Read http://mailer.fsu.edu/~slosh/MethodsGuide2.

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1. Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called continuous variables. * But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language discrete variables.** Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also depends upon the individuals sex, then height is a dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables. Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioural changes, occurring as a result of the environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables. 2. Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an experimental error. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables . 3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term control is used when we design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term control is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions. 4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s). 5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses
* **

A continuous variable is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range. A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps is called a discrete variable.

6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed experimental hypothesis-testing research and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called non-experimental hypothesis-testing research. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated. But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50 students

from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the students performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as treatments. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual studies programme and the special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments. 9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments. 10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully. Formulating the research problem: important component variable There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
* Working hypotheses are a set of suggested tentative solutions of explanations of a research problem which may or may not be the real solutions. The task of research is to test and establish such hypotheses. Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely stated in simple terms, they should be testable, limited in scope and should state relationship between variables. They should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time and should be consistent with most of the known facts (Testing of hypotheses has been dealt with later in the book).

WHERE WE'RE GOING NOWhttp://chrd.edu.vn/site/en/?p=883 In this chapter we'll describe the process of identifying research variables and clarifying the research problem. We will discuss several types of variables that can become part of a research study and ways to integrate these into the statement of a research question or hypothesis in order to lay the foundation for a well-conducted, well-interpreted, and well-reported research study. CHAPTER PREVIEW This chapter will introduce the concept of research variables1. No educational research-whether practical or theoretical-can be conducted without identifying, conceptually developing, and operationally defining or describing in detail the research variables. Much educational research consists of the conceptualization, description, or careful operational definition of educational variables. These descriptions enable educators to develop realistic depictions of persons, programs, and contexts related to education and to analyze and understand more accurately what is happening in various educational settings. While they are useful in their own right, these descriptions also lay a foundation for research that looks at more complex relationships among variables.

1 We are going to use the term variable several times in this chapter before we eventually define it. If this does not bother you (that is, if the meaning is sufficiently obvious from the context), skip the rest of this footnote. A variable is a conceptual entity, an invention based on reality that exists in the minds of people. Variables are so called because they vary (that is, they may take on any of several values; thev are not constants). The present chapter introduces variables studied in several types of educational research. The concepts introduced here will provide a useful foundation for understanding the ideas discussed in subsequent chapters. In addition, since many readers will be conducting research or writing research proposals while reading this book, it is important to enable them to begin identifying and examining research variables and investigating reference materials related to these variables as early as possible in their study of research methodology. All of the concepts introduced in this chapter will be discussed in greater detail and integrated with specific research methodologies in subsequent chapters. To conduct research yourself at any level or to interpret the research of others, it is Important to understand the nature of the variables in research studies. After reading this chapter, you should be able to Identify examples of educational problems and specify the variables that constitute the statement of these problems. Define and give examples of research questions and hypotheses. Define and give examples of (a) quantitative descriptive, (b) qualitative, (c) experimental, (d) correlational, and (e) meta-analytic research studies. Define and give examples of (a) dependent (or outcome or criterion), (b) independent (or treatment or predictor), (c) moderator, (d) control, (e) intervening, and (f) extraneous variables. Combine a set of given variables into a correctly stated hypothesis. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: A USEFUL TOOL As we stated in chapter 1, educational research is a useful tool for both practical and theoretical problem solving. It helps us to identify concepts, contexts, treatments, and outcomes; to make predictions; and to determine the nature of relationships among variables in education. It helps us make generalizations about various aspects of education and to determine the degree of confidence we can have regarding these generalizations. The educational research process begins with the realization that a problem exists. The following are examples of problems related to education: Some of the members of a school board want to eliminate corporal punishment from the school system, but they are concerned that its removal may result in rampant anarchy. Members of a child advocacy group argue that the elimination of corporal punishment will actually improve selfdiscipline among the students. The parents in a school system are aware that AIDS is a serious health risk for their children. They want their children to avoid this disease, but they are also concerned that introducing children to the issues could lead to sexual promiscuity. A teacher needs to know whether his method of discipline, which definitely seems to enhance academic learning, might also be having the unpleasant side effect of promoting negative selfconcepts among his students. Educational research does not in itself solve these problems. It provides a tool that gives hardworking, conscientious educators some of the ammunition they need to successfully attack them. The first step in the educational research process involves identifying and clarifying the problem. Only after we start to know what the problem is can we take steps to solve it. We can identify and clarify research problems by specifying the variables involved in those problems, stating these variables in research questions or hypotheses, and operationally defining these variables or describing them in detail. Often the variables are not easy to identify, and often they resist easy definition. However, only after we have identified and operationally defined the variables or

described them in detail can we sensibly collect data, relate them to one another, and attempt to make generalizations that will help us solve our educational problems. STATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES Research questions ask about the nature of a variable or concept or about the relationship among two or more variables. Research hypotheses state the expected answers to these research questions. Research questions and hypotheses give focus, structure, and organization to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data collected by the person conducting the research. A good researcher (or for that matter, a good thinker) would say that, stated in their present format, all three of the problems cited earlier (page 18) are too vaguely expressed to generate clear solutions. For example, what 'is the real problem in the first description? Is the problem that somebody wants to know whether the removal of corporal punishment could objectively cause an increase in "rampant anarchy" (whatever that means)? Is the problem that somebody doubts that the removal of corporal punishment could objectively cause an increase in "self-discipline" (whatever that means)? Is the problem that somebody wants to know what it will take to placate the child advocacy group? If board members retain corporal punishment, can they withstand the hostile publicity that will be evoked from this group? Or is the problem that the board members simply don't have enough information to make a sensible decision? Maybe they need answers to specific questions, like the following: How often is corporal punishment actually administered in the school system? How does the frequency of corporal punishment in this school system compare with that in the rest of the country? How does the frequency of corporal punishment compare with other forms of punishment? Do students really experience negative effects from corporal punishment? Assuming that there are negative effects, is corporal punishment more likely to cause negative effects than other strategies, such as detention or school suspension) What do teachers do when they give up corporal punishment, Do they become permissive and let students get by with anything) Do they resort to other strategies, which may be more harmful in the long run? Or do they begin to reason together with the students to arrive at solutions to disciplinary problems? The preceding questions are more specific than the original problem. An educational researcher can now begin to offer information that will help solve the problem, because it is now more clear what the problem is. The difference between the original question and these refined questions Is that the latter focus more on specific variables and the relationships among them. RESEARCH VARIABLES A variable is a concept that can assume any one of a range of values. Factor and feature are common English synonyms for variable in the following sentences (outcome is another word that often means variable, but note that not all variables are outcomes): The parents in the school system are aware that AIDS is a factor (variable) that is a serious health risk for their children. The teacher needs to know what features (variables) of his method of discipline might promote negative self-concepts among his students. The teacher needs to know whether his method of discipline might promote negative outcomes (variables) among his students. A variable varies in the sense that it can take on different values or conditions. It is a characteristic that can be the focus of a research study. The definition of the term variable makes the concept seem more difficult than it really is. This is because it is a definition of an abstraction; and definitions of abstractions sometimes become -very abstract (for example, it's easy to exist, but it's difficult to define existence). Therefore, it may be useful to look at some examples. In the set of examples we started examining on page 18, corporal punishment is a variable. More specifically, whether corporal punishment is permitted is a variable. It can vary by either being permitted or not being permitted.

The frequency of corporal punishment could also be a variable. It can vary from, say, not happening at all to happening once a day to happening several times a day. If a researcher wondered whether corporal punishment might cause more anxiety than suspension from school, then corporal punishment, anxiety, and suspension from school could all become variables for this researcher to study. If the researcher focused attention on any other factor, such as child abuse, self-discipline, religious beliefs, gender of the students or teachers, or ethnic background, these could become variables in a research study, or even merely in a thought process. Variables are developed theoretically and abstractly in the mind of the researcher. The researcher draws on previous experience and theoretical knowledge to identify and specify variables, which serve as unifying factors to help organize the research process. All human thinking employs concepts, which are called variables when we focus attention on them, measure them, or deal with them in some other way as part of the research process. (The ways researchers define and measure variables will be the subject of later chapters.) The next section of this chapter discusses the basic categories of studies that examine variables of interest to educators. TYPES OF RESEARCH STUDIES The following sections describe several basic categories of research studies that serve useful purposes in education. These descriptions should enable you to see what kinds of studies are possible and begin to identify research variables. These categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, the first category is called descriptive research, but actually all research is descriptive. At this point in the book, we are not going to worry about the degree of overlap among these categories. As Table 2.1 shows, strategies for conducting each type of research are covered in later chapters. We will wait until the distinctions among the types of research have practical significance before making those distinctions. Table 2.1 Types of Educational Research Studies See table on the above given site Kinds of variable In almost every educational research study, the researcher is interested in measuring an outcome. (The researcher may also be interested in other variables, but these will be discussed later in this chapter.) Outcome variables are concepts or characteristics of end results or products that can occur in educational settings. They are the results the characteristics or events that teachers and other educators may wish to encourage or discourage in educational settings. In the first revised hypothesis of the corporal punishment problem, anarchy is the out come upon which the question focuses. In the second example, the outcome variable is self-discipline. In the third example, the outcome is the degree to which the board can withstand the hostility of the advocacy group. Try it yourself: What are the outcome variables in statements (a) through (d) of the fourth example on page 19? MODERATOR VARIABLES Moderator variables are characteristics that influence (moderate) the impact of the independent or treatment variable upon the dependent or criterion variable. Moderator variables appear only in studies that include independent and dependent variables usually experimental studies. In the following hypothesis, for example, the sex of the child is a moderator variable: The use of popular music will increase the appreciation of poetry among elementary school children. This impact will be greater among girls than among boys. In this example, the use of popular music is the independent variable and appreciation of poetry is the dependent variable. The sex of the child is a moderator variable because the statement indicates that this factor influences the degree to which the independent variable will influence the dependent variable: if the child is a girl, popular music will tend to have one impact with regard to the appreciation of poetry; whereas if the child is a boy, the same independent variable will tend to have a different impact.

In the preceding example, the sex of the child was merely one of many variables that could have been chosen as moderator variables. The following are two other variations of the same hypothesis, with a different moderator variable inserted in each case: The use of popular music will increase the appreciation of poetry among elementary school children. This impact will be greater among older children than among younger children. The use of popular music will increase the appreciation of poetry among elementary school children. This impact will be greater when the teacher is of the same sex as the child than when the teacher is of the opposite sex. You can easily see the advantage of using such moderator variables. The researcher (or reader) can discover not only whether the treatment has had the desired impact but also under what circumstances or contexts this impact is likely to vary. This is extremely useful information for helping us generalize the results to other situations, as well as for helping us selectively apply results to specific types of learners within a given educational setting. The following are restatements of the first two hypotheses in Review Quiz 2.1. Moderator variables have been added to each hypothesis. To avoid stereotyped language and to show a fuller range of how moderator variables can be introduced into research studies, the wording has been varied in each hypothesis. Studying Shakespeare leads to an increased appreciation of Western culture among collegebound students but not among non-collegebound students. Behavior modification will reduce creative behavior among elementary school children in middleclass schools but will increase creative behavior in lower-middle-class schools. Now you try to identify the moderator variables in the following hypotheses, again adapted from Review Quiz 2.1: Programming in Logo will cause substantial improvements in higher-order thinking skills among slow readers who are not classified as having learning disabilities. However, no such improvements will occur among slow readers who are classified as having learning disabilities. Delaying reading instruction until the sixth grade will have no adverse impact on reading ability by the time the child reaches adolescence. This absence of impact will be equally true among low-IQ, medium-IQ, and high-IQ students. Elementary school classrooms that emphasize a language-rich environment will have students who are more eager to share their opinions with their peers. However, in middle school classrooms, language-rich environments will have no such impact. The moderator variables in the preceding hypotheses are as follows: collegebound vs. non-collegebound students social class of the schools being classified as having learning disabilities versus not being classified as having learning disabilities IQ OF STUDENTS grade level of classroom (elementary versus middle school) In each of these examples the original hypothesis has been enriched by the addition of the moderator variable. In each case the moderator variable is a factor that could influence the impact of the independent variable upon the dependent variable. For each example, other factors could have been selected as moderator variables; the actual moderator variables selected in any study depend on what the researcher is interested in learning about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. CONTROL VARIABLES Control variables are characteristics that are controlled by the experimenter to reduce any impact they might otherwise have on other variables or on the interpretation of the results of a study. They control extraneous variables (which are discussed later in this chapter). This control can be attained through any of the following methods: Isolation and elimination. For example, a researcher can control the extraneous effect of intelligence by including only students of average intelligence in the study-excluding low-performing or gifted students. This is an effective strategy described further in the present chapter.

Precise description of the context, treatment, or subjects. A detailed, accurate, and unambiguous description enables persons applying the research findings to make a valid judgment regarding the degree to which the results of a particular study can be generalized to other settings. This is an effective strategy covered in chapters 9 and 15. Equating across groups. This method is often used in experimental studies. For example, a researcher can control the extraneous effect of intelligence by randomly assigning subjects to the experimental and control groups, thereby making them similar with regard to intelligence (and many other variables). This is an effective strategy described in chapter 11. In any research study, the researcher can select and describe control variables to help define the limitations on how far the results of the study can be generalized. Furthermore, in experimental studies, the researcher may select control variables because these factors may otherwise influence the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable. such extraneous influences would make it difficult to determine the precise nature of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Therefore, the researcher controls these extraneous factors to balance or reduce their influence in a particular study. Let us examine two of the sample hypotheses that we have been following throughout this chapter, and this time we shall add control variables: Among high school seniors, studying Shakespeare leads to a greater appreciation of Western culture. Behavior modification leads to noncreative behavior among elementary school children in the public schools of Gotham City. In the first hypothesis, "high school seniors" has been added as a control variable. It is possible that the effect of studying Shakespeare would be different for students of different ages; therefore, the grade level of the students might influence how they would respond to Shakespeare. Thus the researcher has decided to include only high school seniors in the research study. This constraint rules out the extraneous factor, but of course it also restricts the generalizations to those made about high school seniors only. The logic goes like this: Students In the experimental group (who studied Shakespeare) were measured as displaying greater appreciation of Western culture than the students in the control group (who did not study Shakespeare). Since there were only high school seniors in both groups, differences in appreciation of Shakespeare could not possibly have arisen from basic differences between juniors and seniors. Therefore, the influence of grade level (seniors versus juniors) has been controlled; but generalizations from the experiment have also been restricted to those made about high school seniors only. In the second hypothesis, there are three control variables: grade level of children (elementary rather than secondary or middle school), type of school (public rather than private), and location (Gotham City). In the preceding examples we added control variables to the original hypotheses before they were enriched by the addition of moderator variables. It is possible (and often desirable) to have both control variables and moderator variables within the same research study. Each of the following examples contains independent, dependent, moderator, and control variables. The moderator variables are indicated by italics, the control variables by boldface. 3. Among children between the ages of 9 and 11, programming In Logo will cause substantial improvements in higher-order thinking skills among slow readers who are not classified as having learning disabilities. However, no such improvements will occur among 9- to 11-yearold slow readers who are classified as having learning disabilities. 4. Among children who have no external pressure from their parents to learn to read, delaying reading instruction until the sixth grade will have no adverse impact on reading ability by the time the children reach adolescence. This will be equally true among low-IQ, medium-IQ, and high-IQ students. 5. In middle-class schools, elementary school classrooms that emphasize a language-rich environment will have students who are more eager to share their opinions with their peers.

However, in middle school -classrooms in similar schools, language-rich environments will have no such impact. In the third hypothesis, there are two control variables: age of child (9 to 11 years old) and level of reading ability (slow readers are included, but average and fast readers are excluded). There are no 8 year-olds or above-average readers in the study that tests this research hypothesis. The factors of age and level of ability are ruled out as contaminating factors, but the researcher can no longer generalize to students who fall beyond the restrictions set by these control variables. You have probably noticed that there is considerable similarity between moderator and control variables. This similarity is a result of both types taking into account factors that may influence the impact of the independent variable upon the dependent variable. The distinction is that moderator variables control this extraneous influence and examine it in such a way as to describe its precise impact. Control variables, on the other hand, merely reduce or describe this extraneous influence without providing any information about its relationship to the independent and dependent variables. Thus, while moderator variables have the potential to restrict, refine, and elaborate generalizations, the role of the control variable is usually confined to merely restricting generalizations. Because of the similarity stated in the preceding paragraph, any variable that can be used as a moderator variable in an experimental study can also be used as a control variable, and vice versa. A sensible strategy is to identify as many extraneous variables as possible that might influence the impact of the treatment on the dependent variable; then, some of these can be made into moderator variables and some into control variables, and some can be left uncontrolled. At first thought, it might appear that since the moderator variable does everything the control variable does and more, then we should use the moderator variable as often as possible. This would be good advice, except for an important practical consideration. It is often difficult to obtain the number or variety of subjects that is needed for analyzing a factor as a moderator variable. In addition, having a large number of moderator variables can make a study cumbersome. Similarly, it might at first seem that no extraneous factor should be left uncontrolled. Again, however, there is a problem of feasibility. There are so many factors that could influence the impact of the treatment on the outcome that it is not possible to isolate and control all of them. This discussion of control variables has focused on their use in experimental studies. This focus has been useful to point out their relationship to moderator variables. However, control variables are also important in descriptive research. For example, notice the impact of the control variables italicized in the following research questions and hypotheses: Fifth graders in the public schools of Oregon do better in reading than in mathematics. A survey of American businessmen showed that they would support higher taxes if they could be assured that the quality of education would actually improve. The principals who responded to the survey indicated strong opposition to corporal punishment. The students in the experimental school that used a whole-language approach showed a strong tendency to want to share their opinions with their peers. Each of the italicized control variables shows the limitations imposed by the context of the study that will restrict the degree to which the results of each of these descriptive studies can be generalized. If you noticed that many of these control variables were too vague to be of much use, you're right. The usefulness of these control variables would improve with operational definitions (the topic of chapter 4) or qualitative description (the topic of chapter 9). INTERVENING VARIABLES Intervening variables are hypothetical concepts assumed to be created by the treatment and to have an impact on the observable outcome. Treatments produce intervening variables (which are invisible, perhaps inside the brain of the learner), and intervening variables then produce observable outcomes. This variable intervenes in the sense that the treatment does not produce the observable outcome directly but rather through the mediation (intervention) of this invisible, conceptual, hypothetical, internalized process. The intervening variable is the basic subject matter of theoretical research (discussed in chapter 17).

To take a brief example, a researcher might find that computer simulations cause students to do well on science tests. In fact, the computer simulations themselves probably do not cause the improved performance on the tests. The simulations probably induce some internal change within the students (such as improved motivation, greater attention to the task, perceived relevance, or something else), and this internal change is what eventually leads to the difference in performance. Determining and examining intervening variables helps us understand educational principles better. In addition, such variables can be useful for practical reasons: we may be able to find less expensive ways to bring about these intervening variables than, for example, relatively expensive computer simulations. In the following examples the hypothesis is stated (without the moderator variables or control variables), and then a possible intervening variable is stated in parentheses: Studying Shakespeare leads to a greater appreciation of Western culture. (perception of important similarities within Elizabethan and contemporary Western culture. Behavior modification leads to noncreative behavior among elementary school children. (an urge to conform in order to be reinforced as efficiently as possible) Now you try it. Identify possible intervening variables for the following hypotheses: Because Logo offers opportunities for improved planning ability arising out of the involvement in microworlds, programming in Logo will cause improvements in higher-order thinking. Delaying reading instruction until the sixth grade will have no adverse impact on reading ability by the time the child reaches adolescence. Language-rich environments will make children more eager to share their opinions with their peers. Here are possible intervening variables for the preceding hypotheses: Background information that makes it easier to understand aspects of Western culture A tendency to refrain from doing things that do not gain extrinsic reinforcement Improved planning ability arising out of the involvement in microworlds offered by the programming language Self-motivation, which replaces external requirements In this case, none is stated. A reader or researcher could construct one through such processes as reasoning about the evidence arising from the study and reflecting on theoretical information from the research literature. Through such reasoning, stimulation of language and social processes might emerge as the intervening variable. In these examples, the intervening variable has been appended to the barest possible statement of the hypothesis. This has been done for the sake of simplicity. In actual practice, the moderator variable should take into account all the variables in the research hypothesis. Unlike the other variables, the intervening variable is usually not stated as part of the hypothesis. Rather, it is stated at the culmination of the review of the literature (prior to- the hypothesis) as the specific rationale behind why the hypothesis is going to be stated in the form it will take. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES An extraneous variable is a factor that produces an uncontrolled, unpredictable impact upon the dependent variable. Extraneous variables weaken research studies because they introduce ambiguity into the research process. To the extent that they are uncontrolled, they render uncertain the conclusions we can draw from a study. The threats to internal and external validity, discussed in chapters 10 and 1S, are extraneous variables, and the whole purpose of the strategies discussed in those chapters is to minimize the impact of such extraneous variables. To the extent that extraneous variables can be brought under control, the results of a study are strengthened. One good reason for replicating research (discussed later in this chapter) is to reduce the possibility that conclusions will be weakened by extraneous factors. Table 2.5 Summary of Research Variables SUMMARY The first step in the educational research process involves identifying and clarifying the problem. We can begin to do this by specifying the variables involved in that problem and stating these variables in unambiguous research questions or hypotheses. Research questions ask about the nature of a variable or concept or about the relationship among two or more variables. Research hypotheses

state the expected answers to these research questions. Research questions and hypotheses give focus, structure, and organization to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data collected by -.he person conducting the research and also help develop theory with regard to the variables in the study. In many educational research studies, the researcher is interested in measuring or describing an outcome. Descriptive studies focus on the measurement, description, and interpretation of context and outcome variables. In experimental studies, the researcher is interested not only in the outcome (dependent) variable but also in the causal nature of relationships among variables. In experimental studies the outcomes are referred to as the dependent or criterion variables and the treatment as the independent variable. Correlational studies also enable the researcher to examine relationships among variables. However, in this case the researcher merely describes the nature of the relationships, without making statements about whether one variable may have caused another. Moderator variables are factors that influence the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Control variables describe extraneous factors and provide a means to help reduce the impact of extraneous factors on a study. In all studies, control variables help determine the degree to which results can be generalized, and in many studies they enable the researcher or reader to understand better the nature of the relationship between the other variables in the study. Intervening variables are hypothetical concepts that mediate between the independent and the dependent variables. By clearly understanding and identifying these variables, researchers can strengthen the quality of their work. In addition, a thorough understanding of these variables and their interactions will enable consumers of research to make more effective use of research that is performed by others and then communicated to us in some fashion.

VARIABLES AND TYPES OF VARIABLES Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is a concept that varies. There are two types of concepts: those that refer to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary in quantity, intensity, or amount (e.g. amount of education). The second type of concept and measures of the concept are variables. A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more values. Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually magnitude or strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume different numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see variables everywhere. For example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female. Marital status is a variable; it can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed. Family income is a variable; it can take on values from zero to billions of Rupees. A person's attitude toward women empowerment is variable; it can range from highly favorable to highly unfavorable. In this way the variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type; the examples can be production units, absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation, grade, and age. A variable may be situation specific; for example gender is a variable but if in a particular situation like a class of Research Methods if there are only female students, then in this situation gender will not be considered as a variable. Types of Variable 1. Continuous and Discontinuous variables Variables have different properties and to these properties we assign numerical values. If the values of a

variable can be divided into fractions then we call it a continuous variable. Such a variable can take infinite number of values. Income, temperature, age, or a test score are examples of continuous variables. These variables may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions, is a discontinuous variable. Such a variable is also called as categorical variable or classificatory variable, or discrete variable. Some variables have only two values, reflecting the presence or absence of a property: employed-unemployed or male-female have two values. These variables are referred to as dichotomous. There are others that can take added categories such as the demographic variables of race, religion. All such variables that produce data that fit into categories are said to be discrete/categorical/classificatory, since only certain values are possible. An automotive variable, for example, where "Chevrolet" is assigned a 5 and "Honda" is assigned a 6, provides no option for a 5.5 (i.e. the values cannot be divided into fractions). 2. Dependent and Independent Variables Researchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then search for its causes. The cause variable, or the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something else, is the independent variable. The variable that is the effect or is the result or outcome of another variable is the dependent variable (also referred to as outcome variable or effect variable). The independent variable is "independent of" prior causes that act on it, whereas the dependent variable "depends on" the cause. It is not always easy to determine whether a variable is independent or dependent. Two questions help to identify the independent variable. First, does it come before other variable in time? Second, if the variables occur at the same time, does the researcher suggest that one variable has an impact on another variable? Independent variables affect or have an impact on other variables. When independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable. Dependent variable is also referred to as criterion variable. In statistical analysis a variable is identified by the symbol (X) for independent variable and by the symbol (Y) for the dependent variable. In the research vocabulary different labels have been associated with the independent and dependent variables like: Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence on the stock market price of a company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to be, the higher will be the stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the New product is the independent variable, and stock market price the dependent variable. The degree of perceived success of the new product developed will explain the variance in the stock market price of the company. It is important to remember that there are no preordained variables waiting to be discovered "out there" that are automatically assigned to be independent or dependent. It is in fact the product of the researcher's imagination demonstrated convincingly. 3. Moderating Variables A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.

For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality of library facilities (X) and the performance of the students (Y). Although this relationship is supposed to be true generally, it is nevertheless contingent on the interest and inclination of the students. It means that only those students who have the interest and inclination to use the library will show improved performance in their studies. In this relationship interest and inclination is moderating variable i.e. which moderates the strength of the association between X and Y variables. 4. Intervening Variables A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable. A third type of variable, the intervening variable, appears in more complex causal relationships. It comes between the independent and dependent variables and shows the link or mechanism between them. Advances in knowledge depend not only on documenting cause and effect relationship but also on specifying the mechanisms that account for the causal relation. In a sense, the intervening variable acts as a dependent variable with respect to independent variable and acts as an independent variable toward the dependent variable. A theory of suicide states that married people are less likely to commit suicide than single people. The assumption is that married people have greater social integration (e.g. feelings of belonging to a group or family). Hence a major cause of one type of suicide was that people lacked a sense of belonging to group (family). Thus this theory can be restated as a three-variable relationship: marital status (independent variable) causes the degree of social integration (intervening variable), which affects suicide (dependent variable). Specifying the chain of causality makes the linkages in theory clearer and helps a researcher test complex relationships. Look at another finding that five-day work week results in higher productivity. What is the process of moving from the independent variable to the dependent variable? What exactly is that factor which theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen? Its effects must be inferred from the effects of independent variable on the dependent variable. In this work-week hypothesis, one might view the intervening variable to be the job satisfaction. To rephrase the statement it could be: the introduction of five-day work week (IV) will increase job satisfaction (IVV), which will lead to higher productivity (DV). 5. Extraneous Variables An almost infinite number of extraneous variables (EV) exist that might conceivably affect a given relationship. Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables, but most must either be assumed or excluded from the study. Such variables have to be identified by the researcher. In order to identify the true relationship between the independent and the dependent variable, the effect of the extraneous variables may have to be controlled. This is necessary if we are conducting an experiment where the effect of the confounding factors has to be controlled. Confounding factors is another name used for extraneous variables. Relationship among Variables Once the variables relevant to the topic of research have been identified, then the researcher is interested in the relationship among them. A statement containing the variable is called a proposition. It may contain one or more than one variable. The proposition having one variable in it may be called as univariate proposition, those with two variables as bivariate proposition, and then of course multivariate containing three or more variables. Prior to the formulation of a proposition the researcher has to

develop strong logical arguments which could help in establishing the relationship. For example, age at marriage and education are the two variables that could lead to a proposition: the higher the education, the higher the age at marriage. What could be the logic to reach this conclusion? All relationships have to be explained with strong logical arguments. If the relationship refers to an observable reality, then the proposition can be put to test, and any testable proposition is hypothesis

Each person/thing we collect data on is called an OBSERVATION (in our work these are usually people/subjects. Currently, the term participant rather than subject is used when describing the people from whom we collect data). OBSERVATIONS (participants) possess a variety of CHARACTERISTICS. If a CHARACTERISTIC of an OBSERVATION (participant) is the same for every member of the group (doesn't vary) it is called a CONSTANT. If a CHARACTERISTIC of an OBSERVATION (participant) differs for group members it is called a VARIABLE. In research we don't get excited about CONSTANTS (since everyone is the same on that characteristic); we're more interested in VARIABLES. Variables can be classified as QUANTITATIVE or QUALITATIVE (also known as CATEGORICAL). QUANTITATIVE variables are ones that exist along a continuum that runs from low to high. Ordinal, interval, and ratio variables are quantitative. QUANTITATIVE variables are sometimes called CONTINUOUS VARIABLES because they have a variety (continuum) of characteristics. Height in inches and scores on a test would be examples of quantitative variables. QUALITATIVE variables do not express differences in amount, only differences. They are sometimes referred to as CATEGORICAL variables because they classify by categories. Nominalvariables such as gender, religion, or eye color are CATEGORICAL variables. Generally speaking, categorical variables

Categorical variables are groups...such as gender or type of degree sought. Quantitative variables are numbers that have a range...like weight in pounds or baskets made during a ball game. When we analyze data we do turn the categorical variables into numbers but only for identification purposes...e.g. 1 = male and 2 = female. Just because 2 = female does not mean that females are better than males who are only 1. With quantitative data having a higher number means you have more of something. So higher values have meaning. A special case of a CATEGORICAL variable is a DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLE. DICHOTOMOUS variables have only two CHARACTERISTICS (male or female). When naming QUALITATIVE variables, it is important to name the category rather than the levels (i.e., gender is the variable name, not male and female).

Variables have different purposes or roles... Independent (Experimental, Manipulated, Treatment, Grouping) Variable- That factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. "In a research study, independent variables are antecedent conditions that are presumed to affect a dependent variable. They are either manipulated by the researcher or are observed by the researcher so that their values can be related to that of the dependent variable. For example, in a research study on the relationship between mosquitoes and mosquito bites, the number of mosquitoes per acre of ground would be an independent variable" (Jaeger, 1990, p. 373) While the independent variable is often manipulated by the researcher, it can also be a classification where subjects are assigned to groups. In a study where one variable causes the other, the independent variable is the cause. In a study where groups are being compared, the independent variable is the group classification. Dependent (Outcome) Variable-That factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable, i.e., that factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the experimenter introduces, removes, or varies the independent variable. "In a research study, the independent variable defines a principal focus of research interest. It is the consequent variable that is presumably affected by one or more independent variables that are either manipulated by the researcher or observed by the researcher and regarded as antecedent conditions that determine the value of the dependent variable. For example, in a study of the relationship between mosquitoes and mosquito bites, the number of mosquito bites per hour would be the dependent variable" (Jaeger, 1990, p. 370)The dependent variable is the participant's response. The dependent variable is the outcome. In an experiment, it may be what was caused or what changed as a result of the study. In a comparison of groups, it is what they differ on. Moderator Variable- That factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomenon. It is a special type of independent variable. The independent variable's relationship with the dependent variable may change under different conditions. That condition is the moderator variable. In a study of two methods of teaching reading, one of the methods of teaching reading may work better with boys than girls. Method of teaching reading is the independent variable and reading achievement is the dependent variable. Gender is the moderator variable because it moderates or changes the relationship between the independent variable (teaching method) and the dependent variable (reading achievement). Suppose we do a study of reading achievement where we compare whole language with phonics, and we also include students social economic status (SES) as a variable. The students are randomly assigned to either whole language instruction or phonics instruction. There are students of high and low SES in each group. Lets assume that we found that whole language instruction worked better than phonics instruction with the high SES students, but phonics instruction worked better than whole language instruction with the low SES students. Later you will learn in statistics that this is an interaction effect. In this study, language instruction was the independent variable (with two levels: phonics and whole language). SES was the moderator variable (with two levels: high and low). Reading achievement was the dependent variable (measured on a continuous scale so there arent levels). With a moderator variable, we find the type of instruction did make a difference, but it worked differently for the two groups on the moderator variable. We select this moderator variable because we think it is a variable that will moderate the effect of the independent on the dependent. We make this decision before we start the study. If the moderator had not been in the study above, we would have said that there was no difference in reading achievement between the two types of reading instruction. This would have happened because the average of the high and low scores of each SES group within a reading instruction group would cancel each other an produce what appears to be average reading achievement in each instruction group (i.e., Phonics: Low6 and High2; Whole Language: Low2 and High6;

Phonics has an average of 4 and Whole Language has an average of 4. If we just look at the averages (without regard to the moderator), it appears that the instruction types produced similar results). Here are some examples similar to your homework: Null Hypothesis: Students who receive pizza coupons as a reward do not read more books than students who do not receive pizza coupon rewards. Independent Variable: Reward Status Dependent Variable: Number of Books Read High achieving students do not perform better than low achieving student when writing stories regardless of whether they use paper and pencil or a word processor. Independent Variable: Instrument Used for Writing Moderator Variable: Ability Level of the Students Dependent Variable: Quality of Stories Written When we are comparing two groups, the groups are the independent variable. When we are testing whether something influences something else, the influence (cause) is the independent variable. The independent variable is also the one we manipulate. For example, consider the hypothesis "Teachers given higher pay will have more positive attitudes toward children than teachers given lower pay." One approach is to ask ourselves "Are there two or more groups being compared?" The answer is "Yes." "What are the groups?" Teachers who are given higher pay and teachers who are given lower pay. Therefore, the independent variable is teacher pay (it has two levels-- high pay and low pay). The dependent variable (what the groups differ on) is attitude towards school. We could also approach this another way. "Is something causing something else?" The answer is "Yes." "What is causing what?" Teacher pay is causing attitude towards school. Therefore, teacher pay is the independent variable (cause) and attitude towards school is the dependent variable (outcome).

The independent variable:

It is the factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. It is a stimulus variable or input operates within a person or within his environment to effect behavior. Independent variable may be called factor and its variation is called levels.

The dependent variable:

The dependent variable is a response variable or output. The dependent variable is the factor that is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable; it is the factor that appears, disappears, or varies as the researcher introduces, removes, or varies the independent variables.

Moderate variable:
It is the factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomenon. The term

moderate variable describes a special type of independent variable, a secondary independent variable selected to determine if it affects the relationship between the studys primary independent variable and its dependent variable.

Control variable:
Control variables are factors controlled by the experimenter to cancel out or neutralized any effect they might otherwise on the observed phenomena. A single study can not examine all of the variables in a situation (situational variable) or in a person (dispositional variable); some must be neutralized to guarantee that they will not exert differential or moderating effects on the relationship between the independent variables and dependent variables.

Intervening variable:
An intervening variable is the factor that theoretically effects observed phenomena but can not be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effects must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderate variable on the observed phenomena. Consider the hypothesis Among students of the same age and intelligence, skill performance is directly related to the number of practice trials, the relationship being particularly strong among boys, but also holding, though less directly, among girls. this hypothesis that indicates that practice increases learning, involve several variables. Independent variable: Dependent variable: Control variable: Moderate variable: Intervening variable: number of practice trail skill performance age, intelligence gender learning

Causes
Independent Variables

relationship

effects

Moderate variables

Intervening variables

Dependent variables

Control variables

Variables A variable is any entity that can take on different values

 Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical. The variable 'gender' consists of two text values: 'male' and 'female Types of variables 1.Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Variables 2.Discrete Vs. Continuous Variables 3.Dichotomous Vs. Polychotomous Variables 4.Independent Vs. Dependent Vs. Intervening Vs. Extraneous Variable 5.Stimulus Vs. Response Variable 6.Active Vs. Attribute Variable Role of Variable in Research i. Helps to find out the solutions ii.Helps to find out the relationships iii.Helps to initiate new theories iv.Helps to modify the theories v.Helps to give a direction for the research
T. Neville Postlethwaite 2005Educational research: some basic concepts and

Quantitative research methods in educational planning . UNESCO International Institute for

terminology, Module

Educational Planning
Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. (1989). Educational research: An introduction. New York: Longman.. Hopkins, C. D. & Antes, R. L. (1990). Classroom measurement and evaluation (3rd ed.). Itasca, Illinois: Peacock. Oppenheim, A.N. (1992). Questionnaire design, interviewing attitude measurement. London: Pinter. Keeves, J.P. (1988). Educational research, methodology, and measurement: An international handbook. Oxford: Pergamon.