii.

Hybrid connection systems A system design that combines the advantages of both a stand-alone setup and a

grid-connected setup is deemed a hybrid system. This system relies on the coordination of multiple controllers to continuously monitor the flow of power from the solar panels, and regulate the power to fulfill the needs of the structure, replenish the reserve batteries, and manage the flow of energy to and from the power grid. The basic setup of a hybrid system is shown in Figure 2.3. The equipment consists of the solar panels, a MPPT, a charge controller, batteries, and an inverter. The charge controller monitors the batteries and determines whether to charge them. The high-end inverter matches the frequency of the power grid and monitors the grid to detect any loss in power. This system provides an uninterruptible power supply that provides electricity even when the power grid is offline. This system has the highest cost and requires the replacement and maintenance of batteries. The use of this type is limited to industrial applications where backup power may be needed to prevent the stoppage of equipment due to a trip in the power grid [5].

13

Figure 2.3: Hybrid System Equipment and Layout [5].

2.1.3

Photovoltaic As a Generator

A photovoltaic generator is the whole assembly of solar cells, connections, protective parts, supports, etc. PV generator can contain several arrays. Each array is composed of several modules, while each module is composed of several cells as shown in Figure 2.4. Solar cells consist p-n junction fabricated in a thin wafer or layer of semiconductor (silicon) which are specially treated to form an electric field, positive on one side (backside) and negative on the other (towards the sun). When solar energy (photons) hits the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material creating electron-hole pairs. If electrical conductors are then attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons are captured in the form of electric current I L (photocurrent). When the cell is shortcircuited, this current flows in the external circuit and when open circuit, this current shunted internally by the intrinsic p-n junction diode. The characteristics of this diode therefore set the open circuit voltage characteristics of the cell [6].

14

PV Cell

PV Module

PV Panel

PV Array

Figure 2.4: PV Generator terms [4].

2.1.4

Solar Cell

Solar cells are composed of various semiconductor materials, which become electrically conductive when supplied by heat or light. The majority of solar cells produced are composed of Silicon (Si) which exist in sufficient quantities and do not add any burden on the environment [7].

Doping technique is used to obtain a surplus of positive charge carriers (p-type) or a surplus of negative carriers (n-type). When two layers of different doping are in contact, then a p-n junction is formed on the boundary. An internal electric field is built up which then causes the separation of charge carriers released by light. We all know that light is composed of small packets called photons. When these photons bombard our cell, many electrons are freed within the electric field proximity, which then pull the electrons from the p-side to n-side. Through metal contacts, an electric charge can be taped. If the outer circuit is closed, then direct current flows as illustrated in Figure 2.5 [7].

15

Figure 2.5: Operation of a PV Cell [7].

2.1.5

Solar Cell Model

Solar cell is not an active device. It works as a diode, i.e. a p-n junction. It produces neither a current nor a voltage. However, if it is connected to an external supply (large voltage) it generates a current I d , called diode current or dark current. The diode determines the I-V characteristics of the cell. The output of the current source is directly proportional to the light received on the cell (photocurrent, I L ) [8]. A solar cell is usually represented by an electrical equivalent one-diode model as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Circuit diagram of the PV cell [6].

16 The model contains a current source I L , a diode and a series resistance R S , which represents the resistance inside each cell and in the connection between the cells. The net current is the difference between the photocurrent I L and the normal diode current I D :
e (V + IRs ) mkTc

I = I L I D = I L I o (e

1)

(2-1)

where m is idealizing factor, k is Boltzmanns gas constant, T c the absolute temperature of the cell, e electronic charge and V is the voltage imposed across the cell. I o is the dark saturation current and it is strongly depending on temperature. Figure 2.7 shows the I-V characteristic of the solar cell for a certain ambient irradiation G a and a certain fixed cell temperature Tc [8].

Figure 2.7: A typical current-voltage I-V curve for a solar cell [8].

A real solar cell can be characterized by the following fundamental parameters, which are also shown in Figure 2.7:

a) Short circuit current

17 Short circuit current I sc = I L . It is the greatest value of the current generated by a cell. It is produced under short circuit conditions where V equals to 0.

b) Open circuit voltage

Open circuit voltage corresponds to the voltage drop across the diode (p-n junction), when it is traversed by the photocurrent I L (namely I d equals to I L ), namely when the generated current is I equals to 0. It reflects the voltage of the cell in the night and it can be mathematically expressed as:

= VOC

mkTC I L I = ln( ) Vt ln( L ) e Io Io

(2-2)

Where Vt =

mkTc is known as thermal voltage and T c is the absolute cell. e

c) Maximum power point

Maximum power point is the operating point A (V max , I max ) in Figure 2.7, at which the power dissipated in the resistive load is maximum:

P max = I max V max


d) Maximum efficiency

(2-3)

The PV efficiency, is the ratio between the maximum power and the incident light power:

18

(2-4)

Where G a is the ambient irradiation and A is the cell area.

e) Fill Factor

Fill Factor (FF) is the ratio of the maximum power that can be delivered to the load and the product of I sc and V oc :

= FF

Pmax Vmax I max = Voc I sc Voc I sc

(2-5)

The fill factor is a measure of the real I-V characteristic. Its value is higher than 0.7 for good cells. The fill factor diminishes as the cell temperature is increased.

2.1.6

Standard Rating of Photovoltaic Module

In comparing different modules, the standard rating system used is a peak power value given by the manufacturers. This is based on the module maximum power output at standard test conditions (STC). The current terrestrial standard is an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 at Air Mass AM1.5, and a cell or module temperature of 25 C (Green, 1995) [5]. Generally, the information supplied by PV manufacturers includes the following parameters:

P max V oc

: Maximum Power Rating : Open Circuit Voltage

19 I sc V mp I mp : Short Circuit Current : Maximum Power Voltage : Maximum Power Current

Another value often supplied by manufacturers is the Nominal Operating Cell Temperature or NOCT. It is defined as the cell temperature of an open-circuited, rack mounted module at standard operating conditions (SOC). SOC represents a more realistic operating condition for a PV module than STC. SOC is defined as an irradiance of 800 W/m2, an ambient temperature of 20 C, and a wind speed of 1 m/s. By providing the NOCT value a user or system designer can calculate a thermal capacitance value for the module and thereby estimate cell temperatures at other operating conditions (Duffie & Beckman, 1991) [5].

The size attributed to a PV array is calculated from this STC W p (peak watt) rating, even though the standard test conditions described above are rarely experienced by modules under actual operation. A 20 kW array, for example, consists of an array of PV modules whose W p rating totals 20 kW, though, depending on the location, it is highly unlikely the array will ever produce a power of 20 kW [5].

The SOC and NOCT values provide a more realistic indication of the output of modules under actual operation, but, again, these are ideal conditions and not representative of the full range of operating conditions [5].

20 2.2 DC-DC Converters

2.2.1

Introduction

Dc-dc converters are power electronics circuits that convert a dc voltage to a different dc voltage level [9]. It achieves the voltage regulation by varying the duty ratio of the switching element. Modern power electronic switches can operate at high frequencies. The higher the operating frequency, the smaller and lighter the

transformers, filter inductors, and capacitors. In addition, the dynamic characteristics of converters improve with increasing operating frequencies. The bandwidth of a control loop is usually determined by the corner frequency of the output filter. Therefore, high operating frequencies allow for achieving a faster dynamic response to rapid changes in the load current and the input voltage. High-frequency electronic power processors are used in dc-dc power conversion [10].

The functions of dc-dc converters are:

to convert a dc input voltage into a dc output voltage to regulate the dc output voltage against load and line variations to reduce the ac voltage ripple on the dc output voltage below the required level to provide isolation between the input source and the load to protect the supplied system and the input source from electromagnetic interference to satisfy various international and national safety standards

The dc-dc converters can be divided into two main types: hard-switching pulse width modulated (PWM) converters, and soft-switching converters. Advantages of PWM converters include low component count, high efficiency, constant frequency operation, relatively simple control and commercial availability of integrated circuit controllers, and ability to achieve high conversion ratios for both step-down and step-up application. A disadvantage of PWM dc-dc converters is that PWM rectangular voltage

21 and current waveforms cause turn-on and turn-off losses in semiconductor devices, which limit practical operating frequencies to hundreds of kilohertz [10].

2.2.2

DC-DC Converters

There are three basic types of dcdc converters: i. ii. iii. Step-down converter (Buck Converter) Step-up converter (Boost Converter) Step-up-down converter (Buck Boost Converter)

2.2.2.1 Buck Converter

The step-down dcdc converter, commonly known as a buck converter, is shown in Figure 2.8. It consists of dc input voltage source Vs, controlled switch S, diode D, filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R. The state of the converter in which the inductor current is never zero for any period of time is called the continuous conduction mode (CCM). It can be seen from the circuit that when the switch S is commanded to the on state, the diode D is reverse biased. When the switch S is off, the diode conducts to support an uninterrupted current in the inductor [10].

Figure 2.8: Basic circuit of buck converter.

22 2.2.2.2 Boost Converter

Figure 2.9 depicts a step-up or a PWM boost converter. It is comprised of dc input voltage source Vs, boost inductor L, controlled switch S, diode D, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R. When the switch S is in the on state, the current in the boost inductor increases in linear. The diode D is off at the time. When the switch S is turned off, the energy stored in the inductor is released through the diode to the input RC circuit [10].

Figure 2.9: Boost Converter.

2.2.2.3 Buck Boost Converter

A non-isolated topology of the buckboost converter is shown in Figure 2.10. The converter consists of dc input voltage source Vs, controlled switch S, inductor L, diode D, filter capacitor C, and load resistance R. With the switch on, the inductor current increases while the diode is maintained off. When the switch is turned off, the diode provides a path for the inductor current. The polarity of the diode which results in its current being drawn from the output. Table 2.2 shows that comparison between converters [10].

23 Table 2.2: Comparison Between Converters. Buck Converter Boost Converter Buck Boost Converter Operation Step down voltage level Step up voltage level Step up and down voltage level or vice versa. Duty Cycyle Ripple Ratio D

Minimum Inductance

Figure 2.10: Buck-Boost Converter.

2.2.3

Buck Converter

A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter where the output voltage is less than the input voltage. This converter is a simplest power stage topology as shown in Figure 2.11 [11]. In this project, a step down converter is chosen in order to step down the voltage level.

24

Figure 2.11: Circuit of buck converter [11].

The assumptions that are needed for an analysis of the buck converter:

The circuit is operating in the steady state. The inductor current is continuous (always positive). The capacitor is very large and the output voltage is held constant. The switching period is T; the switch is closed for time DT and open for time (1D)T . The components are ideal.

2.2.3.1 Analysis of Buck Converter

When the switch is closed

Figure 2.12: Circuit when switch is closed [11].

25 When the switch is closed, the diode is reversed biased and Figure 2.12 is an equivalent circuit. From the derivation, we get:

(i L ) closed =

(2-6)

When the switch is opened

Figure 2.13: Circuit when switch closed [11].

When the switch is opened, the diode becomes forward biased to carry the inductor current, and the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.13 applied. From the derivation, we get:

(i L ) open =

(2-7)

The net change in inductor current over one period is zero,

(i L ) closed + (i L ) open = 0

(2-8)

26 Using Equation (2.6) and (2.7),

=0

(2-9)

Solving for V o ,

(2-10)

It can be seen from Equation (2-10) that the output voltage is always smaller than the input voltage. The buck converter produces an output voltage which is less than or equal to the input. The output voltage depends only on the input and the duty ratio, D. If the input voltage fluctuates, the output voltage can be regulated by adjusting the duty ratio appropriately [10].

The buck converters can operate in two distinct modes with respect to the inductor current I L . When the average value of the input current is low (high R) and or the switching frequency f is low, the converter may enter the discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). In the DCM, the inductor current is zero during a portion of the switching period. The CCM is preferred for high efficiency and good utilization of semiconductor switches and passive components. The DCM may be used in applications with special control requirements, since the dynamic order of the converter is reduced (the energy stored in the inductor is zero at the beginning and at the end of each switching period). It is uncommon to mix these two operating modes because of different control algorithms [10].

For the buck converter, the value of the filter inductance that determines the boundary between CCM and DCM is given by:

27

L min =

(2-11)

For L > Lmin, the converter operates in the CCM. The filter inductor current I L in the CCM consists of a dc component I O with a superimposed triangular ac component. Almost all of this ac component flows through the filter capacitor as a current Ic . Current Ic causes a small voltage ripple across the dc output voltage V O . To limit the peak-to-peak ripple voltage Vo , the filter capacitance C must be greater than C min. .

C min =

(2-12)

Equations (2-11) and (2-12) are the key design equations for the buck converter. The input and output dc voltages (hence, the duty ratio D), and the range of load resistance R are usually determined by preliminary specifications. The value of the filter inductor L is calculated from the CCM/DCM condition using Equation (2-11). The value of the filter capacitor C is obtained from the voltage ripple condition Equation (212). Equations (2-11 and 2-12) show that it can be accomplished by using a high switching frequency f. The switching frequency is limited, however, by the type of semiconductor switches used and by switching losses [10].

2.2.4

Control Principles of Buck Converter

A buck converter must provide a regulated dc output voltage under varying load and input voltage conditions. The converter component values are also changing with time, temperature, pressure, etc. Hence, the control of the output voltage should be performed in a closed-loop manner using principles of negative feedback. Two most

28 common closed loop control methods for PWM buck converters, namely, the voltagemode control and the current-mode control [10].

In the voltage-mode control scheme shown in Figure 2.14, the converter output voltage is sensed and subtracted from an external reference voltage in an error amplifier. The error amplifier produces a control voltage that is compared to a constant-amplitude sawtooth waveform. The comparator produces a PWM signal which is fed to drivers of controllable switches in the buck converter. The duty ratio of the PWM signal depends on the value of the control voltage. The frequency of the PWM signal is the same as the frequency of the sawtooth waveform. An important advantage of the voltage-mode control is its simple hardware implementation and flexibility [10].

Figure 2.14: Voltage mode control [10].

The error amplifier in Figure 2.14 reacts fast to the changes in the converter output voltage. Thus, the voltage-mode control provides good load regulation, that is, regulation against variations in the load. Line regulation (regulation against variations in the input voltage) is, however, delayed because changes in the input voltage must first manifest themselves in the converter output before they can be corrected. To alleviate this problem, the voltage-mode control scheme is sometimes augmented by so-called voltage feedforward path. The feedforward path affects directly the PWM duty ratio according to variations in the input voltage [10].

29 The current-mode control scheme is presented in Figure 2.15. An additional inner control loop feeds back an inductor current signal. This current signal, converted into its voltage analog, is compared to the control voltage. This modification of

replacing the sawtooth wavefrom of the voltage-mode control scheme by a converter current signal significantly alters the dynamic behavior of the converter. The converter takes on some characteristics of a current source. The output current in PWM buck converters is either equal to the average value of the output inductor current or is a product of an average inductor current and a function of the duty ratio. In practical implementations of the current-mode control, it is feasible to sense the peak inductor current instead of the average value. Since the peak inductor current is equal to the peak switch current, the latter can be used in the inner loop which often simplifies the current sensor. The peak inductor (switch) current is proportional to the input voltage. Hence, the inner loop of the current-mode control naturally accomplishes the input voltage feedforward technique [10].

Figure 2.15: Current mode control [10].

Advantages of the current-mode control include: input voltage feedforward, limit on the peak switch current, equal current sharing in modular converters, and reduction in the converter dynamic order. The main disadvantage of the current-mode control is its complicated hardware which includes a need to compensate the control voltage by ramp signals (to avoid converter instability) [10].

30 2.3 Battery Storage

2.3.1

Introduction

In 1791, Luigi Galvani published a report on animal electricity. He created an electric circuit consisting of two different metals, with one touching a frog's leg and the other touching both the leg and the first metal, thus closing the circuit. In modern terms, the frog's leg served as both the electrolyte and the sensor, and the metals served as electrodes. He noticed that even though the frog was dead, its legs would twitch when he touched them with the metals. In 1800, Volta invented the battery by placing many voltaic cells in series, literally piling them one above the other. This Voltaic pile gave a greatly enhanced net electromotive force (emf) for the combination [12].

Later, starting with the Daniell cell in 1836, batteries provided more reliable currents and were adopted by industry for use in stationary devices, particularly in telegraph networks where they were the only practical source of electricity, since electrical distribution networks did not exist then. Near the end of the 19th century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced liquid in electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical. Since then, batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and useful for a variety of purposes [12].

Batteries are electrochemical devices which are used to supply energy for electrical and electronic product. Chemical energy stored in a battery is converted into electric current when battery is discharged. This electric current is produced directly by chemical reactions which occur within the battery. The quantity of electric energy made available is a function of the chemical compositions and the amount material present in a cell. Many sets of different chemicals have been combined, with varying degrees of success, to make energy storage systems. Each type of battery couple has advantages and disadvantages with regard to its physical and electrical characteristics. Energy density, expressed in watt-hours per cubic inch, and power capability in watts per pound or watts per cubic inch are often used to compare battery system performance [13].

31 2.3.2 Battery Storage in Photovoltaic Systems

Stand-alone PV systems require energy storage to compensate for periods without or within sufficient solar irradiation, such as during the night or during cloudy weather. In all cases in which electric energy storage is required, the classical electrochemical accumulator battery is the most convenient form of energy storage for a PV system [14].

A charge controller is included between the solar generator and the battery. The charge controller is prevents the battery from being overcharged or deep discharged. The charge controller usually has a blocking diode, which prevents the battery from discharging during the night via the solar generator. A good charge controller has very low internal power consumption and includes a load cut-off switch that protects the battery against discharge [14].

Batteries are often used in PV systems for storing energy produced by the PV during day time and supplying it to electrical loads as needed (during night time or cloudy weather). Moreover, batteries are also needed in the tracker systems to keep the operation at MPP in order to provide electrical loads with stable voltages. Nearly, most of the batteries used in PV systems are deep cycle lead-acid. These batteries have thicker lead plates that make them tolerate deep discharges. The thicker the lead plates, the longer the life span. The heavier battery for a given group size, the thicker plates and the better battery will tolerate deep discharges. All deep cycle batteries are rated in ampere-hour where Ampere-hour (Ah) capacity is a quantity of the amount of usable energy it can store at nominal voltage. For example an ampere-hour is one ampere for one hour or 10 A for one-tenth of an hour and so forth. A good charge rate is

approximately 10 percent of the total capacity of the battery per hour for example 200 ampere-hour battery charged at 20 A [7].

32 2.3.3 Fundamental Concepts of Battery

A battery is made from two or more electrochemical cells connected in series. Primary and secondary electrochemical cells can be distinguished. Secondary batteries are called accumulators which have reversible reactions and are rechargeable. An electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes. Commonly, one is called the positive electrode and the other, the negative electrode. The positive electrode has a more positive potential than the negative electrode. Each combination of charged and discharged active material has a specific electrochemical potential. The potential difference between the positive and the negative electrode is called the cell potential [15].

The capacity of a cell is measured typically in ampere-hours (Ah). The capacity is determined by a constant current discharge down to a defined end-of-discharge voltage. The capacity depends significantly on the discharge current and the temperature. Battery manufacturers can define the discharge current and the end-ofdischarge voltage on their own. Therefore, it is very important to check the reference conditions defined by the manufacturer while comparing the capacity of different products [15].

Typically, nominal cell voltages are in the range between 1.2 V and 3.6 V. Therefore, several cells are usually connected in series to build a string of higher nominal voltage. The nominal voltage of a battery is therefore defined by the number of cells connected in series times the nominal cell voltage of a single cell [15].

The state of charge (SOC) gives the capacity that can be discharged from a battery at a certain moment. Hundred percent state of charge means a fully charged battery, zero percent SOC means that the nominal capacity is discharged. Figure 2.16 shows different definitions of the battery capacity and state of charge. The rated or nominal capacity is defined as the 10-h discharge capacity C10. This is the basis for the SOC determination. The rated or nominal capacity does not change during the life of a

33 battery whereas the measured capacity changes with time. The state of charge with respect to the measured capacity is called relative state of charge (SOC r ). The practical capacity is always lesser than the measured capacity. The state of charge definition related to the practical capacity is the practical state of charge (SOC p ) [15].

Figure 2.16: A Comparison of the different definitions of battery capacity and the state of charge [15]. The ampere-hour efficiency (Ah) is defined as the ratio of the ampere-hours discharged from the battery divided by the ampere-hours charged to the battery within a certain period (typically one month or one year or within a period between two full charging processes). Often the charge factor is used instead of the amperehour efficiency. It is defined as 1/Ah. For a sustainable battery operation, charge factors greater than one are necessary [15].

Instead of SOC the depth of discharge (DOD) is used in the data sheets. DOD is defined as zero percent when the battery is fully charged and as hundred percent after the nominal capacity is discharged from the battery (DOD = 100 % SOC). A cycle refers to a discharge followed by a recharge. Cycles used in datasheets always start from a fully charged battery up to a certain DOD. A nominal full cycle is a discharge

34 down to hundred percent DOD. The cycle lifetime for a battery is given by the number of cycles as a function of the DOD [15].

Battery currents are usually given relative to the battery size. The normalization of the current to the capacity is an appropriate measure. Therefore, battery currents are expressed as multiples of the ampere-hour capacity or as multiples of the capacity defining discharge current. For a battery with a capacity of C = 100 Ah, a current of 10 A is defined as 0.1 C. In the example, 100 A is called the C-rate. I10 is the current that discharges a fully charged battery within 10 hour down to the defined end-ofdischarge voltage. The typical nomenclature for the capacity is C x where x is the time in which the battery is discharged. For example: C10 = 10 hour I10, or C10 = 100 Ah, I10 = 10 A = 0.1 C10. Note that 1 I10 is not equivalent to 10 I100 as the C100 capacity is typically larger than the C10 capacity [15].

The end-of-charge voltage defines an upper voltage limit. Charging of the battery usually is not stopped on reaching the end-of-charge voltage (other than the end-ofdischarge voltage), but the charge current is reduced accordingly to maintain the end-ofcharge voltage over time [15].

The lifetime of a battery depends very much on the operating conditions and the control strategy. Manufacturers usually define two types of lifetime: the float lifetime (calendar lifetime) gives the lifetime under constant charging conditions without cycling (typical applications are uninterruptible power supplies), and for continuous cycling (cycle lifetime, typical applications are fork-lift trucks) [15].

Self-discharge describes the (reversible) loss of capacity on open-circuit conditions. It depends very much on the temperature [15].

The state of health is defined as the ratio of the actual measured capacity and the rated or nominal capacity. The state of health indicates to which extent the battery is still able to fulfill the requirements. According to the norms, lead acid batteries are at the end

35 of their lifetime if the state of health is under 80 percent [15].

2.3.4

Lead Acid Battery

Lead-acid battery is a rechargeable battery invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Plant, Lead-acid batteries are widely used in several applications types. Among others, these batteries are used in automotive power systems, uninterruptible power system (UPS) and telecom power supply. Therefore, several battery charger types have been developed. However, the evaluation in real time of the battery autonomy is an important part for several application types that uses batteries [16].

The electrochemical storage system is based on the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. The amount of energy that can be stored in a cell is determined by the different energy content of chemical substances that represent the charged and discharged states. Consequently, the characteristic parameters of the system are determined by a number of electrochemical reactions and the energetic changes connected with these reactions. In total, these reactions result in the cell reactions that characterize the battery itself [15].

Lead acid batteries in the charged state consist of a positive electrode with lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) and a negative electrode with lead (Pb) as the active materials. The following reaction equations describe the main reaction: Positive electrode Negative electrode Cell Reaction PbO 2 + 3H+ + HSO- 4 +2e- PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O Pb + HSO- 4 PbSO 4 + H+ + 2ePb + PbO 2 + 2H + 2HSO 4 2PbSO 4 + 2H 2 O
+ -

(2-13) (2-14) (2-15)

PbO 2 and Pb are both converted to lead sulphate PbSO 4 during discharging. Sulphuric acid as the electrolyte is used up during the discharging of the battery. Therefore, the concentration of the sulphuric acid decreases in linear with the state of charge. This is an important difference with respect to almost all other battery types,

36 where the electrolyte has only the function of an ion conductor. In lead acid batteries, it is in addition the source for the ions to counterbalance the charge dissolved in the electrolyte from the electrochemical process [15].

The charged electrode consists of lead (Pb) in the solid state. When a discharge current occurs, two electrons are withdrawn from the metallic lead and dissolution of Pb2+ ions into the electrolyte occurs. Through diffusion, the charged ions are transported away from the reaction surface. As the charged ions unbalance the number of positive and negative ions in the electrolyte, negatively charged ions are necessary to counterbalance the positive surplus. They are provided as SO 4 2 ions from the sulphuric acid electrolyte. The SO 4 2ions are transported by diffusion from the free electrolyte volume to the reaction site of the electrochemical reaction. From there, the Pb2+ and the SO 4 2 ions meet and form PbSO 4 by a chemical precipitation process. This finally results in the formation of PbSO 4 crystals [15]. During charging, the reverse process takes place. Pb2+ ions are taken from the electrolyte to form solid Pb during the electrochemical precipitation process. These ions are transported by diffusion processes to the reaction site. To stabilize the Pb2+ ion concentration in the electrolyte, a chemical dissolution process of the PbSO 4 crystals takes place. Because the positive ions are removed from the electrolyte through the electrochemical precipitation process, the SO 4 2 ions need to be transported away from the reaction site to assure electrical neutrality [15].

The provision of cost effective electrical energy storage remains one of the major challenges for the development of improved PV systems. Typically, lead acid batteries are used to guarantee several hours to a few days of energy storage. Their reasonable cost and general availability has resulted in the widespread application of lead-acid batteries for remote area power supplies despite their limited lifetime compared to others [4].

37 The following factors are considered in the selection of batteries for PV applications:

Deep discharge (7080% depth of discharge). Low charging/discharging current. Long duration charge (slow) and discharge (long duty cycle). Irregular and varying charge/discharge. Low self discharge. Long life time. Less maintenance requirement. High energy storage efficiency. Low cost.

2.4

Summary

This chapter covers the reviews of PV charger system. A brief discussion on PV system included basic fundamental operation of PV cell model and also standard rating of PV module. Besides, the basic operation of DC-DC converter are presented included the control principles of buck converter. Lastly, this chapter also reviews battery storage in PV systems, fundamental concepts of battery and basic information regarding leadacid battery. All the theory explained in this chapter will be used in order to finish this project.

CHAPTER 3

ANALYSIS AND SIMULATION

3.1

Photovoltaic Model

3.1.1

Photovoltaic Cell Model Analysis

The model of the PV module was implemented using a Matlab/Simulink program. The model parameters are evaluated using the Equations (2-1). The

MATLAB/Simulink program, calculate the current I, using typical electrical parameter of the module (I SC , V OC ), and the variables voltage, Irradiation (G), and Temperature (T).

The Solarex MSX60 PV module was chosen for modeling. The MSX 60 module provides 60 W of nominal maximum power, and has 36 series connected polycrystalline silicon cells. The key specifications are shown in Table 3.1.

The simulation of PV module considers the series resistance. This series resistance makes the solution for the net current I (Eqn. 2-1). A Matlab/Simulink script file was implemented consider the parameters of MSX60 module. All the parameters and constants of PV model will be applied using Matlab script as shown in Appendix A.

39

Table 3.1: Typical Electrical Characteristic of MSX-60 PV Module. Parameter Maximum Power Voltage @ P m Current @ P m Short circuit current Open circuit voltage Temperature coefficient of open circuit voltage Temperature coefficient of short circuit current Temperature coefficient of power NOCT Variable Pm Vm Im I sc V oc Value 60 W 17.1 V 3.5 A 3.8 A 21.1 V -(8010) mV/C (0.00650.015) %/C -(0.50.05) %/C 472 0C

3.1.2

Photovoltaic Cell Model Simulation

The simulation of PV cell model is constructed using simulink block. The subsystem blocks of the PV model are divided into three parts based on Equation (2-1):

Photo current Diode current Photovoltaic current (net current)

Figure 3.1 shows the subsystem simulation of photo current in Matlab/Simulink. The subsystem simulation of diode current is shown as Figure 3.2.

The net current of the cell is the difference of the photo current, I L and the normal diode current I D . Figure 3.3 shows the simulation block system of the photovoltaic current/net current. For this simulation, the inputs of PV cell are irradiance, G, temperature, T, and photovoltaic voltage, V pv .

40

Figure 3.1: Subsystem block of photo current.

Figure 3.2: Subsystem block of diode current.

Figure 3.3: PV cell model block.

41

3.2

Power Converter Stage

3.2.1

Power Converter Stage Analysis

The design specification of buck converter is shown in Table 3.2. The specification is for a switching regulator to supply 17.1 V at maximum current 3.8 A from direct current PV source of maximum voltage 21.1 V.

Table 3.2: Specification of Buck Converter. Parameter Input voltage Output voltage Maximum output power Output current Switching frequency Value 17.1 V 14.5 V 60 W 0 - 3.5 A 50 kHz

Based on the specification for input voltage and output voltage as shown in Table 3.1, the required duty cycle can be determined by using Equation (2-10).

42

The minimum inductance can be determined by using Equation (2-11).

L min =

L min = =

The buck converter was chosen to operate in CCM mode. Therefore L= 68 was chosen to ensure that inductor current can operate in CCM. After that, the mean, minimum and maximum inductor current can be determined.

(3-1)

(3-2)

43

(3-3)

The capacitance is calculated using Equation (2-12). Let the peak-to-peak ripple voltage equal to 0.05.

C min =

(3-4)

=
= 31.99F

The output filter capacitance C must be greater than C min. . Let the output filter capacitance be 45 percent larger than the minimum capacitance.

C out = 1.45 x C min = (1.45)(31.99) = 46.39F

(3-5)

44 So, the nearest output filter capacitance was chosen equal to 47F. The specifications of buck converter as shown in Table 3.3

Table 3.3: Buck Converter Specifications. Specifications Input Voltage Output Voltage Switching Frequency Output Current Duty Cycle Inductor IL I Lmax I Lmin Capacitor (C out ) Value 17.1 V 14.5 V 50 kHz 0 3.5 A 0.85/85 % 68 uH 0.9613 A 1.2351 A 0.84617 A 47 uF

3.2.2

Power Converter Stage Simulation

The simulation of buck converter is constructed using Matlab/Simulink. The simulation was done in two types of subsystem block, which are pulse width modulation (PWM) with feedback and power stage buck converter.

In this project, PWM was generated by additional of sawtooth signal and difference of output voltage compared to the reference voltage. The block for this system is shown as shown in Figure 3.4.

The power stage block consists DC input voltage, MOSFET, diode, inductor, output capacitor and load resistor. Figure 3.5 shows the power stage block for the buck converter.

45

Figure 3.4: Pulse-width modulator with feedback block system.

Figure 3.5: Buck converter block system.

46 3.3 Summary

This chapter presents the simulink model and results of PV cell model and power converter stage by using MATLAB/Simulink. Besides, this chapter also presents the calculation analysis of buck converter in determined the specification that used in hardware implementation.

CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE DEVELOPMENT

4.1

Introduction

The process of the hardware development can be divided into three parts. The value of each component was first determined by the calculation. Then, based on the schematic diagram, each component was placed and connected on the bread board. Lastly, all the components on breadboard were transferred to the printed circuit board (PCB). This project consists of three stages of circuit, which are buck converter power stage circuit, MOSFET drive circuit, and PWM controller stage circuit.

4.2

Power Converter Stage

There are six main components on the power stage, which are power switch, power diode, power inductor, input filter capacitor, output capacitor and load.

48 4.2.1 Power Switch

The power switch of buck converter can be implemented by MOSFET. In this project, power MOSFET was selected as a power switch because it has higher breakdown voltage compared to the other power switch. Besides, it can be used in higher frequency applications where the on-state-resistance has no theoretical limit, hence switching power loses can be far lower.

Since the P-channel of MOSFET required a complex driver circuit, N-channel MOSFET is chosen for switching purposes due to low switching losses and simple gate drive circuit. As a result, MOSFET IRF540N from International Rectifier is chosen. The value of R ds(on) is small which only 44 . An absolute maximum rating for gate-tosource voltage V gs equal to 20 V. Although the power dissipated by MOSFET is low, a heat sink is mounted on the MOSFET for heat dissipation and a safety reason.

4.2.2

Power Diode

The important criteria for selecting a power diode are fast switching, high current rating, reverse voltage and low voltage drop. The current rating must be higher than 0.5 A and the reverse voltage must greater than 25 V for maximum input voltage. Therefore, MUR1520 diode from International Rectifier was chosen. This power diode is designed for switching power supplies with ultrafast recovery time up to 35 nanoseconds. Besides, the peak forward current is 15 A and the peak repetitive reverse voltage, V RRM is 200 V. The forward voltage drop at 15 A forward current is low which only 1.05 V. A heat sink was mounted to help the heat dissipation.

49 4.2.3 Inductor

In this project, the minimum inductance needed has been calculated in the chapter three which is 22.5 H. Therefore, a Bourns type 68 H inductor 2120 series from RoHS Compliant was selected. The current rating is 6.7 A, preventing the converter from operating at maximum power rating for long duration. This power inductor operates at very low DC resistance, which is 0.22 .

4.2.4

Input and Output Capacitor

Input filter is necessary to attenuate the switching harmonics of the input current and protect the converter from the input voltage, thereby increasing the system reliability. A 10 F miniature aluminum electrolytic capacitor Rubycon was selected as the input filter. The rating voltage is 25 V, which is greater than input voltage. From the power stage design, the minimum capacitance for output capacitor is 31.99 F. The output filter capacitance C must be greater than C min. Therefore, a 47 F miniature aluminum electrolytic capacitor Rubycon was selected as the output capacitor.

4.2.5

Load

A resistive load is needed for the testing purpose. From the power stage design, 15 resistor was chosen in order to provide maximum current 5 A. The power rating of resistor should be at least 5 W. In this project, a 15 aluminum housed wire wound high power resistor from Welwyn Components was chosen. The power rating for this resistor is 25 W. This resistor has high stability with maximum ambient temperature up to 200 C.

50 4.3 Pulse Width Modulation Controller Stage

In this switch mode power supply application which is buck converter and operating frequency in 50 kHz is needed a controlled circuit to provide a pulse width for MOSFET switching. An integrated circuit (IC) of SG3524 will be introduced here for the controlled purposes. This type of PWM control IC is optimized for high frequency up to 300 kHz. Figure 4.1 shows the functional block diagram of SG3524.

The frequency of sawtooth signal is determined by the resistor at pin 5,R T and capacitor at pin 6, C T . SG3524 can be operating in a frequency range between 100 Hz to 300 kHz and the value of R T must be larger than 100 to ensure that charging does not exceed 5 mA. The operating frequency was set at 50 kHz, the best combination of C T and R T is 10 nF and 2 k according to the graph of Oscillator Frequency vs. Timing Resistance in the datasheet. Figure 4.2 shows the graph that determined the value of C T and R T . In SG3524, pin 12 and pin 13 are the output pins or also known as totem poles output. Every of this output is added to a resistor so that the output of PWM is wider and can reach to 95 percent of duty ratio. This PWM need an input voltage which larger than start threshold voltage in order to operate and can yield an output of pulse width with amplitude of 3.5 V. Because of the amplitude is low, the MOSFET driver circuit is added to the gate of MOSFET so that the switching is properly functioning. Figure 4.3 shows that the schematic diagram of PWM controller circuit for SG3524.

51

Figure 4.1: Functional Block Diagram of SG3524 [17].

Figure 4.2: Graph of oscillator frequency vs. timing resistance of SG 3524 [17].

52

Figure 4.3: Schematic diagram of PWM controller circuit for SG3524.

4.4

MOSFET Driver Circuit

In most power electronic circuits, a difference of potential exists between the PWM controller circuit and MOSFET. Basically, PWM controller circuit is low voltage and low-power circuit. The power stage circuit that consists of MOSFET is a highvoltage circuit. Therefore, it becomes necessary for the output channels of the gate-pulse to be isolated. The isolation function can be provided by using an opto-isolator IC. The isolation function of this circuit can be seen where the ground of the driver circuit was different with the ground of PWM controller and power stage. Figure 4.4 shows the schematic diagram of MOSFET driver circuit.

For safety reason, an opto-isolator was used in the circuit. The opto-isolator (6N137) allows for DC coupling and generally provides significant protection from serious over voltage conditions of the driver IC. The driver used in this circuit is MC34151. The MC34151 is dual inverting high speed drivers specifically designed for applications that require low current digital circuitry to drive large capacitive loads with

53 high slew rates. This device is intended for switching power supplies and dc-dc converters application due to the high efficiency at high frequency operation. The two independent high current totem pole outputs ideally suited for driving power MOSFET. The other advantages of this device are low standby current and enhanced system performance with common switching regulator control ICs.

Figure 4.4: Schematic diagram of MOSFET driver circuit.

4.5

Printed Circuit Board Layout

In this project, the circuit of power stage, controlled stage and MOSFET driver will be built on the printed circuit board (PCB) layout. There is no mandatory rule indicate that the circuits must be built on PCB but this method is very important for

54 reducing electromagnetic interference (EMI) effect in the power stage. Besides, by designing a PCB, it can solve the untidy of connection on the breadboard and can have higher accuracy of measurements. Figure 5.5 shows the PCB layout of this project.

(a)

(b)

55

(c)

Figure 4.5: PCB layout (a) Power Stage Buck Converter (b) PWM Controller Circuit (c) MOSFET Driver Circuit.

4.6

Summary

This chapter presents the hardware development of power converter stage, PWM controller stage, MOSFET driver circuit and development of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) layout. Power converter stage included power switch, power diode, inductor, capacitor and load. PWM controller stage using IC SG3524 is introduced for the PWM controlled purposed. Besides, MOSFET driver circuit is presented for isolation and amplification function of PWM signal. Lastly, further development of the PCB layout is presented.

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1

Introduction

In this project, there are two types of result that will be discussed in this chapter which are simulation results using Matlab/Simulink and experimental results.

5.2

Simulation Results

5.2.1

Photovoltaic Cell Model

The Equations (2-1) from chapter 2 have been implemented in Matlab/Simulink. The results of I-V and P-V curve characteristics have been produced as shown in Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2. Based on the Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2, the short circuit current, the open circuit voltage, and the maximum power are in very good agreement with the

57 MSX-60 datasheet values. These PV simulation results are based on the Matlab PV cell model block from Figure 3.3.

Figure 5.1: Matlab Module I-V Characteristics Curve.

58

Figure 5.2: Matlab Module PV Curve.

5.2.2

Buck Converter

There are two parts of the buck converter simulation results, which are PWM controller result and power stage result. The results were produced from PWM controller stage included sawtooth output waveform and PWM output waveform as shown in Figure 5.3.

The results were produced from the power stage analysis included input voltage, inductor current and output voltage as shown in Figure 5.4. The simulation results obtained are based on analysis and calculation in chapter 3. From the calculation, the desired output voltage is 14.5 V and the ripple peak-to-peak voltage is 0.05 V. Based on

59 the simulation result in Figure 5.4 (c) and Figure 5.4 (d), the mean value of output voltage is 14.5 V and the ripple peak-to-peak voltage is 0.03 V. The difference of ripple peak-to-peak voltage from the calculation is 0.02 V and the output voltage response from simulation is slightly different compared to the calculation.

(a)

60

(b) Figure 5.3: (a) Sawtooth Waveform. (b) PWM Waveform.

From the analysis and calculation of inductor current, mean value (I Lmean ) is equal to 0.967 A. The maximum (I Lmax ) and (I Lmin ) minimum inductor are equal to 1.2865 A and 0.6468 A respectively. From the simulation in Figure 5.4 (b), the mean value for inductor current is 0.961 A, the maximum inductor current (I Lmax ) is equal to 1.235 A and the minimum inductor current (I Lmin ) is equal to 0.688 A. The response of the inductor current from the simulation is almost same with the applied analysis.

61

(a)

(b)

62

(c)

(d) Figure 5.4: (a) Input Voltage (b) Inductor Current (c) Output Voltage (d) Output Voltage Ripple.

63 5.3 Experimental Results

The hardware experimental was conducted at power electronic laboratory, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. During the experiment, there are many types of equipment used such as digital power supply, oscilloscope, function generator and so on. Figure 5.5 shows the sawtooth waveform and PWM waveform produced using IC SG3524. Internal oscillator was produced by connecting the timing resistor and capacitor resistor (R t & C t ) to the IC SG3524.

Figure 5.5: Sawtooth and PWM Waveform.

64 From the analysis and calculation, the chosen switching frequency is 50 kHz but from the Figure 5.5, the switching frequency is 61.27 kHz. This is due to the error from the manufacturer datasheet. Based on Figure 4.2, the oscillator frequency vs. timing resistance graph from the datasheet given is not relatively accurate value for R t and C t . Another factor is the timing capacitor (C t ). This capacitor has the internal equivalent series resistance (ESR) that produced electrolyte loss during the experiment. The duty cycle from Figure 5.5 is 84.44 % is almost the same with the calculated value 85 %.

Figure 5.6 shows the gate voltage output produced by the MOSFET gate drive. The amplitude of the gate voltage is equal to 16.2 V which is approximately 1 V higher from the PWM voltage output. The gate voltage is increased by connecting the PWM circuit to the MOSFET driver circuit. The on state of MOSFET is achieved when the gate voltage sufficiently exceeds the threshold voltage, V gs and forcing the MOSFET into the ohmic region of operation. Typically, the MOSFET gate voltage is for the on state is use in the range of ten and twenty. Therefore, the gate voltage 16.2 V is sufficient enough to force the MOSFET to the ohmic region. The off state is achieved by lowering the gate voltage below the threshold voltage.

Figure 5.7 shows the output of inductor current (I L ). From the figure, the mean inductor current is 0.945 A compared to the simulation value which is 0.967 A. The maximum inductor current (I Lmax ) is equal to 1.26 A and the minimum inductor current (I Lmin ) is equal to 0.640 A. From the result obtained, the inductor current was decreasing compared to the simulation and calculation. This happens due to the on state power losses during the transitions. On state power losses occurred because the voltage across a conducting switch is not zero.

65

Figure 5.6: Gate Voltage Output.

Figure 5.7: Inductor Current Output.

66 Figure 5.8 shows the input voltage (V i ) and the output voltage (V o ) of buck converter. From Figure 5.8, the input voltage is 17.1 V which is the same as desired input voltage from the analysis. As we can see, there are voltage drop at input voltage in short period of time. This is due to the switching losses occurred at the input voltage. The switching losses occurred because a switch does not make a transition from one state to the other state instantaneously. Switching losses can be minimized by designing a fast switching transitions driver circuit.

From the calculation in chapter three, the desired output voltage is 14.5 V. Based on the Figure 5.8, the result obtained is 13.3 V. There are 8.3 % voltage differ from the desired output. This happens due to the voltage drop during the transitions and noise during the measurement using oscilloscope. The sensitivity of probe will also cause the noise to the desired output.

Figure 5.8: Input Voltage and Output Voltage Output.

67 5.4 Summary

The complete MATLAB/Simulink simulation model of the PV cell model and power converter stage are presented. The models are discussed part by part, starting with the simulation results of PV cell model followed by PWM controller stage included sawtooth and PWM waveform. After that, the simulation results of input voltage waveform, output voltage waveform and inductor current waveform are presented. Furthermore, experimental results are discussed included PWM waveform, gate voltage, inductor current and output voltage. The simulation results and experimental results will be analyzed and discussed in chapter 6.

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1

Conclusion

In this project, PV charger system was successfully designed by using the buck converter. PV charger system successfully built with three separated PCB design which are power stage, PWM controller stage and MOSFET driver circuit. The main problem faced in this project is simulation of PV cell model and designation of buck converter.

In the simulation of PV cell model and power converter stage, the problem faced is, simulation output from PV cell model cannot be synchronized with the input of buck converter. Instead of using PV source, the DC voltage is directly used to supply the input voltage of the buck converter. In the hardware designation, the main problem faced is to determine the right specifications for the power stage buck converter. It is because, power stage buck converter consumes a lot of power and dissipates a lot of power during the experiment.

69

From the simulation, the desired output voltage is almost the same as well as the inductor current compared to the analysis and calculation. In the experimental result, it is slightly different compared to the analysis and calculation. This is because of many factors such as switching losses, voltage drop, noise and so on.

6.2

Recommendations

Recommendation for the future works is expanding the system by using the other renewable energy resources and can also charge for the different type of battery specifications. Other recommendation for this project is to develop by using the others DC-DC converter such as boost converter, buck-boost converter, flyback converter and so forth.

REFERENCES

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Joshua David Bollinger, Applications Of Solar Energy To Power Stand-Alone Area And Street Lighting, Master Theses, University Of Missouri-Rolla.

Francisco M. Gonzlez-Longatt, Model of Photovoltaic Module in Matlab 2005, IEEE.

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71 8 Anca D. Hansen, Poul Sorensen, Lars H. Hansen and Henrik Bindner. Model for a 2000, Stand-Alone PV System. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, December

Daniel W. Hart, Introduction To Power Electronic, Prentice-Hall International, Inc.

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Muhammad H. Rashid, Power Electronics Handbook, Academic Press 2001.

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William Shepherd and Li Zhan, Power Converter Circuit, Marcel Dekker Inc. 2004.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity) This website is about the battery. (Accessed March 20, 2009)

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General Electric, The Sealed Lead Battery Handbook, 1979

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Klaus Preiser (2003). Photovoltaic Systems. A. Luque and S. Hegedus (Ed.) Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering . (pp. 753-798). England: John Wiley & Sons.

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Dirk Uwe Sauer (2003), Electrochemical Storage for Photovoltaics . A. Luque and S. Hegedus (Ed.), Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering (pp.799-862). England: John Wiley & Sons.

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V. Fernao Pires and O.P. Dias, Storage Electrical Energy Assessment in Real Time of Lead- acid Batteries, April 2007, IEEE.

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Texas Instrument, Regulating Pulse-Width Modulators SG3524 Datasheet. 2003.

72 18 Anna J. Carr, A Detailed Performance Comparison of PV Modules of Different Technologies And The Implications For PV System Design Methods, Philosophy Theses, Murdoch University.

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John O. Attia, Electronics And Circuit Analysis Using Matlab, England: John Wiley & Sons. 1995.

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Mohan, N., Undeland, T. and Robbins, W., Power Electronics Converters, Applications, and Design, Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1995.

21

Lasnier F., and Ang T. G., Photovoltaic Engineering Handbook, New York: Adam Hilger, 1990.

22

Steven T. Karris, Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB Applications, Orchad Publications. 2005.

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Ned Mohan, First Course On Power Electronic and Drive, MNPERE Production. 2003.

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D. A. J. Rand, P. T. Moseley, J. Garche, Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries, Elsevier Science. 2004.

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Johari bin Kasim, Camallil bin Omar, Abd. Hamid bin Ahmad, Sistem Elektronik, Penerbit UTM. 2003.

26

David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy, Handbook Of Batteries, McGraw Hill Professional. 2001.

27

Yu Kang Lo, Jin Yuan Lin and Tin Yuan Wu, Grid Connection Technique for a Photovoltaic System with Power Factor Correction, 2005, IEEE.

73 28 P.C.M. de Carvalho, R.S.T. Pontes, D.S. Oliveira Jr, D.B. Riffel, R.G.V. de Oliveira, S.B. Mesquita, Control Method of a Photovoltaic Powered Reverse Osmosis Plant Without Batteries Based On Maximum Power Point Tracking, 2004 IEEE.

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T.C. Cheng, W.C. Chang, K.F. Yarn and J.K. Kuo, On The Improvement of Solar Cell Based Photovoltaic Charger System, 2006 IEEE.

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Dezso Sera, Remus Teodorescu, Pedro Rodriguez, PV panel model based on datasheet values, 2007 IEEE.

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Narayanaswamy. P.R. Iyer, Dr. Venkat Ramaswamy, Modeling And Simulation Of a Switched Mode Power Supply Using Simulink, 2005 IEEE.

32

Steven T. Karris, Introduction to Simulink With Engineering Applications, Orchad Publications. 2008.

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APPENDIX A

MATLAB SCRIPT OF MSX 60

function Ia=solar(Va,suns,TaC); function Ia=solar(Va,suns,TaC) k=1.38e-23; q=1.6e-19; n=1.2; Vg=1.12; Ns=36; T1=273+25; Voc_T1=21.06/nS; Voc_T1=21.06/Ns; Isc_T1=3.80; T2=273+75; Voc_T2=17.05/Ns; Isc_T2=3.92; TaK=273+TaC; function Ia=solar(Va,suns,TaC) functionIa=solar(Va,suns,TaC) Ia=solar(Va,suns,TaC) Ia=solar(Va,suns,TaC); G=1000; G_nom=800; T=303; IO_T1=Isc_T1/(exp(q*Voc_T1/(n*k*T1))-1);

75 IO=IO_T1*(T/T1).^(3/n).*exp(-q*Vg/(n*k).*((1./T)-(1/T1))); Xv=I0_T1*q/(n*k*T1)*exp(q*Voc_T1/(n*k*T1)); Xv=IO_T1*q/(n*k*T1)*exp(q*Voc_T1/(n*k*T1)); dV/dI_Voc=-1.15/Ns/2; dVdI_Voc=-1.15/Ns/2; Rs=-dVdI_Voc-1/Xv;

76

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B1: PWM Controller Stage.

APPENDIX B2: Driver Circuit.

77

APPENDIX B3: Buck Converter.

APPENDIX B4: Complete Circuit of Buck Converter.

78

APPENDIX C

79

80

81

APPENDIX D

82

APPENDIX E

83

84

85

86

87

88

APPENDIX F

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

APPENDIX G

96

97

98

99

100

APPENDIX H

101

102

APPENDIX I

103

104

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