Intermediate Thermodynamics Cycles

Heat-Engine Cycle A heat engine produces work receiving heat from a reservoir at TH and rejecting heat to a reservoir at TC. The first law requires that: Q H + QC + W = 0 since the change in energy within a cycle is zero. The second states that:
eng = S

(1)

Qi Q Q = H C 0 Ti Th Tc

(2)

where the change in entropy is zero in a cycle and Th and Tc are the engine surface temperatures at which heat is received and rejected, respectively. The irreversibility can be calculated from Eq. (3:23) for a control mass:
T0 1 I eng = Wact + Q H T H T0 Q + C 1 T C

(3)

The effectiveness of a heat engine is defined as: = Wact act = Q, H Carnot (4)

where the last equality can be proved using Eqs. (1-3) for the reversible case. In the case of irreversible heat transfer with the heat reservoirs, the irreversibility within the engine is:
T0 I eng = Wact + Q H 1 T h T0 Q + C 1 T c

(5)

and the irreversibilities associated to the heat transfers from the hot and to the cold reservoir are:

 1 1 I Q, H = T0 Q H T T , H h

1 1 I Q,C = T0 QC T T c C

(6)

Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles A refrigeration cycle uses work to take heat from a reservoir at TC while rejecting heat to a reservoir at TH.. First and second law requirements are the same as Eqs. (1) and (2). The coefficient of performance (COP) is defined as:
COPref = QC W

(7)

and the effectiveness is defined as:

ref =

Q,C Wact

COPact COPCarnot

(8)

A heat pump cycle works like a refrigeration cycle but the objective is to reject heat to be used in a process or in building heating. The COP and the effectiveness are thus defined as:

COPref =

QH , W

hp =

Q, H Wact

COPact COPCarnot

(9)

Gas-Turbine Cycle

A schematic of a gas-turbine is shown in Fig. 1. Notice that the cycle is open. Assuming adiabatic compression and expansion, the first law states: wc = h2a h1 , q comb = h3 h2 a , wc = h4 a h3 (10)

The efficiency of the compression and turbine processes are:

c = h2 s h1 , h2 a h1 t = h3 h4 a h3 h4 s

(11)

Availability balances are written as: wc = (b2 a b1 ) + ic (12)

 q 1 TT = b b

i 0 i

2a

+ icomb

(13)

wt = (b4a b3 ) + it and the cycle effectiveness is:

cycle = wnet work output = exergy input comb

(14)

(15)

Fuel

Combustor 2 3

Compressor

Turbine

1 Air Combustion products Figure 1: Gas-turbine open cycle.

T Pcomb Qin 3 Patm 2s 2a 4s Qout 1 s Figure 2: T-s diagram. 4a

It is frequent to use a regenerator to take advantage of the high temperature gases on the output of the turbine to preheat the air at the entrance of the combustor. This is called a regenerative turbine cycle. The schematics are shown in Fig. 3.

Fuel Compressor 2 1 Air 5 Regenerator x Combustor Turbine 3 Products 4

T Qin x 2a Qout 1 s Figure 3: Regenerative gas-turbine open cycle. 5 3

Pcomb

Patm 4a

The energy balance on the regenerator, assuming adiabatic behavior is: hx h2 = h5 h4 and the effectiveness is defined as: (16)

reg =

hx h2 h4 h2

(17)

The availability balance for the regenerative cycle can be written in input=output format as:

q 1 TT + b = b (w w ) + i + i + i

i 0 i

reg

(18)

where all the irreversibilities have been neglected with the exception of that of the compressor, turbine and regenerator units.

Steam Power Cycle

A simple Rankine cycle is shown in Fig. 4. The Rankine cycle is extensively used in steam power stations, typically nuclear and coal fueled.
3

T
qin Superheater

wt Turbine 4 Condenser

3 2 1 4

Pboil
qin Boiler wp 2 Pump

qout

Pcond

s Figure 4: Rankine cycle.

Neglecting kinetic and potential energy, the steady-state energy balances on the components of the cycle are (assuming adiabatic turbine and pump):

qin = h3 h2 , wt = h4 h3 , qcond = h1 h4 , w p = h2 h1 and the turbine and pump efficiencies are: t = h3 h4a , h3 h4 s p = h2 s h1 h2 a h1

(19)

(20)

The exergy balances are:

T0 qi 1 T + b2 = b3 + iboiler i

(21)

b3 = b4 a wt + it
b4 a = b1

(22)

0 i

q 1 TT + i

i i

cond

(23)

w p + b1 = b2a + i p
and the effectiveness is given by Eq. (15).

(24)

Refrigeration Cycle

A vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 5. Under the same assumptions as in the previous section we can write:

qout

T 2 3

Pevap
3 Expansion valve or capillary tube

Condenser 2 wc Compressor

Pcond
4

1 s Figure 5: Vapor compression refrigeration cycle.

Evaporator qin

Neglecting kinetic and potential energy, the steady-state energy balances on the

qc + wc = h2a h1 , qcond = h3 h2a , h3 h4 , qevap = h1 h4

(25)

where heat losses on the compressor have been included. Availability balances result in:
b1 + wc = b2

T0 qi 1 T + ic i

(26)

b2 = b3

T0 qi 1 T + icond i

(27)

b3 = b4 + ivalve

(28)

b4 = b1

q 1 TT + i

i 0 i

evap

(29)

and the effectiveness is defined in this case as:

cycle = Q,evap refrigeration = work input wc

(30)

Homework

1.- An irreversible gas turbine operates between pressures of 1.0 and 6.4 bar with compressor and turbine inlet temperatures of 22 and 807 oC. Determine the compressor and turbine work, the change in availability across each device, and the irreversibility of all three devices, in kJ/kg of air. Consider then the case in which a regenerator is added to preheat the inlet of the compressor with the output of the turbine. Assume a 75 % effectiveness for the regenerator and repeat the previous analysis. 2.- A steam power cycle operates with superheated vapor at 140 bar, 560 oC, and condenses steam at 0.06 bar. The cooling water on the cold side of the condenser rises from 18 to 28 o C. The first-law efficiencies of the turbine and the pump are 85 % and 70 % respectively. Perform an energy and exergy analysis of the cycle.