Classical Control

Classical Control
Topics covered: Modeling. g ODEs. Linearization. Laplace transform. Transfer functions. Block diagrams. Masons Rule. Time response p specifications. p Effects of zeros and poles. Stability via Routh-Hurwitz. Feedback: Disturbance rejection, Sensitivity, Steady Steady-state state tracking. PID controllers and Ziegler-Nichols tuning procedure. Actuator saturation and integrator wind-up. Root locus. Frequency response--Bode and Nyquist diagrams. Stability Margins. Margins Design of dynamic compensators.
Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University
Classical Control
Text: Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems, 4th Edition, Edition G.F. G F Franklin, Franklin J.D. J D Powel and A. A Emami Emami-Naeini Naeini Prentice Hall 2002.
What is control?
For any analysis we need a mathematical MODEL of the system Model Relation between gas pedal and speed: 10 mph change in speed per each degree rotation of gas pedal Disturbance Slope of road: 5 mph change in speed per each degree change of slope Block diagram for the cruise control plant:
w 0.5
Control (degrees)
Slope (degrees)
y = 10(u 0.5w)
10
Output speed (mph)
y
3
What is control?
O Open-loop l cruise i control: t l
w
PLANT
0.5 r 1/10 u + 10 yol

Reference (mph)
r u= 10
yol = 10(u 0.5w) r = 10( 0.5w) 10 = r 5w
eol = r yol = 5w r yol w eol [%] = = 500 r r

r = 65, w = 0 eol = 0 r = 65, w = 1 eol = 5mph, eol = 7.69%
OK when: h 1- Plant is known exactly 2- There is no disturbance
What is control?
Cl Closed-loop d l cruise i control: t l
w
PLANT
u = 20(r ycll )
ycl = 10(u 0.5w)
0.5 + r 1/10 u + 10 ycl
200 5 = r w 201 201
1 5 ecl = r ycl = r+ w 201 201 r ycl 1 5 w ecl [%] = = + r 201 201 r

1 % = 0.5% 201 1 5 5 r = 65, w = 1 ecl = + = 0.69% 201 201 65 r = 65, w = 0 ecl =

5
What is control?
Feedback control can help: reference following (tracking) disturbance rejection changing dynamic behavior LARGE gain is essential but there is a STABILITY limit The The issue of how to get the gain as large as possible to reduce the errors due to disturbances and uncertainties without making the system become unstable is what much of feedback control design is all about about First step in this design process: DYNAMIC MODEL
Dynamic Models
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS:
F = ma
& = u bx & m& x & v=x &=& & a=v x
Newtons law
velocity acceleration
b u Vo 1m & + v = v v = =Vo e st ,u =U o e st m m Uo s + b m
T Transfer f Function F ti
d s dt
Dynamic Models
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS:
F = I
Newtons law
&& = lmg sin + Tc ml 2 angular velocity = & && & = = I = ml 2

angular acceleration moment of inertia
g Tc g Tc & & & & + sin = 2 sin + = 2 l ml l ml
Linearization
Dynamic Models
g Tc & & + = 2 l ml
Reduce to first order equations:
x1 = & x2 =
&1 = x2 x g Tc &2 = x1 + 2 x l ml
0 x1 Tc &= g x , u 2 x ml l x2 l
General case:
1 0 x + u 0 1
State Variable Representation
& = Fx + Gu x y = Hx + Ju
9
Dynamic Models
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS: Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL): The algebraic Th l b i sum of f currents entering i a node d is i zero at every instant Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) The algebraic sum of voltages around a loop is zero at every instant
Resistors:
vR (t ) = RiR (t ) iR (t ) = GvR (t )
iR
+ vR
iC
+ vC
iL
+ vL
Capacitors:
1 dv (t ) iC (t ) = C C vC (t ) = iC ( ) d + vC (0) dt C0
t
Inductors:
di (t ) 1 vL (t ) = L L iL (t ) = vL ( ) d + iL (0) dt L0
10
Dynamic Models
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:
OP AMP:
vO = A(v p vn ), A
vp +
ip
+
in
RI + -
RO A(vp-v vn)
iO
vO +
v p = vn i p = in = 0
v+
n
To work in the linear mode we need FEEDBACK!!!
11
Dynamic Models
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS:
R2 R1 C
+ -
KCL:
v1
vO
1 1 dvO = vO vI dt R2C R1C
1 t R2 = (OC) vO (t ) = vO (0 ) v I ( ) d R1C 0
v1
vO
1 K = RC
12
Inverting integrator
Dynamic Models
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL C O C C S SYSTEMS: S S DC C Motor torque armature current
T = K t ia &m e = K e
emf shaft velocity
&&m = b &m + T J m dia va + Raia + L +e=0 dt

Obtain the State Variable Representation
13
Dynamic Models
HEAT-FLOW: Heat Flow Temperature Difference
1 q = (T1 T2 ) R 1 & T= q C
Thermal capacitance Thermal resistance
1 1 1 & (To TI ) TI = + CI R1 R2
14
Dynamic Models
FLUID-FLOW: Mass rate Mass Conservation law l
& = win wout m

l mass fl flow Inlet Outlet l mass fl flow
1 & & & = Ah h = (win wout ) m A

A: area of the tank : density of fluid h: height of water
15
Linearization
Dynamic System:
& = f ( x, u ) x
0 = f ( xo , uo )
Equilibrium
Denote
x = x xo , u = u uo
& = f ( xo + x, uo + u ) x
Taylor Expansion
f f & f ( xo , uo ) + x x + u u xo ,uo x xo ,uo f f F ,G x xo ,uo u xo ,uo

& Fx + Gu x
16
Linearization
& Fx + Gu x
F f x xo ,uo f1 f1 f1 f1 x L x u L u n m f 1 1 = M ,G = M M M u xo ,uo f n L f n f n L f n x1 u1 xn um xo ,uo xo ,uo
Example: Pendulum with friction
k & g & & + + sin = 0 m l
0 1 k x &= g x cos x1 l m xo
17
Laplace Transform
Function f(t) of time Piecewise continuous and exponential order F ( s ) = f (t )e
0 st
f (t ) < Kebt
+
dt
j 1 F ( s )e st ds L 1[F (s )] = f (t ) = 2j j
0 0- limit is used to capture transients and discontinuities at t=0 s is a complex variable (+j)
There is a need to worry y about regions g of convergence g of the integral g
Units of s are sec-1=Hz

A frequency
If f(t) f( ) is i volts l (amps) ( ) then h F(s) F( ) is i volt-seconds l d (amp-seconds) ( d)

18
Laplace transform examples

Step function unit Heavyside Function
After Oliver Heavyside (1850-1925)
F ( s ) = u (t )e
0
st
dt = e
0
st
dt =
st
( + j )t
f t<0 0, for u (t ) = 1, for t 0 1 = if > 0 s
+ j
Exponential function F (s) = e

0 After Oliver Exponential (1176 BC- 1066 BC) ( s + )t e t st ( s + )t
dt = e
0
dt =
s +
1 = if > s +
Delta (impulse) function (t)
F ( s ) = (t )e st dt = 1 for all s
0
19
Laplace Transform Pair Tables

Signal g impulse step ramp exponential damped ramp sine cosine damped sine damped cosine Waveform
(t )
u (t ) tu (t )
e t u (t )
te t u (t )
Transform 1
1 s 1 s2 1 s + 1
( s + ) 2
sin ( t ) u (t ) cos( t )u (t )
e t sin ( t )u (t ) e t cos( t )u (t )
s2 + 2 s s2 + 2
( s + ) 2 + 2 s + ( s + ) 2 + 2
20
Laplace Transform Properties

Linearity: (absolutely critical property) L{Af f1 (t ) + Bf f 2 (t )} = AL{ f1 (t )} + BL{ f 2 (t )} = AF1 ( s ) + BF2 ( s ) Integration property: Differentiation property:
t F (s ) L f ( )d = s 0 df (t ) L = sF ( s ) f (0) dt
d 2 f (t ) 2 = s F ( s ) sf (0) f (0) L 2 dt
d m f (t ) m m 1 m2 ( m) L L = s F ( s ) s f ( 0 ) s f ( 0 ) f (0 ) m dt
21

Translation properties:
s-domain domain translation:
L{e t f (t )} = F ( s + )
as
t-domain translation: L{ f (t a )u (t a )} = e
F ( s ) for a > 0
Initial Value Property:
t 0 +
lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
s
Final Value Property:
lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
s 0
If all poles of F(s) are in the LHP
22

Time Scaling: Multiplication by time:
1 s L{ f (at )} = F ( ) a a dF ( s ) L{tf (t )} = ds
t
Convolution: Time product:
L{ f ( ) g (t )d } = F ( s )G ( s )
0
1 + j L{ f (t ) g (t )} = F ( s )G ( s )d j 2j
23
Laplace Transform
Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform
f (t ) = [2 + 2 sin( 2t ) 2 cos(2t )]u (t )
F (s) =
4(s + 2 ) s (s 2 + 4 )
Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform
f (t ) = e u (t ) + 5 sin (4 x )dx
4t 0 40 t d 5 te f (t ) = 5e 40t u (t ) + u (t ) dt
s 3 + 36 s + 80 F (s) = s(s + 4 )(s 2 + 16 ) 10 s + 200 F (s) = (s + 40)2
E Exercise: i Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform
f (t ) = Au (t ) 2 Au (t T ) + Au (t 2T )
F (s) =
A(1 e s
Ts 2
24
Laplace transforms
Tim me doma ain (t dom main)
Linear system Differential equation Classical q techniques Response p signal
Complex frequency domain (s domain) Laplace transform L Algebraic equation Algebraic techniques q Inverse Laplace p transform L-1 Response p transform
The diagram commutes

Same answer whichever way you go
25
Solving LTI ODEs via Laplace Transform

y ( n ) + an 1 y ( n 1) + L + a0 y = bmu ( m ) + bm 1u ( m 1) + L + b0u
Initial Conditions: Recall

s Y ( s) y
n j =0 n 1
y ( n 1) (0 ),K, y (0 ), u ( m 1) (0 ),K, u (0 )
k 1 d k f (t ) k ( k 1 j ) j L = s F ( s ) f ( 0 ) s k dt j =0
( n 1 j ) i 1 m i 1 i i j ( i 1 j ) (0) s + ai s Y ( s ) y (0)s = bi s U ( s ) u ( i 1 j ) (0)s j i =0 j =0 j =0 i =0 j n 1
bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 Y ( s) = n U (s) + s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0
ai y
i =0 j =0
n 1
i 1
( i 1 j )
(0)s bi u (i 1 j ) (0)s j
j i =0 j =0 n 1
i 1
s + an 1s
n
+ L + a1s + a0
For a given rational U(s) we get Y(s)=Q(s)/P(s)

26
Laplace Transform
Exercise: Find the Laplace transform V(s)
dv(t ) + 6v(t ) = 4u (t ) dt v(0) = 3
4 3 V (s) = s (s + 6 ) s + 6
Exercise: Find the Laplace transform V(s)
d 2v(t ) dv(t ) 2t 4 3 v ( t ) 5 e + + = dt dt 2 v(0) = 2, v' (0) = 2
5 2 V (s) = (s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3) s + 1
What about v(t) ( )?

27
Transfer Functions
y ( n ) + an 1 y ( n 1) + L + a0 y = bm 1u ( m 1) + L + b0u
Assume all Initial Conditions Zero:
(s
+ an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0 )Y ( s ) = (bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 )U ( s )

Input
Output
bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 B( s) Y (s) = n U (s) = U (s) n 1 s + an 1s + L + a1s + a0 A( s ) Y (s) bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 H (s) = = n U ( s ) s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0 ( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) =K ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
28
Rational Functions
We shall mostly be dealing with LTs which are rational functions ratios of polynomials in s
bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 F (s) = an s n + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0 ( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) =K ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
pi are the poles and zi are the zeros of the function K is the scale factor or (sometimes) gain A proper rational function has nm A strictly proper rational function has n>m An improper rational function has n<m
29
Residues at simple poles

Functions F i of f a complex l variable i bl with i h isolated, i l d finite order poles have residues at the poles
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) k1 k2 kn F ( s) = K = + +L+ ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn ) ( s p1 ) ( s p2 ) ( s pn )
(s pi )F ( s) = k1 ( s pi ) + k2 ( s pi ) + L + ki + L + kn ( s pi )
( s p1 ) ( s p2 ) ( s pn )
Residue at a simple pole:
ki = lim ( s pi ) F ( s )
s pi
30
Residues at multiple poles

Compute residues at poles of order r: ( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) k1 k2 kr = + + L + F (s) = K ( s p1 ) r ( s p1 ) ( s p1 ) 2 ( s p1 ) r r j d 1 ( s p ) r F ( s ) , kj = lim j = 1L r i r j (r j )! s p ds
i
Example:
2 1 3 2 s 2 + 5s = + 3 2 s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1) (s + 1)3
+1)3(2s2 +5s) = d ( s 1 lim 3 ds s 1 (s +1) +1)3(2s2 +5s) = 1 lim d2 ( s 2 3 2!s1ds2 + (s 1)
(s +1)3(2s2 + 5s) = lim 3 3 s3 + (s 1)
2 + 5s 1 2 2 s 1 3 t 1 2 ( ) = L L + = e 2 + t 3 t u (t ) 3 2 3 (s + 1) s + 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)
31
Residues at complex poles

Compute residues at the poles
s a
lim ( s a) F ( s)
Bundle complex conjugate pole pairs into second-order terms if you want but you will need to be careful
( s j )( s + j ) = s 2 2s + 2 + 2
)]
Inverse Laplace Transform is a sum of complex exponentials The answer will be real
32
Inverting Laplace Transforms in Practice

We have a table of inverse LTs Write F(s) as a partial fraction expansion
F ( s) = an sn + an 1sn 1 + L + a1s + a0 ( s z1 )( s z2 )L ( s zm ) =K ( s p1 )( s p2 )L ( s pn ) = bm sm + bm1sm1 + L + b1s + b0
(s p1 ) (s p2 )
( s p3 )
31
32
2
(s p3 )
33
(s p3 )
+ ... +
(s pq )
Now appeal pp to linearity y to invert via the table Surprise! Nastiness: computing the partial fraction expansion is best d done b by calculating l l i the h residues id
33
Example 9-12
Find the inverse LT of 20( s + 3) F ( s) = ( s + 1)( s 2 + 2s + 5)
* k1 k2 k2 F (s) = + + s +1 s +1 j2 s +1+ j2
20( s + 3) k = lim ( s + 1) F ( s ) = = 10 1 s 1 2 s + 2 s + 5 s = 1 20( s + 3) k = lim (s + 1 2 j ) F (s) = 2 s 1 + 2 j ( s + 1)( s + 1 + 2 j ) 5 j = 5 5 j = 5 2e 4
s = 1 + 2 j
5 5 ( 1+ j 2)t + j ( 1 j 2)t j 4 u (t ) 4 + 5 2e f (t ) = 10e t + 5 2e 5 = 10e t + 10 2e t cos(2t + ) u (t ) 4

34
Not Strictly Proper Laplace Transforms

Find the inverse LT of s 3 + 6s 2 + 12 s + 8 F ( s) = s 2 + 4s + 3 s+2
Convert to polynomial plus strictly proper rational function

Use polynomial division
F (s) = s + 2 + 2 s + 4s + 3 0.5 0.5 = s+2+ + s +1 s + 3
Invert as normal
d (t ) f (t ) = u (t ) + 2 (t ) + 0.5e t + 0.5e 3t dt
35
Block Diagrams
Series:
G1
G2
G = G1G2
G1
G2
Parallel:
+ +
G = G1 + G2
36
Block Diagrams
Negative Feedback:
R
R( s)
+
Reference input Error signal Output Feedback signal
E (s)
-
G
H
C (s)
B( s)
E = RB C = GE B = HC
C G C = GR GHC (1 + GH )C = GR = R (1 + GH ) E 1 E = R HGE (1 + GH ) E = R = R (1 + GH )
Rule: Transfer Function=Forward Gain/(1+Loop Gain)
37
Block Diagrams
Positive Feedback:
R
R( s)
+
Reference input Error signal Output Feedback signal
E (s)
+
G
H
C (s)
B( s)
E = R+B C = GE B = HC
C G C = GR + GHC (1 GH )C = GR = R (1 GH ) E 1 E = R + HGE (1 GH ) E = R = R (1 GH )
Rule: Transfer Function=Forward Gain/(1-Loop Gain)
38
Block Diagrams
Moving through a branching point:
R( s)
C (s)
R( s)
B( s)
G 1/ G
C (s)
B( s)
Moving through a summing point:

R( s)
+ +
C (s)
R( s)
+ +
C (s)
B( s)
G
B( s)
39
Block Diagrams
Example:
H1
R( s)
+ -
G1
G2
G3
C (s)
H2
R( s)
G1G2G3 1 + H1G2G3 + H 2G1G2
C (s)
40
Masons Rule
H4
H6
U (s)
+ +
H1 H5
+ +
H2
+ +
H3 H7
+ +
Y (s)
Signal Flow Graph nodes

1
H4 H6
branches b a c es
3
U (s)
H1 H5
H2
H3 H7
Y (s)
41
Masons Rule
Path: P th a sequence of f connected t db branches h in i th the direction di ti of f the th signal flow without repetition Loop: a closed path that returns to its starting node Forward path: connects input and output
Y (s) 1 G (s) = = Gi i U (s) i

Gi = gain of the ith forward path = the system determinan t = 1- (all loop gains) + (gain products of all possible two loops that do not touch)
(gain products of all possible three loops that do not touch) +L i = value of for the part of the graph that does not touch the ith forward path
42
Masons Rule
H4 H6
U (s)
H1 H5
H2
H3 H7
Y (s)
Y ( s) H1 H 2 H 3 + H 4 H 4 H 2 H 6 = U ( s ) 1 H1 H 5 H 2 H 6 H 3 H 7 H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 + H1 H 5 H 3 H 7
43
Impulse Response
Diracs delta:
0 u( ) (t )d = u(t )
Integration is a limit of a sum u(t) is represented as a sum of impulses

By superposition principle, we only need unit impulse response
h(t )
Response at t to an impulse applied at
System Response:
u (t )
y (t )
y (t ) = u ( )h(t )d
0
44
Impulse Response
t-domain:
u (t )
y (t )
Impulse response
y (t ) = u ( )h(t )d
0
u (t ) = (t ) y (t ) = h(t )
The system response is obtained by convolving the input with the impulse response of the system.
Convolution: s-domain: U ( s )
L{ u ( )h(t )d } = H ( s )U ( s )
0
Y ( s)
Impulse response
Y ( s ) = H ( s )U ( s )
u (t ) = (t ) U ( s ) = 1 Y ( s ) = H ( s )
The system response is obtained by multiplying the transfer function and the Laplace transform of the input.
45
Time Response vs. Poles

Real pole:
1 H ( s) = h(t ) = e t s +
Impulse Response
Stable Unstable
>0 <0
Time Constant
46

Real pole:
H (s) =
s + 1
h(t ) = e t
Time Constant
Impulse Response
1 Y (s) = y (t ) = 1 e t s + s
Step Response
47
2 n Complex poles: H ( s ) = 2 2 s + 2 n s + n

Impulse I l Response
2 n = (s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 )
n : :
Undamped natural frequency Damping ratio

2 n
H (s) =
(s + + jd )(s + jd )
2 n = (s + )2 + d2
= n , d = n 1 2
48

Complex poles:
2 n n t H (s) = h ( t ) = e sin (d t ) 2 2 2 2 (s + n ) + n (1 ) 1
Impulse Response
>0 <0
Stable Unstable
49

Complex poles:
2 n n t H (s) = h ( t ) = e sin (d t ) 2 2 2 2 (s + n ) + n (1 ) 1
Impulse Response
50

Complex poles: 2 n 1 t ( ) ( ) = + Y (s) = y ( t ) 1 e cos t sin t d d (s + n )2 + n2 (1 2 ) s d Step Response
51

Complex poles:
2 n H (s) = 2 2 s + 2 n s + n 2 n = 2 (s + n ) + n2 (1 2 )
CASES:
2 = 0 : s 2 + n 2 (1 2 ) < 1 : (s + n )2 + n 2
Undamped p Underdamped
= 1 : (s + n )
> 1 : s + + 2 1 n s + 2 1 n
[ (
) ][ (
) ]
Critically damped Overdamped
52
53
Time Domain Specifications
54

1- The rise time tr is the time it takes the system to reach the vicinity of its new set point 2- The settling time ts is the time it takes the system 2 transients to decay 3- The overshoot Mp is the maximum amount the system t overshoot h t it its fi final l value l di divided id d b by its it final fi l value 4- The peak time tp is the time it takes the system to reach the maximum overshoot point
tp =
n 1
tr ts =
1.8
n
4.6
Mp =e
1 2
n
55

Design specification are given in terms of
tr , t p , M p , t s
These specifications p give the p g position of the p poles
n , , d
Example: Find the pole positions that guarantee
tr 0.6 sec, M p < 10%, t s 3 sec
56
Effect of Zeros and Additional poles

Additional poles: 1- can be neglected if they are sufficiently to the left of the dominant ones. ones 2- can increase the rise time if the extra pole is within a factor of 4 of the real part of the complex poles. Zeros: 1- a zero near a pole reduces the effect of that pole in th time the ti response. 2- a zero in the LHP will increase the overshoot if the zero is within a factor of 4 of the real part of the complex poles (due to differentiation). 3- a zero in the RHP (nonminimum phase zero) will depress the overshoot and may cause the step response to start out in the wrong direction.
57
Stability
Y ( s ) bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 = n R( s) s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0
Y (s) ( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) =K R( s) ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn ) Y (s) k1 k2 kn = + +L+ R ( s ) ( s p1 ) ( s p2 ) ( s pn )
Impulse response:
R( s) = 1 Y ( s) = k1 k2 kn + +L+ ( s p1 ) ( s p2 ) ( s pn )
y (t ) = k1e p1t + k2e p2t + L + kn e pnt

58
Stability
y (t ) = k1e p1t + k2e p2t + L + kn e pnt
We want:
e pit t 0
i = 1K n
Definition: A system is asymptotically stable (a.s.) if
Re{ { pi } < 0
Characteristic polynomial: Characteristic equation:
a ( s ) = s n + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0 a( s) = 0
59
Stability
Necessary condition for asymptotical stability (a.s.):
ai > 0
Use this as the first test!
If any ai<0, <0 the the system is UNSTABLE! Example:

s2 + s 2 = 0 ( s + 2)( s 1) = 0
60
Rouths Criterion
Necessary and sufficient condition Do not have to find the roots pi! Rouths Array:
sn s n 1 s n2 s n 3 s n4 M s0 an 1 a1 b1 c1 d1 a2 a3 b2 c2 d2 a4 L a5 L b3 c3
b1 =
an
Depends on whether n is even or odd
a1a2 a3 aa a aa a , b2 = 1 4 5 , b3 = 1 6 7 a1 a1 a1 ba ab ba ab c1 = 1 3 1 2 , c2 = 1 5 1 3 , L b1 b1 c b bc cb bc d1 = 1 2 1 2 , d 2 = 1 3 1 3 , L c1 c1 M M
61
Rouths Criterion
How to remember this? Rouths Array:
sn s n 1 s n2 s n 3 M
m11
m12
m13 L m23 L m33 L m43 L M
m1, j = a2 j 2 , m2, j = a2 j 1 , mi 2,1 mi 2, j +1 mi 1,1 mi 1, j +1 mi 1,1
m21 m22 m31 m32 m41 m42 M M
mi , j =
, i 3
62
Rouths Criterion
The criterion: The system is asymptotically stable if and only if all the elements in the first column of the Rouths array are positive The number of roots with positive real parts is equal to the number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh array
63
Rouths Criterion - Examples

Example 1: Example 2:
s 2 + a1s + a2 = 0 s 3 + a1s 2 + a2 s + a3 = 0
Example 3: s 6 + 4 s 5 + 3s 4 + 2 s 3 + s 2 + 4 s + 4 = 0 Example 4:
s 3 + 5 s 2 + ( k 6) s + k = 0
64
Rouths Criterion - Examples

Example: Determine the range of K over which the system is stable
R( s)
+ -
s +1 s(s 1)(s + 6 )
Y (s)
65
Rouths Criterion
Special Case I: Zero in the first column We replace the zero with a small positive constant >0 and proceed as before. We then apply the stability criterion by taking the limit as 0 Example:
s 4 + 2 s 3 + 4 s 2 + 8s + 10 = 0
66
Rouths Criterion
Special Case II: Entire row is zero This indicates that there are complex conjugate pairs. If the ith row is zero, we form an auxiliary equation from the previous nonzero row:
a1 ( s ) = 1s i +1 + 2 s i 1 + 3 s i 3 + L
Where i are the coefficients of the (i+1)th ) row in the array. We then replace the ith row by the coefficients of the derivative of the auxiliary polynomial. Example:
s 5 + 2 s 4 + 4 s 3 + 8s 2 + 10 s + 20 = 0
67
Properties of feedback
Disturbance Rejection: Open loop
w
Ko
+
y
y = K o Ar + w
Closed loop
w
+
+ -
Kc
y
Kc A 1 y= r+ w 1 + Kc A 1 + Kc A
68
Disturbance Rejection: Ch Choose control t l s.t. t for f w=0,y 0 r Open loop:
1 Ko = y = r + w A
Closed loop: K c >>
1 y r + 0w = r A
Feedback allows attenuation of disturbance without h having access to it (without ( h measuring it)!!! )
IMPORTANT: High gain is dangerous for dynamic response!!!
69
Sensitivity to Gain Plant Changes Open loop
w
Ko
+
y
y To = = AK o r o
Closed loop
w
+
+ -
Kc
y
AK c y Tc = = r c 1 + AK c
70
Sensitivity to Gain Plant Changes Let the plant gain be A + A Open loop: Closed loop:
To
To
A
A
Tc
A To 1 = << = Tc A 1 + AK c A To
Feedback reduces sensitivity to plant variations!!! Sensitivity: Example:
dT / T A dT S = = dA / A T dA 1 Tc To SA = , SA =1 1 + AK c
T A
71
PID Controller
PID: Proportional Integral Derivative P Controller:
Y (s) C ( s )G ( s ) R ( s ) = , R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s ) E (s) 1 = . R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
+ -
E (s)
C (s) = K p
U (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
Step Reference:
u (t ) = K p e(t ),
U (s) = K p E (s)
1 1 1 1 R ( s ) = ess = lim sE ( s ) = lim s = s 0 s 0 1 + K G ( s ) s s 1 + K pG (0) p ess = 0 K pG (0)

True when: Proportional gain is high Plant has a pole at the origin
High gain proportional feedback (needed for good tracking) results in underdamped (or even unstable) transients.
72
PID Controller
P Controller: Example (lecture06_a.m)
R( s)
+ -
E (s)
Kp
U (s)
A s2 + s + 1
Y (s)
K pG ( s) KpA Y ( s) = = 2 R ( s ) 1 + K pG ( s ) s + s + (1 + K p A)
2 n =1+ K p A
2 n =1
1 = = K 0 p 2n 2 1 + K p A
9 Underdamped transient for large proportional gain 9 Steady state error for small proportional gain
73
PID Controller
PI Controller:
R( s) Y (s) C ( s )G ( s ) = , R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s ) E (s) 1 = . R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
+ -
E (s)
C (s) = K p +
KI s
U (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
Step Reference:
u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K I e( )d ,
0
KI U (s) = K p + s
1 K 1+ K p + I s
E (s)
=0
1 R ( s ) = ess = lim li sE E ( s ) = lim li s s 0 s 0 s
1 K 1+ K p + I s
G ( s )
1 = lim li s s 0
G ( s )
It does not matter the value of the proportional gain Plant does not need to have a pole at the origin. The controller has it!
Integral control achieves perfect steady state reference tracking!!! Note that this is valid even for Kp=0 as long as Ki0
74
PID Controller
PI Controller: Example (lecture06_b.m)
R( s)
+ -
E (s)
Kp +
KI s
U (s)
A s2 + s + 1
Y (s)
KI G ( s ) Kp + ( K p s + K I )A Y (s) s = = 3 2 KI R( s) s + s + (1 + K p A) s + K I A 1+ K p + ( ) G s s
DANGER: for large
Ki the characteristic equation has roots in the RHP

Analysis by Rouths Criterion
s 3 + s 2 + (1 + K p A) s + K I A = 0
75
PID Controller
PI Controller: Example (lecture06_b.m)
s 3 + s 2 + (1 + K p A) s + K I A = 0
Necessary Conditions: This is satisfied because Rouths Conditions:
1 + K p A > 0, K I A > 0
A > 0, K p > 0, K I > 0
s3 1 1+ K p A 2 s 1 KI A s1 1 + K p A K I A
1+ K p A KI A > 0
s0
KI A
1 KI < KP + A
76
PID Controller
PD Controller:
+ -
E (s)
C (s) = K p + K D s
U (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
Step Reference:
de(t ) u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K D , dt
U ( s ) = (K p + K D s )E ( s )
1 1 1 1 = R ( s ) = ess = lim sE ( s ) = lim s s 0 s 0 1 + (K + K s )G ( s ) s s 1 + K p G ( 0) p D ess = 0 K pG (0)

True when: Proportional P ti l gain i i is hi high h Plant has a pole at the origin
PD controller fixes problems with stability and damping by adding anticipative action
77
PID Controller
PD Controller: Example (lecture06_c.m)
R( s)
+ -
E (s) C ( s) = K + K s U (s) p D
A s2 + s + 1
Y (s)
( K p + K D s )G ( s ) A(K p + K D s ) Y (s) = = 2 R ( s ) 1 + (K p + K D s )G ( s ) s + (1 + K D A)s + (1 + K p A)

2 n =1+ K p A
2 n = 1+ KD A
1+ KD A 1+ KD A = = 2n 2 1+ K p A
9 The damping can be increased now independently of Kp 9 The steady state error can be minimized by a large Kp
78
PID Controller
PD Controller:
+ -
E (s)
C (s) = K p + K D s
U (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
de(t ) u (t ) = K p e(t ) + K D , dt
NOTE: cannot apply pp y pure p differentiation. In practice,
U ( s ) = (K p + K D s )E ( s )
KDs
is implemented as
KDs Ds +1
79
PID Controller
PID: Proportional Integral Derivative
R( s)
+ -
E (s)
U (s) 1 Kp 1 + + T s Ts D I
G (s)
Y (s)
d Kp 1 de(t ) u (t ) = K p e(t ) + e( ) d + TD , K D = K pTD KI = TI 0 d dt TI
U (s) 1 = Kp 1+ + TD s E (s) T s I
PID Controller: Example (lecture06_d.m)
80
PID Controller: Ziegler-Nichols Tuning

Empirical method (no proof that it works well but it works well for simple systems) Only for stable plants You do not need a model to apply the method Class of plants:
Y (s) K Ke td s = U ( s ) s + 1
81

METHOD 1: Based on step response, tuning to decay ratio of 0.25. Tuning Table: P: Kp = td t PD : K p = 0.9 , TI = d td 0 .3 PID : K p = 1.2 , TI = 2td , TD = 0.5td td
82

METHOD 2: Based on limit of stability, ultimate sensitivity method.
R( s) E (s)
-
Ku
U (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
Increase the constant gain Ku until the response becomes p purely y oscillatory y (no ( decay y marginally g y stable pure imaginary poles) Measure the period of oscillation Pu
83

METHOD 2: Based on limit of stability, ultimate sensitivity method. Tuning Table:
P: K p = 0 .5 K u Pu PD : K p = 0.45 K u , TI = 1. 2 Pu Pu PID : K p = 0.6 K u , TI = , TD = 2 8
The Tuning Tables are the same if you make: K u = 2 , Pu = 4td td

84
PID Controller: Integrator Windup

Actuator Saturates: - valve (fully open) - aircraft rudder (fully deflected)
u
(Input of the plant)
uc
(Output of the controller)
85
PID Controller: Integrator Windup

R( s)
+ -
E (s)
Kp +
KI s
U c (s)
U (s)
G (s)
Y (s)
What Wh t happens? h ? - large step input in r - large e - large uc u saturates - eventually e becomes small - uc still large because the integrator is charged - u still at maximum - y overshoots h t f for a long l time ti
86
Plant a without ou Anti-Windup: dup
PID Controller: Anti-Windup
Plant with Anti-Windup:
87
PID Controller: Anti-Windup

I saturation, In t ti the th plant l t behaves b h as:
For large Ka, this is a system with very low gain and very fast decay rate, i.e., the integration is turned off.
88
Steady State Tracking

The Unity Feedback Case
R( s)
+ -
E (s)
C (s)
U (s)
G(s)
Y (s)
E (s) 1 = R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )
Test Inputs:
tk r (t ) = 1(t ) k! 1 R ( s ) = k +1 s
k=0: step (position) k=1: ramp (velocity) k 2: parabola k=2 b l (acceleration) ( l ti )

89

R( s)
+ -
Type n System
E (s)
C (s)
Go ((ss) U ) sn
G(s)
Y (s)
Go ( s ) 1 1 C ( s )G ( s ) = n , E ( s ) = R ( s ), R ( s ) = k +1 Go ( s ) s s 1+ n s Steady State Error:

Final Fin l Value V l e Theorem
1 sn s nk 1 1 ess = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim s = lim = lim t s 0 s 0 Go ( s ) s k +1 s 0 s n + Go ( s ) s k s 0 s n + Go (0) 1+ n s

90

R( s)
+ -
Type yp n System
E (s)
Go ( s ) sn
Y (s)
s nk ess = lim n s 0 s + G ( 0) o
Input (k)
Steady State Error: Type (n) Type 0 Type 1 Type 2 Step (k=0) Ramp (k=1) Parabola (k=2)

1 1 1 = = 1 + Go (0) 1 + lim C ( s )G ( s ) 1 + K p s 0 1 1 1 = = 0 Go (0) lim sC ( s )G ( s ) K v

s 0
1 1 1 = = Go (0) lim s 2C ( s )G ( s ) K a
s 0
91

K p = lim C ( s )G ( s ) K v = lim sC ( s )G ( s )
s 0 s 0 s 0
n=0 n =1
Position Constant Velocity Constant Acceleration Constant
K a = lim s 2C ( s )G ( s ) n = 2
n: Degree of the poles of CG(s) at the origin (the number of

integrators in the loop with unity gain feedback) Applying integral control to a plant with no zeros at the origin makes the system type I All this is true ONLY for unity feedback systems Since in Type I systems ess=0 for any CG(s), we say that the system type is a robust property.
92

R( s) E (s)
-
tk w(t ) = 1(t ) k! 1 W ( s ) W ( s ) = k +1 s
C (s)
U (s)
+
G(s)
Y (s)
Set r r=0 0. Want Y(s)/W(s)=0.
Y (s) G (s) = = T ( s ) = s nTo ( s ) W ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s )

Steady State Error:
e=r-y=-y
Final Value Theorem
ess = yss = lim y (t ) = lim sY ( s ) = lim sT ( s )

t s 0 s 0
1 s k +1
sn = lim To ( s ) k s 0 s
93

R( s)
+ -
W (s) U (s)
+ +
E (s)
C (s)
G(s)
Y (s)
Steady State Output: Disturbance (k) Type (n) Type 0 Type 1 Type 2 Step (k=0)
*
Ramp (k=1)
*
Parabola (k=2)
*
0 <*<
94
0 0

Example:
W (s) R( s)
+ -
E (s)
K Kp + I s
U (s)
+
A s (s + 1)
Y (s)
type 1 to w KI 0 K P 0, K I = 0 type 0 to w
95
Root Locus
Controller
R( s) +
-
Plant
U (s) Y (s)
E (s)
C (s)
G(s)
H (s)
Sensor
C ( s ) = KD ( s )
Y (s) C ( s )G ( s ) C ( s )G ( s ) = = R ( s ) 1 + C ( s )G ( s ) H ( s ) 1 + KL ( s )
Writing the loop gain as KL(s) we are interested in tracking the closed-loop poles as gain K varies
96
Root Locus
Characteristic Equation:
1 + KL( s ) = 0
The roots (zeros) of the characteristic equation are the closed-loop poles of the feedback system!!! The closed-loop poles are a function of the gain K Writing the loop gain as
b( s ) s m + b1s m 1 + L + bm 1s + bm L( s ) = = n a ( s ) s + a1s n 1 + L + an 1s + an
The closed loop poles are given indistinctly by the solution of:
1 + KL ( s ) = 0,
1+ K
b( s ) = 0, a(s)
a ( s ) + Kb( s ) = 0,
L( s ) =
1 K
97
Root Locus
RL = zeros{ 1 + KL( s )} = roots{den( L) + Knum( L)}
when K varies from 0 to (positive Root Locus) or from 0 to - (negative Root Locus)
1 Magnitude condition 1 L( s ) = K > 0 : L( s ) = K K o Phase condition L s ( ) = 180 1 1 L ( s ) = K < 0 : L( s ) = K K o L s = ( ) 0
Magnitude condition Phase condition
98
Root Locus by Characteristic Equation Solution

Example:
R( s)
+ -
E (s)
U (s)
1 (s + 10)(s + 1)
Y (s)
Y (s) K = 2 R ( s ) s + 11s + (10 + K )

Closed-loop Closed loop poles:
1 + L( s ) = 0 s 2 + 11s + (10 + K ) = 0
s = 1,10
K=0
81 4 K 2 4 K 81 2
81 4 K s = 5.5 2
s = 5.5 s = 5.5 s = 5.5 i
81 4K>0 81 4K=0 81 4K<0

99
Root Locus by Characteristic Equation Solution
We need a systematic approach to plot the closed-loop closed loop poles as function of the gain K ROOT LOCUS
100
Root Locus by Phase Condition

Example:
R( s)
+ -
E (s)
U (s)
s +1 s (s + 5)(s 2 + 4 s + 8)
Y (s)
L( s ) =
s +1 s (s + 5)(s 2 + 4 s + 8) s +1 = s (s + 5)(s + 2 + 2i )(s + 2 2i )
so = 1 + 3i
belongs to the locus?
101
45o 36.87
o
90o
108.43o
78.70o
90o 108.43o + 36.87o + 45o + 78.70o 180o so = 1 + 3i belongs to the locus!
Note: Check code lecture09_a.m

102
so = 1 + 3i
We need a systematic approach to plot the closed-loop closed loop poles as function of the gain K ROOT LOCUS
103
Root Locus
1 + KL( s ) = 0 L( s ) =
Basic Properties:
1 a ( s ) + Kb( s ) = 0 K
Number of branches = number of open-loop poles RL begins at open-loop poles
K = 0 a(s) = 0
RL ends at open-loop open loop zeros e os or o asymptotes as mptotes
b( s ) = 0 K = L( s ) = 0 s (n m > 0)
RL symmetrical about Re-axis
104
Root Locus
Rule 1: The n branches of the locus start at the poles of L(s) and m of these branches end on the zeros of L(s). n: order of the denominator of L(s) m: order of the numerator of L(s)
Rule 2: The locus is on the real axis to the left of and odd number of poles and zeros. In other words, an interval on the real axis belongs to the root locus if the total number of poles and zeros to the right is odd. This rule comes from the phase condition!!!
105
Root Locus
Rule 3: As K, m of the closed-loop poles approach the open-loop zeros, and n-m of them approach n-m asymptotes with angles
l = (2l + 1)
and centered at
nm
l = 0,1,K, n m 1
b1 a1 poles zeros = = , nm nm
l = 0,1,K, n m 1
106
Root Locus
Rule 4: The locus crosses the j axis (looses stability) where the Routh criterion shows a transition from roots in the left half-plane to roots in the right-half plane. Example:
G (s) =
s+5 s ( s 2 + 4 s + 5) K = 20, s = j 5
107
Root Locus
Example:
G (s) =
s +1 s 4 + 3s 3 + 7 s 2 + 6 s + 4
108
Root Locus
Design dangers revealed by the Root Locus: High relative degree: For n-m n m3 we have closed loop instability due to asymptotes.
s +1 G ( s) = 4 s + 3s 3 + 7 s 2 + 6 s + 4
Nonminimum phase zeros: They attract closed loop poles into the RHP
G ( s) =
s 1 s2 + s + 1
Note: Check code lecture09_b.m

109
Root Locus
Vietes formula: When the relative degree n-m n m2, 2 the sum of the closed loop poles is constant
a1 = closed loop poles

b( s ) s m + b1s m 1 + L + bm 1s + bm L( s ) = = n a ( s ) s + a1s n 1 + L + an 1s + an
110
Phase and Magnitude of a Transfer Function

bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 G (s) = n s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) G (s) = K ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
Th factors The f t K, (s-z ( j) and d (s-p ( k) are complex l numbers: b
(s z j ) = r e , ( s pk ) = r e
p p i k k
z z i j j
j = 1K m k = 1L p
z z i m m p inp n
K = Ke
i K
G(s) = K e
i K
r e r e
z z i1z z i2 1 2 p p p i1 p i2 1 2
r e r e Lr e
Lr e
111

G (s) = K e
i K
r e r e
K
z z i1z z i2 1 2 p p p i1 p i2 1 2
r e r e Lr e
z 2 p 2
= K e i
r r Lr e (
z 1 p 1
r r Lr e (
Lr e
z z i m m p inp n
z z +L+m z i 1z +2 m p p p p i 1 +2 +L+n n
z z z r1z r2z L rm ) i [ K + (1z +2 +L+m (1p +2p +L+np )] =K p p e p r1 r2 L rn
Now it is easy to give the phase and magnitude of the o e transfer a s e function: u o
z r1z r2z L rm G ( s) = K p p , p r1 r2 L rn
z ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) G ( s ) = K + (1z + 2z + L + m
112

Example:
( s + 6.735) G ( s) = (s + 1)(s + 5)( s + 20)
s = so = 7 + 5i
r3p
r1z
r2p r1p
3p
1z 2p
1p
G ( s ) = 1z (1p + 2p + 3p )
r1z G(s) = p p p r1 r2 r3
113
Root Locus- Magnitude and Phase Conditions

z K z z ( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) r1z r2z L rm ) i [ p + (1z +2 +L+m (1p +2p +L+np )] = Kp p p e L( s ) = K p p ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn ) r1 r2 L rn
z r1z r2z L rm 1 L ( s ) K = = p 1 r1p r2p L rnp K K > 0 : L( s ) = K K z ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) = 180o L( s ) = p + (1z + 2z + L + m z r1z r2z L rm 1 L s K ( ) = = p p p p 1 r r L r K K < 0 : L( s ) = 1 2 n K K z ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) = 0o L( s ) = p + (1z + 2z + L + m
114
Root Locus
Selecting K for desired closed loop poles on Root Locus: If so belongs to the root locus, locus it must satisfies the characteristic equation for some value of K
1 L( so ) = K
Then we can obtain K as
1 K = L( so ) 1 K= L( so )
115
Root Locus
Example:
L( s ) = G ( s ) =
(s + 1)(s + 5)
so = 3 + i 4 K =
1 = so + 1 so + 5 = 3 + i 4 + 1 3 + i 4 + 5 L( so ) =
( 2)2 + 42 (2)2 + 42 = 20
Using MATLAB:
sys=tf(1,poly([-1 -5])) so=-3+4i [K,POLES]=rlocfind(sys,so)
116
Root Locus
Example:
L( s ) = G ( s ) =
(s + 1)(s + 5)
so = 3 + i 4
so = 7 + i5 K= 1 = 42.06 L( so )
so = 7 + i5
When we use the absolute value formula we are assuming that the point belongs to the Root Locus!
117
Root Locus - Compensators

Example:
L( s ) = G ( s ) =
(s + 1)(s + 5)
Can we place the closed loop pole at so=-7+i5 only varying K? NO. We need a COMPENSATOR.
L( s) = G ( s ) =
(s + 1)(s + 5)
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) = (s + 10 )
(s + 1)(s + 5)
The zero attracts the locus!!!

118
Root Locus Phase lead compensator

Pure derivative control is not normally practical because of the amplification of the noise due to the differentiation and must be approximated:
s+z , D( s) = s+ p
p>z
Phase lead COMPENSATOR
When we study frequency response we will understand why we call Phase Lead to this compensator.
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =
1 s+z , s + p (s + 1)(s + 5)
p>z
How do we choose z and p to place the closed loop pole at so=-7+i5?
119

Example:
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =
s+z 1 , s + p (s + 1)(s + 5)
p<z
21.04
111.80o 140.19o
1z ?
L( s ) =
Kp
z ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) = 180o + (1z + 2z + L + m
1z = 180o + 140.19o + 111.80o + 21.04o = 453.03o = 93.03o z = 6.735

120

Example:
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =
s + 6.735 1 s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)
so = 7 + i5 K = 117
121

Selecting z and p is a trial an error procedure. In general: The zero is p placed in the neighborhood g of the closedloop natural frequency, as determined by rise-time or settling time requirements. The poles is placed at a distance 5 to 20 times the value of the zero location. The pole is fast enough to avoid modifying the dominant pole behavior. The exact position of the pole p is a compromise between: Noise suppression (we want a small value for p) Compensation effectiveness (we want large value for p)
122
Root Locus Phase lag compensator

Example:
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =
s + 6.735 1 s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)
K p = lim L( s ) = lim D( s )G ( s ) = lim

s 0 s 0
s + 6.735 1 = 6.735 10 2 s 0 s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)
What can we do to increase Kp? Suppose we want Kp=10.
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =
1 s + z s + 6.735 , s + p s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5) z 1 = 103 = 148.48 p 6.735
p<z
Phase lag Ph l COMPENSATOR
We choose:
123

Example:
L( s ) = D( s )G ( s ) =
s + 0.14848 s + 6.735 1 s + 0.001 s + 20 (s + 1)(s + 5)
so = 6.94 + i5.03 K = 18.31
124

Selecting z and p is a trial an error procedure. In general: The ratio zero/pole /p is chosen based on the error constant specification. We pick z and p small to avoid affecting the dominant dynamic of the system (to avoid modifying the part of the locus representing the dominant dynamics) Slow transient due to the small p is almost cancelled by an small z. The ratio zero/pole cannot be very big. The exact position of z and p is a compromise between: Steady state error (we want a large value for z/p) The transient response (we want the pole p placed far from the origin)
125
Root Locus - Compensators

Phase lead compensator:
D( s) = D( s) =
s+z , s+ p s+z , s+ p
z< p z> p
Phase lag compensator:
We will see why we call phase lead and phase lag to these compensators when we study frequency response
126
Frequency Response
We now know how to analyze and design systems via s-domain methods which yield dynamical information
The responses are described b by the e exponential ponential modes The modes are determined by the poles of the response Laplace Transform
We next will look at describing cct performance via frequency response methods This guides us in specifying the system pole and zero positions
127
Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Consider C id a stable t bl t transfer f function f ti with ith a sinusoidal input: A u (t ) = A cos(t ) U ( s ) = 2 s + 2
The Laplace Transform of the response has poles Where the natural modes lie These are in the open left half plane Re(s)<0 At the input modes
s=+j and s=-j
Y ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s ) = K
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) A ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn ) (s 2 + 2 )
Only the response due to the poles on the imaginary axis remains after a sufficiently long time
This is the sinusoidal steady-state response
128

Input
u (t ) = A cos(t + ) = A cos t sin A sin t cos
Transform
U ( s ) = A cos
s + A sin s2 + 2 s2 + 2
Response R Transform T f
k k* k1 k2 kN Y ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s ) = + + + +L+ s j s + j s p1 s p2 s pN
Response Signal
forced response
natural response
jt + k *e jt + k e p1t + k e p2t + L + k e p N t y (t ) = ke 1 4442 1442443 1 44 2444N 44 3 forced response natural response
Sinusoidal Steady State Response
ySS (t ) = ke jt + k *e jt
0
129

Calculating the SSS response to
s j s j
u(t ) = Acos(t + )
Residue calculation k = lim li [(s j )Y (s)] = li lim [(s j )G(s)U (s)]

j cos sin s cos sin = ( ) = lim G( s)(s j ) A G j A s j (s j )(s + j ) 2 j 1 1 = AG( j ) e j = A G( j ) e j ( +G ( j )) 2 2
Signal g calculation
k k* + yss (t ) = L s j s + j = k e jK e jt + k e jK e jt
1
= 2 k cos(t + K )
yss (t ) = A G( j ) cos(t + + G( j ))
130

Response to is
u (t ) = A cos(t + ) yss = G ( j ) A cos(t + + G ( j ))
Output frequency = input frequency Output p amplitude p = input p amplitude p |G(j (j)| Output phase = input phase +G(j) Th The Frequency F Response R of f the h transfer f function f i G(s) G( ) is i given i by its evaluation as a function of a complex variable at s=j
We speak of the amplitude response and of the phase response They cannot independently be varied Bodes relations of analytic function theory
131
Frequency Response
Find the steady state output for v1(t)=Acos(t+)
+ V1(s) _ sL R + V2(s) -
C Compute t the th s-domain d i transfer t f function f ti T(s) T( ) R T s ( ) = Voltage divider sL + R Compute the frequency response
T ( j ) = R R 2 + (L) 2 ,
L T ( j ) = tan 1 R
Compute the steady state output

v2 SS (t ) = AR R 2 + (L) 2
cos t + tan 1(L / R )
]
132
Bode Diagrams
Log-log plot of mag(T), log-linear plot of arg(T) versus
Bode Diagram 0
Magn nitude (dB) ) Magnitude M (dB) Phase e Phas se(deg) (deg)
-5 5
-10
-15
-20
-25 0
-45
-90 10
4
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
133
Frequency Response
u (t ) = A cos(t + )
G( s)
yss = G ( j ) A cos(t + + G ( j ))
Stable Transfer Function
After a transient, the output settles to a sinusoid with an amplitude magnified by G ( j ) and phase shifted by G ( j ) . Since all signals can be represented by sinusoids (Fourier series and transform), the quantities G ( j ) and G ( j ) are extremely important. important Bode developed methods for quickly finding G ( j ) and G ( j ) for a given G ( s ) and for using them in control design. design
134
Frequency Response
+ V1(s) _ sL R + V2(s) -
C Compute t the th s-domain d i transfer t f function f ti T(s) T( ) R T s ( ) = Voltage divider sL + R Compute the frequency response
T ( j ) = R R 2 + (L) 2 ,
L T ( j ) = tan 1 R

v2 SS (t ) = AR R 2 + (L) 2
]
135
Frequency Response - Bode Diagrams

Bode Diagram 0
Magn nitude (dB) ) Magnitude (dB) M Phase e (deg) Phas se (deg)
-5 5
-10
-15
-20
-25 0
-45
-90 10
4
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
[ ] = rad / sec, = 2f , [ f ] = Hz
136
Bode Diagrams
( s z1 )( s z2 )L( s zm ) G (s) = K ( s p1 )( s p2 )L( s pn )
z z z r1z r2z L rm ) i [ K + (1z +2 +L+m (1p +2p +L+np )] G (s) = K p p e p r1 r2 L rn
The magnitude and phase of G(s) when s=j is given by: Nonlinear in the magnitudes
z r1z r2z L rm , G ( j ) = K p p p r1 r2 L rn
z ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) G ( j ) = K + (1z + 2z + L + m
Linear in the phases

137
Bode Diagrams
Why do we express G ( j ) in decibels?
G ( j ) dB = 20 log G ( j )
z r1z r2z L rm G ( j ) = K p p G ( j ) dB = ? p r1 r2 L rn
By properties of the logarithm we can write:
z z ) (20 log r1p + 20 log r2p + L + 20 log rnp ) 20 log G ( s ) = 20 log K + (20 log r1z + 20 log rm + L + 20 log rm
The magnitude and phase of G(s) when s=j is given by: Linear in the magnitudes (dB)
G ( s ) dB = K dB + r1z
z ) (1p + 2p + L + np ) G ( s ) = K + (1z + 2z + L + m
dB
+ r2z
dB
z + L + rm
dB
) (r
1 dB
+ r2p
dB
+ L + rnp
dB
)
138
Linear in the phases

Bode Diagrams
Why do we use a logarithmic scale? Let Lets s have a look at our example:
R R T ( j ) = = T (s) = 2 2 sL L+R R + (L)

Expressing the magnitude in dB:
1 1+ R L
2
T ( j ) dB
L 2 = 20 log1 20 log 1 + = 10 log 1 + R R L

2
Asymptotic behavior:
: T ( j ) dB 20 log
0 : T ( j ) dB 0
R/L
R ( ) = 20 log / 20 log = R L
L dB
20 log
LINEAR FUNCTION in log!!! We plot G ( j ) dB as a function of log.

139
Bode Diagrams
Decade: Any frequency range whose end points have a 10:1 ratio A cutoff frequency occurs when the gain is reduced from its maximum i passband b d value l b by a f factor t 1/ 2 :
1 20 log T MAX = 20 log T MAX 20 log 2 20 log T MAX 3dB 2

Bandwith: frequency range spanned by the gain passband Lets have a look at our example:
= 0 T ( j ) = 2 = R / L L 1+ R 1
T ( j ) = 1 T ( j ) = 1 / 2
This i Thi is a low-pass l fil filter!!! !!! P Passband b d gain= i 1, C Cutoff ff frequency= f R/L The Bandwith is R/L!
140
General Transfer Function (Bode Form)

j j G ( j ) = K o ( j ) ( j + 1) + 2 + 1 n n
2
The magnitude (dB) (phase) is the sum of the magnitudes (dB) (phases) of each one of the terms. We learn how to plot each term, we learn how to plot the whole magnitude and phase Bode Plot. Classes of terms:
123 34-
G ( j ) = K o G ( j ) = ( j )
m n q
G ( j ) = ( j + 1)
2
j j G ( j ) = + 2 + 1 n n
141
General Transfer Function: DC gain

G ( j ) = K o
Magnitude g and Phase:
G ( j) dB = 20 log K o d 0 G ( j ) =
200 180 160
G (s ) = 10
40 35 30
if K o > 0 if K o < 0
140
Magnitude (dB)
Phas se (deg)
25 20 15 10
120 100 80 60 40
5 0 -1 10
0 1 2
20
10
10
10
0 -1 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
10 10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
142
General Transfer Function: Poles/zeros at origin

G ( j ) = ( j )
Magnitude and Phase:
m
G ( j) dB = m 20 log G ( j ) = m
20
1 m = 1, G (s ) = s
2
0
10
G (1) dB = 0
Pha ase (deg)
1 2
-20
Magn nitude (dB)
-40
-10
-60
-20
-30
dB m 20 dec
10
0
-80
-100
-40 -1 10
10
10
-120 -1 10
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Frequency (rad/sec)
143
General Transfer Function: Real poles/zeros

G( j ) = ( j + 1)
n
G ( j) dB = n 10 log( 2 2 + 1) G ( j ) = n tan 1 ( )
0 G ( j ) dB <<1 / G ( j ) dB n >>1 / + n 20 log dB
o G ( j ) 0 <<1 / o G ( j ) n 90 >>1 /
144

10 5 0
n = 1, = 1 / 10
n 3dB dB n 20 dec
Magnitude (d dB)
-5 -10 10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -1 10
G (s ) =
1 s +1 10
G ( j 0) dB = 0dB G ( j1 / ) dB = n 3dB
10
0
10
10
10
G () dB = sgn(n)dB
Frequency q y( (rad/sec) )
145

10 0 -10 -20
n = 1, = 1 / 10 G (s ) = 1 s +1 10
Phase (deg) P )
-30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100 -1 10 10

0
n 45o
G ( j 0) = 0o G ( j1 / ) = n 45o
10
1
10
10
G ( j) = n 90o
Frequency (rad/sec)
146
General Transfer Function: Complex poles/zeros

j j G( j ) = + 2 + 1 n n
2 q
2 2 2 G( j ) dB = q 10 log 2 1 2 + n n 1 2 / n G( j ) = q tan 1 2 / 2 n
G ( j ) dB 0 <<
n
o G ( j ) 0 <<
n
G ( j ) dB 2q n dB + q 40 log g >>
n
o G ( j ) q 180 >>
n
147

20 0 -20 Magnitude ( (dB) -40 40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -1 10
MAX
q 2
q = 1, n = 1, = 0.05
dB
dB q 40 dec
1 G (s ) = 2 s + 0.1s + 1
G ( jn ) dB = q (3dB + G ( j) dB = sgn( (q )dB

10
0
G ( j 0) dB = 0dB
dB
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
10
G ( j ) dB = G ( jr ) dB = q 2 1 2
dB
= r =
n 1 2
148

20 0 -20 -40
q = 1, n = 1, = 0.05 1 G (s ) = 2 s + 0.1s + 1
G ( j 0) = 0o G ( j1 / ) = q 90o G ( j) = q 180o
Phase (deg) P )
-60 60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -180 -200 -2 10 10

-1
q 90o
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
149
Frequency Response
Example:
2000(s + 0.5) G (s ) = s ( s + 10)( s + 50)
150
Frequency Response: Poles/Zeros in the RHP

Same G ( j ) . The effect on G ( j ) is opposite than the stable case. An unstable pole behaves like a stable zero pole An unstable zero behaves like a stable p
Example: p
1 G (s ) = s2
This frequency response cannot be found experimentally but can be computed and used for control design.
151
First order LOW PASS

K T ( s) = s + K T ( j ) = j +
Gain and Phase:

T ( j ) = K
( ) = K tan t 1 ( / )
0 K = o 180
2 + 2
K >0 K <0
152

T ( j ) = K
( ) = K tan 1 ( / )
T ( 0) = K
2 + 2
K T ( 0) T ( j ) = = = c = 2 2 2 2 + K
, T ( ) = 0
Cutoff frequency
T ( j ) <<
T ( j ) >>
= c =
Cutoff frequency
Bandwith
153
B = c

T ( j ) = K
( ) = K tan 1 ( / )
(0) = K ( ) = K tan 1 (1) = K 45o
2 + 2
( ) K <<
o ( ) K 90 >>
154
First Order HIGH PASS

Ks T ( s) = s + Kj T ( j ) = j +
Gain and Phase:

T ( j ) = K
( ) = K + 90o tan t 1 ( / )
0 K = o 180
2 + 2
K >0 K <0
155
First order HIGH PASS

T ( j ) = K
( ) = K + 90o tan 1 ( / )
T (0) = 0, T () = K
2 + 2
K T ( ) = = c = T ( j ) = 2 2 2 2 + T ( j ) K / << T ( j ) K >>
K
Cutoff frequency
= K = c = Cutoff frequency
B=
Bandwith
156
First order HIGH PASS

T ( j ) = K
( ) = K + 90o tan 1 ( / ) (0) = K + 90o ( ) = K + 90o tan 1 (1) = K + 45o

o ( ) K + 90 << o 1 ( ) K + 90 tan ( ) >>
2 + 2
= K
157
First Order BANDPASS

K1s K 2 T ( s ) = T1 ( s ) T2 ( s ) = s + s + 1 2 K1 j K 2 T ( j ) = j + j + 1 2
T ( j ) << <<
1 2
K1 K 2
K1 K 2 T ( j ) = 2 + 2 2 + 2 1 2
K1 K 2
1 2
K1 K 2
T ( j ) << <<
1 2
1 2
K1 K 2
K1 K 2
= cH = 1
2
K1 K 2
T ( j ) << <<
1 2
K1 K 2
= cL = 2
158
B = cL cH = 2 2 Passband
First Order BANDSTOP

K1 K 2 + T ( j ) = 2 + 2 2 + 2 1 2 K2 T ( j ) << <<
2 1
T ( j ) K1 << <<
2 1
K2
2
T ( j ) <
2
= K1
K2
K1
K2
T ( j ) <
1
K1
1 K 2
K1
= 1 2
Bandstop
159
B = 1 2
Second Order BANDPASS
T (s) =
Ks
2 s 2 + 2o s + o
T ( j ) =
Kj 2 2 + 2o j + o
o : :
N t Natural lF Frequency Damping Ratio

160

Kj T ( j ) = T (s) = 2 2 2 2 + 2o j + o s + 2o s + o Ks
K
2 o
T ( j ) = <<
o
= T ( j ) >>
o
2 o
= o
T ( j ) =
K / o K / o T ( j ) = =o MAX 2 o 2 + j o
161

K / o K / o T ( j ) = T ( j ) MAX = =o 2 o 2 + j o
T ( j ) o = 2
o
K / o T ( j ) MAX K / o 2 = T ( j ) = = 2 + j 2 2 2
o The roots of = 2 are the cutoff frequencie s! ! ! o
C1 = o + 1 + 2 C 2
o
( = (+ +
1+ 2
) )
2 o = C1C 2 B = C 2 C1 = 2
Center Frequency Bandwith
162
Second Order LOWPASS
T (s) =
K s + 2o s +
2 2 o
T ( j ) =
K
2 2 + 2o j + o
o : :

163
Second Order LOWPASS

T (s) = K
2 s 2 + 2o s + o
T ( j ) =
K
2 2 + 2o j + o
T ( j ) <<
o
2 o
= T ( 0)
K
= T ( j ) >>
o
2 o
= o
2
K / o T ( 0) T ( jo ) = = 2 2
T ( j ) MAX =
T ( 0) 2 1 2
= MAX = o 1 2
164
Second Order HIGHPASS
Ks 2 K K 2 T (s) = 2 T ( j ) = 2 2 s + 2o s + o 2 + 2o j + o
o : :

165
Second Order HIGHPASS

K 2 T (s) = 2 T ( j ) = 2 2 s + 2o s + o 2 + 2o j + o Ks 2 K 2
T ( j ) <<
o o
2 o
K 2
T ( j ) = K = T () >>
2 o
= K = o
K T ( ) T ( j o ) = = 2 2 T ( j ) MAX = T ( )
2 1
2
= MAX
o = 1 2
166
Frequency Response
u (t ) = A cos(t + )
G( s)
yss = G ( j ) A cos(t + + G ( j ))
Stable Transfer Function
G ( j ) = G ( j ) e jG ( j )
G ( j ) = Re{G ( j )} + j Im{G ( j )}
BODE plots NYQUIST plots
167
Frequency Response
G ( j ) = Re{G ( j )} + j Im{G ( j )} = G ( j ) e jG ( j )
How are the Bode and Nyquist plots related?
They are two way to represent the same information
j Im{G ( j )}
G ( j )
G ( j )
Re{G ( j )}
168
Frequency Response
+ V1(s) _ sL R + V2(s) -
C Compute t the th s-domain d i transfer t f function f ti T(s) T( ) R ( ) = T s Voltage divider sL + R Compute the frequency response
T ( j ) = R R 2 + (L) 2 ,
L T ( j ) = tan 1 R

v2 SS (t ) = AR R 2 + (L) 2
]
169
Frequency Response - Bode Plots

Bode Diagram 0
Magn nitude (dB) ) Magnitude M (dB)
-5 5
-10
-15
10 G ( s) = s + 10 R / L = 10
-20
-25 0
Phase e Phas se(deg) (deg)
-45
-90 10
4
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
[ ] = rad / sec, = 2f , [ f ] = Hz
170
Frequency Response Nyquist Plots

R R R jL R 2 jRL = T ( j ) = = 2 R + jL R + jL R jL R + 2 L2
R 2 + (L) R2 Re{T ( j )} = 2 , R + 2 L2
T ( j ) =
, 2
L T ( j ) = tan t 1 R
Im{T ( j )} =
RL R 2 + 2 L2
1- 0 : T ( j ) 1, 1 2- : T ( j ) 0, 34-
T ( j ) 0
T ( j ) = 1
T ( j ) 90o
T ( j ) j
R 0 L
Re{T ( j )} = 0 =
Im{T ( j )} = 0 = 0, =
171
Frequency Response - Nyquist Plots

Im{G ( j )} vs. Re{G ( j )}
10 G ( s) = s + 10 R / L = 10
172
Nyquist Diagrams
General procedure for sketching Nyquist Diagrams: Find G(j0) Find G(j) Find Fi d * such h that h Re{ R {G(j*)}=0; } 0 Im{ I {G(j*)} is i the h intersection with the imaginary axis. Find * such that Im{G(j*)}=0; } 0; Re{G(j*)} is the intersection with the real axis. Connect the points
173

Example:
1 G(s) = 2 ( ) s s +1
1
2
G ( j ) =
j ( j + 1)
( j )(1 j )2 = 2 + j ( 2 1) 2 2 2 j ( j + 1) ( j )(1 j ) ( 2 + 1)
1
1- 0 : G ( j ) = 2 j 1
1 j 0 2- : G ( j ) 3
34-
Re{G ( j )} = 0 =
Im{G ( j )} = 0 = 1, =
Re{G ( j1)} =
1 2
174

Example:
1 G(s) = 2 ( ) s s +1
175
Nyquist Plots based on Bode Plots

1 G(s) = 2 s(s + 1)
20 dB dec
60
dB dec
90o 180o 270o = 90o
176
Nyquist Stability Criterion

U (s)
+ -
G(s)
Y (s)
When is this transfer function Stable? NYQUIST: The closed loop is asymptotically stable if the number of counterclockwise encirclements of the point ( 1+j0) that the Nyquist curve of G(j) is equal to the (-1+ number of poles of G(s) with positive real parts (unstable poles) Corollary: If the open-loop system G(s) is stable, then the closed-loop system is also stable provided G(s) makes no encirclement of the point (-1+j0).
177

1 G (s) = 4 s + 2 s 3 + 3s 2 + 3 s + 1
G (s) =
1 s 4 + 5 s 3 + 3 s 2 + 3s + 1
178

U (s)
+ -
G(s)
K
Y (s)
When is this transfer function Stable? NYQUIST: The closed loop is asymptotically stable if the number of counterclockwise encirclements of the point ( 1/K+j0) that the Nyquist curve of G(j) is equal to the (-1/K+ number of poles of G(s) with positive real parts (unstable poles)
179
Neutral Stability
U (s)
+ -
KG ( s )
Y (s)
1 G (s) = 2 s(s + 1)
Root locus condition:
KG ( s ) = 1, G ( s ) = 180o
At points of neutral stability RL condition hold for s=j
KG ( j ) = 1, G ( j ) = 180o
Stability: At G ( j ) = 180o
KG ( j ) < 1 If K leads to instability KG ( j ) > 1 If K leads to instability
180
Stability Margins
The GAIN MARGIN (GM) is the factor by which the gain can be raised before instability results.
GM < 1( GM
dB
< 0)
UNSTABLE SYSTEM
GM is equal to 1 / KG ( j ) KG ( j ) dB where G ( j ) = 180o .
at the frequency
The PHASE MARGIN (PM) is the value by which the phase can be raised before instability results.
PM < 0
UNSTABLE SYSTEM
PM is the amount by which the phase of G ( j ) exceeds -180 when KG ( j ) = 1 KG ( j ) dB = 0
181
Stability Margins
G(s) = 1 2 s (s + 1)
1/GM
PM
182
Stability Margins
GM
1 G(s) = 2 s(s + 1)
PM
183
Specifications in the Frequency Domain

1. The crossover frequency c, which determines bandwith BW, rise time tr and settling time ts. 2. The phase margin PM, which determines the damping coefficient and the overshoot Mp. 3. The low-frequency gain, which determines the steady state error characteristics. steady-state characteristics
184

The phase and the magnitude are NOT independent! Bodes Gain-Phase relationship:
dM G ( jo ) = W (u )du du
M = ln G ( j ) W (u ) = ln (coth u / 2 ) u = ln( / o )
185

The crossover frequency:
c BW 2c
186

The Phase Margin: PM vs. Mp
187

The Phase Margin: PM vs.
PM 100
188
Frequency Response Phase Lead Compensators

Ts + 1 D( s) = , Ts + 1
<1
1 sin MAX = 1 + sin MAX 1 1 1 log MAX = log + log T 2 T
189
Frequency Response Phase Lead Compensators

1. Determine the open-loop gain K to satisfy error or bandwidth requirements: - To meet error requirement, pick K to satisfy error constants t t (Kp, Kv, Ka) so that th t ess specification ifi ti i is met. t - To meet bandwidth requirement, pick K so that the open-loop crossover frequency is a factor of two below the desired closed-loop bandwidth. bandwidth 2. Determine the needed phase lead based on the PM specification. 3. Pick MAX to be at the crossover frequency. 4. Determine the zero and pole of the compensator. 5. Draw the compensated frequency response and check PM. 6. Iterate on the design
190
Frequency Response Phase Lag Compensators

Ts + 1 D( s) = , Ts + 1
>1
191
Frequency Response Phase Lag Compensators

1. Determine the open-loop gain K that will meet the PM requirement without compensation. 2 D 2. Draw the th Bode B d plot l t of f the th uncompensated t d system t with ith crossover frequency from step 1 and evaluate the lowfrequency gain. 3. Determine to meet the low frequency gain error requirement. 4. Choose the corner frequency =1/T (the zero of the compensator) to be one decade below the new crossover frequency q y c. 5. The other corner frequency (the pole of the compensator) is then =1/ T. 6. Iterate on the design
192

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Classical Control

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

0.5 r 1/10 u + 10 yol

eol = r yol = 5w r yol w eol [%] = = 500 r r

r = 65, w = 0 eol = 0 r = 65, w = 1 eol = 5mph, eol = 7.69%

OK when: h 1- Plant is known exactly 2- There is no disturbance

0.5 + r 1/10 u + 10 ycl

200 5 = r w 201 201

1 5 ecl = r ycl = r+ w 201 201 r ycl 1 5 w ecl [%] = = + r 201 201 r

1 % = 0.5% 201 1 5 5 r = 65, w = 1 ecl = + = 0.69% 201 201 65 r = 65, w = 0 ecl =

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

&& = lmg sin + Tc ml 2 angular velocity = & && & = = I = ml 2

g Tc g Tc & & & & + sin = 2 sin + = 2 l ml l ml

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

State Variable Representation

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

To work in the linear mode we need FEEDBACK!!!

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

1 1 dvO = vO vI dt R2C R1C

&&m = b &m + T J m dia va + Raia + L +e=0 dt

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

& = win wout m

1 & & & = Ah h = (win wout ) m A

f f & f ( xo , uo ) + x x + u u xo ,uo x xo ,uo f f F ,G x xo ,uo u xo ,uo

Example: Pendulum with friction

k & g & & + + sin = 0 m l

Units of s are sec-1=Hz

If f(t) f( ) is i volts l (amps) ( ) then h F(s) F( ) is i volt-seconds l d (amp-seconds) ( d)

Laplace transform examples

f t<0 0, for u (t ) = 1, for t 0 1 = if > 0 s

Exponential function F (s) = e

Delta (impulse) function (t)

Laplace Transform Pair Tables

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Laplace Transform Properties

Laplace Transform Properties

Initial Value Property:

Final Value Property:

If all poles of F(s) are in the LHP

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Laplace Transform Properties

Convolution: Time product:

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

f (t ) = [2 + 2 sin( 2t ) 2 cos(2t )]u (t )

Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform

s 3 + 36 s + 80 F (s) = s(s + 4 )(s 2 + 16 ) 10 s + 200 F (s) = (s + 40)2

E Exercise: i Find the Laplace transform of the following waveform

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Linear system Differential equation Classical q techniques Response p signal

The diagram commutes

Classical Control Prof. Eugenio Schuster Lehigh University

Solving LTI ODEs via Laplace Transform

Initial Conditions: Recall

bm s m + bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 Y ( s) = n U (s) + s + an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0

For a given rational U(s) we get Y(s)=Q(s)/P(s)

dv(t ) + 6v(t ) = 4u (t ) dt v(0) = 3

Exercise: Find the Laplace transform V(s)

d 2v(t ) dv(t ) 2t 4 3 v ( t ) 5 e + + = dt dt 2 v(0) = 2, v' (0) = 2

5 2 V (s) = (s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3) s + 1

What about v(t) ( )?

Assume all Initial Conditions Zero:

+ an 1s n 1 + L + a1s + a0 )Y ( s ) = (bm 1s m 1 + L + b1s + b0 )U ( s )