ASSIGNMENT ON

ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
BY

BAYODE EMMANUEL OZOVEHE S03/08/SG/521

QUESTIONS 1a EXPLAIN NATURAL THE PROCESSES AND OF EVOLUTION, DIFFERENTIAL SELECTION,

REPRODUCTION. 1b DISCUSS SURVIVORSHIP CURVE, FERTILITY RATE AND ITS IMPORTANCE 2a DEFINE SYSTEM, OPEN SYSTEM, AND CYBERNATING SYSTEM 2b IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SYSTEM, SUBSYSTEM, AND SUPER SYSTEM LECTURER IN CHARGE TPL SOGBON O.

JULY, 2013
1a. EXPLAIN THE PROCESSES OF EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION, AND DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION.
Evolution and Natural Selection Nature encourages no looseness, pardons no errors - Ralph Waldo Emerson. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selection. - Charles Darwin, the Origin of Species. The theory of evolution is one of the great intellectual revolutions of human history, drastically changing our perception of the world and of our place in it. Charles Darwin put forth a coherent theory of evolution and amassed a great body of evidence in support of this theory. Evolution is a theory that explains the origin and development of life on earth. Organisms change over time and can develop into new organisms through the process of evolution. Evidence for evolution is found in the fossil record, and is supported by observations of the following processes: natural selection, genetic variation, mutation and sexual selection. Natural selection: The process in nature that causes evolution through differential reproductive success among members of a population; that success depends on genetically based and heritable variation in characteristics that confer relative advantage or disadvantage to the bearer. Natural selection is based on the concept of survival of the fittest. This means that those individuals who are the best suited to their environment will survive to reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation. Those who are less suited to their environment will die without passing on their genes. Over time, certain genes survive and other genes are weeded out of the population. This is an ongoing process; there is no end to natural selection. Plants and animals alive today are still subject to natural selection. Thus it is important to remember that: Natural selection = survival of the fittest of the population. DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION 2

This is an evidence for Natural Selection. It is a concept in evolutionary genetics. It happens when individuals with some type of genes have more offspring compared to others. It is a prime characteristic of natural selection. It is a progressive evolution of certain species populations. These changes make the population to be sufficeintly and effectively.

1b
i

DISCUSS SURVIVORSHIP CURVE, FERTILITY RATE AND ITS

Survivorship Curve

IMPORTANCE
A survivorship curve is a graph showing the number or proportion of individuals surviving at each age for a given species or group (e.g. males/females). Survivorship curves can be constructed for a given cohort (a group of individuals of roughly the same age) based on a life table. There are three generalized types of survivorship curve, which are simply referred to as Type I, Type II and Type III curves. In ii mathematical statistics, the survival function is one specific form of survivorship curve and plays a basic part in survival analysis. FERTILITY RATE The ratio of live births in an area to the population of that area; expressed per 1000 population per year. Births per 1000 women, categorized according to a specific composition of mothers in the population. The total fertility rate (TFR), sometimes also called the fertility rate, period total fertility rate (PTFR) or total period fertility rate (TPFR) of a population is the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime if she were to experience the exact current age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) through her lifetime, and she were to survive from birth through the end of her reproductive life. It is obtained by summing the single-year age-specific rates at a given time. iii FERTILITY RATE IMPORTANCE 3

This phenomenon carries forward for several generations and is called population momentum or population-lag effect. This time-lag effect is of great importance to the growth rates of human populations.

2a

DEFINE

SYSTEM,

OPEN

SYSTEM,

AND

CYBERNATING

SYSTEM
Definition of a system The term system may be defined as an orderly arrangement of a set of interrelated and interdependent elements that operate collectively to accomplish some common purpose or goal. For example Human body is a system, consisting of connecting networks of blood vessels and nerves and the system has a main goal of living. It is in common parlance. People talk of transport system, educational system, solar system and many others. System concepts provide a framework for many organizational phenomenon including features of information system. Thus, a system can be described by specifying its parts, the way in which they are related, and the goals which they are expected to achieve. OPEN SYSTEM An open system is a system that regularly exchanges feedback with its external environment. Open systems are systems, of course, so inputs, processes, outputs, goals, assessment and evaluation, and learning are all important. CYBERNETIC SYSTEM Broadly speaking, the control of any physical process with electronic signals is an application of cybernetics. In this sense, computer networks are the cybernetic control system of the domestic infrastructure.

2b IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SYSTEM, SUBSYSTEM, AND SUPER SYSTEM

PAST
SUPER-SYSTEM Home surgery or elixirs Yes or no admission and coverage SYSTEM General population No screening for coverage SUB-SYSTEM General non-specific treatment First come, first served

PRESENT
The Surgical room or the hospital bed Statistical analysis of providers for controlled admission The individual patient Pre-admittance for allowed procedures

FUTURE
Remote surgery via video Specified treatment and provider based on specific individual data Customized individual treatment Coverage based on individual DNA analysis and health history

The patients ORGANS or blood Scheduling and admittance process

Biological component treatment Pre-planned screenings and operations

REFERENCE Beatty, J.: 1984, Chance and Natural Selection, Philosophy of Science 51, 183 211. Biology, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 273281. Brandon, R.: 1990, Adaptation and Environment, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. INCOSE. "What is Systems Engineering". Retrieved 2006-11-26. Lester R. Bittel and Muriel Albers Bittel (1978), Encyclopedia of Professional Management, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-005478-9, p.498. Michael M. Behrmann (1984), Handbook of Microcomputers in Special Education. College Hill Press. ISBN 0-933014-35-X. Page 212. 5

No No Hidden Variables Proof But No Room for Determinism Either, Philosophy of Science 63, 315337. Darwin, C.: [1859] 1964, On the Origin of Species: A Facsimile of the First Edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.