Proceedings IRG Annual Meeting (ISSN 2000-8953) 2012 The International Research Group on Wood Protection

IRG/WP 12-40583

THE INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH GROUP ON WOOD PROTECTION

Section 4 Processes and properties

WOOD: its importance in our life

Ilker Usta
Hacettepe University Department of Industrial Engineering 06532 Beytepe Ankara, Turkey

Paper prepared for the 43rd Annual Meeting Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 6-10 May 2012

Disclaimer The opinions expressed in this document are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily the opinions or policy of the IRG Organization.

IRG SECRETARIAT Box 5609 SE114 86 Stockholm Sweden www.irg-wp.org

WOOD: its importance in our life

Ilker Usta
Hacettepe University Department of Industrial Engineering 06532 Beytepe Ankara, Turkey iusta@hacettepe.edu.tr

ABSTRACT As it is described by Hoadley (1980) and Tsoumis (1991), wood is an organic material yielded by trees which increase in diameter by the formation of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem. Wood has served man since he appeared on Earth (as a fuel and/or as a construction material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, paper, and artworks). It is important to appreciate the extent to which our civilization has evolved with a dependence upon wood due to its numerous properties and characteristic qualities. Although wood is still continuing to be the main raw material for a large number of products, the other materials (such as metals, cement, plastics, etc.) became popular in recent days regarding to the growth of the world population and the change of the firms preferences on the production theory to carry out the efficient competitiveness in either domestic or global market.
Nowadays, almost all the companies aim to increase their income by the manufacturing of the demanded goods in the absolute fastest way which should be the easier and the cheaper application for merchandising. In this phenomenia, wood may not be primarily selective material even the design of indoor decorations requires the wooden construction. However, this fiction should be essentially changed for our future life. Because, its aesthetic appearences and its natural behaviour, wood is one of the environmentally friendly materials and it could supply either constructional or convertional requirements to create a great number of products.

This article therefore aimed to show some explanations on why wood is important in our life.

This article is a review of literature about the natural materials with an emphasis on the structural behaviour, and is written as an introduction to wood for anyone who interests to the field of construction. The information provided from the various books, articles and web sites have been combined in a suitable organisation for preparation the monolithic manuscript. In order to keep the integrity of the main text, citations were identified with a code number through the paper and they were presented in detail on the references section.
The sections were prepared based on the following sub-headings: WOOD: prologue WOOD: organic material comes from trees WOOD: it is a miracle WOOD: vulnerable behaviour based on the deterioration WOOD: problems in wood construction WOOD: treatment against biodegradation WOOD: epilogue

Keywords: wood, wood material, wood construction, vulnerable behavior of wood

WOOD: prologue
The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
1 2 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree Hoadly, R.B. 1980. Understanding wood (A craftman`s guide to wood technology). The Taunton Press, Inc., London. Tsoumis, G.T. 1991. Science and technology of wood (Structure, properties, utilisation). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 4 5 6 7 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumber www.matbase.com/material/wood

Tree that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem (or trunk with clear apical dominance) is a resource of our life, symbol of goodness and plentifulness, witness of history, home of many lives based on the ultra/micro-organismas. In this context, tree is the greatest miracle of creator to human and people have used it in various applications for many thousands of years. Wood is one of these. [1;4] Wood has served man since he appeared on Earth, and it has decisively contributed to his survival and to the development of civilization due to its numerous properties and characteristic qualities. It is important to appreciate the extent to which our civilization has evolved with a dependence upon wood. Since prehistoric times, wood has been essentially used for many purposes (primarily as a fuel and/or as a construction material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, paper, and artworks because of its beauty. Wood is still continuing to be the main raw material for a large number of products, although other competitive materials (such as metals, cement, plastics, etc.) are available in recent days. After harvesting in the forest, the wood is converted into a great number of products by sawing, slicing, gluing, chipping, pulping, modification by impregnation with chemicals or chemical processing. Products of primary industrial processing include poles, posts, lumber, laminated wood, veneer, plywood, particleboard, fiberboard, pulp and paper. These are made into products for final use such as furniture or indoor goods and various types of the wooden constructions. [2] Wood is the hard, tough substance that forms the trunk of trees, and it has played an important role in the human life. Our ancestors easily discovered the wood as a useful and valuable raw material due to its natural features, nuances of its structural behaviour, functions, workability characters and aesthetic property. Wood had been used for thousands of years as fuel and construction material for centuries, and maintain its importance even today. [7]
Wood has a long history of being used as fuel, which continues to this day, mostly in rural areas of the world. Hardwood is preferred over softwood because it creates less smoke and burns longer. Adding a woodstove or fireplace to a home is often felt to add ambiance and warmth. Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, houses and boats. Nearly all boats were made out of wood until the late 19th century, and wood remain in common use today in boat construction. [4] In buildings made of other materials, wood will still be found as a supporting material in either indoor or outdoor conditions, especially in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding. [4] New domestic housing in many parts of the world today is commonly made from timberframed construction. Engineered wood products are becoming a bigger part of the construction industry. They may be used in both residential and commercial buildings as structural and aesthetic materials. [5]

Wood used in construction includes products such as glued laminated timber (glulam), laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallam and Ijoists. On the one hand these allow the use of smaller pieces, and on the other hand allow bigger spans. They may also be selected for specific projects such as public swimming pools or ice rinks where the wood will not deteriorate in the presence of certain chemicals. These engineered wood products prove to be more environmentally friendly, and sometimes cheaper, than building materials such as steel or concrete. [5] Wood to be used for construction work is commonly known as lumber (usually refers to

felled trees). Lumber or timber is wood that is used in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural material for construction, or wood pulp for paper production. The distinction between the two terms is discussed in detail elsewhere in the literature. For instance, in the United Kingdom and Australia, "timber" is a term also used for sawn wood products (that is, boards), whereas generally in the United States and Canada, the product of timber cut into boards is referred to as lumber. In this context, both terms represent wood material that is supplied either rough (requiring additional cutting and shaping) or finished (planed and cut to standardized width and depth specified in centimeters). [5;6]

The term Timber could be explained in different aspects as follows: [5;6] Wood suitable for building or other engineering works is called timber When it forms a part of a living tree, it is called standing timber When the tree has been felled, it is called rough timber When it has been sawn to various market forms such as beams, battens, planks etc, it is called converted timber

In the strict sense, wood is a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension, and is embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood, therefore, may refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to constructional materials such as metal or steel. Following properties of wood are also things to consider for its usage in construction: durability, cost, design flexibility and maintenance. [1]
Wood unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down mechanically (into fibers or chips) or chemically (into cellulose) and used as a raw material for other building materials such as chipboard, engineered wood, hardboard, medium-density fiberboard (MDF), oriented strand board (OSB). Such wood derivatives are widely used: wood fibers are an important component of most paper, and cellulose is used as a component of some synthetic materials. Wood derivatives can also be used for kinds of flooring, for example laminate flooring. [3] Wood may also refer to material engineered from wood (i.e. wood chips or wood fiber). Such a material is called the composite wood; it includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding together the strands, particles, fibers, or veneers of wood (together with adhesives to form composite materials). Medium-density fibreboard (MDF), a product of woods, is also used as a cheap alternative to traditional woods. Wood is also commonly used as shuttering material to form the mould into which concrete is poured during reinforced concrete construction. [3] Composite wood products (which are sometimes called the engineered wood products) are made from the same hardwoods and softwoods used to manufacture lumber. Composite wood products are engineered to precise design specifications which are tested to meet national or international standards. [3] Sawmill scraps and other wood waste can be used for engineered wood composed of wood particles or fibers, but whole logs are usually used for veneers, such as plywood. Plywood is often called the original engineered wood product because it was one of the first to be made by bonding together cut or refashioned pieces of wood to form a larger and integral composite unit stronger and stiffer than the sum of its parts. [3]

WOOD: organic material comes from trees

The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 3,4,7,8,9,11.
3 Tsoumis, G.T. 1991. Science and technology of wood (Structure, properties, utilisation). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood http://www.matbase.com/material/wood/ 8 9 www.aboutcivil.com/Properties%20of%20 Wood%20and%20Timber.html www.aboutcivil.com/Wood%20as%20 construction%20material.html

4 7

11 www.askfactmaster.com/Wood

Wood is an organic material yielded by trees which increase in diameter by the formation (between the existing wood and the inner bark) of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. Technically this is known as secondary growth (or secondary xylem in the stems of trees and other woody plants); it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem, and subsequent expansion of the new cells. In a living tree, the secondary xylem transfers water and nutrients to the leaves and other growing tissues, and has a support function, enabling woody plants to reach large sizes or to stand up for themselves. [3]
The markings, called grain, found on all types of wood, are caused by the structure of wood. Wood consists essentially of fine cellular tubes, which carry water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves and which are arranged more or less vertically within the trunk. This usually forms straight-grained lumber. Many types of wood have prominent growth rings. Only a thin layer entirely surrounding the trunk grows, this called the cambium. In most trees, the wood formed early in season is lighter of colour than wood growing later in the year. New concentric sheaths are formed around the trunk of a tree each year, the year markings. As a tree grows older the central portion of the trunk, which is called heartwood, dies completely. [7] Wood is commonly classified as either hardwood or softwood. The wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and the wood from broad-leaved trees (e.g. oak) is called hardwood. This classification is sometimes misleading, as some hardwoods (e.g. balsa) are actually softer than most softwoods, and conversely, some softwoods (e.g. yew) are harder than most hardwoods. Additionally, woods from different types of trees have different colors and grain densities. Because of these differences, and the fact that some woods take longer to grow than others, wood from different kinds of trees have different qualities and values. For example; while mahogany is a dark and dense hardwood which is excellent for fine furniture crafting, balsa is light and soft, and almost spongelike making it useful for model building. [11]

Physical properties of wood: The principle physical properties of wood are strength, hardness, stiffness and density. Dense types of wood are usually hard and strong. The term strength covers a number of different properties. Strength varies greatly with seasoning and with the direction of the grain; wood is much stronger when cut along the grain than when cut across it. Toughness is a measure of strength against sudden, repeated stress. Wood is naturally very durable. If not attacked by living things, it can last for hundreds or even for thousands of years. The most important threat for wood are fungi that cause so-called dry rot. The heartwood of a few species is naturally resistant to these fungi. Other types of natural resistance to various of other types of

attack have been discovered in other species. These types are usually very aromatic. It is suspected that they are protected by the resins and other chemicals they contain. Wood may need to be preserved by protecting it chemically against deterioration. [8]
Shrinkage: Wood also shrinks as it dries, or swells as it picks up moisture, with concomitant warpage potential. Critical in this process is the fiber saturation point, the point (about 25 % moisture content on oven-dry basis) below which the hollow center of the cell has lost its fluid contents, the cell walls begin to dry and shrink, and wood strength begins to increase. The swelling and shrinkage processes are reversible and approximately linear between fiber saturation point and 0 % MC. Wood decay or fungal stain do not occur when the MC is below 20 %. There is no practical way to prevent moisture change in wood; most wood finishes and coatings only slow the process down. Thus, vapor barriers, adequate ventilation, exclusion of water from wood, or preservative treatment are absolutely essential in wood construction. [8] Moisture content: Undoubtedly, woods reaction to moisture provides more problems than any other factor in its use. Wood is hygroscopic; that is, it picks up or gives off moisture to equalize with the relative humidity and temperature in the atmosphere. As it does so, it changes in strength; bending strength can increase by about 50 % in going from green to a moisture content (MC) found in wood members in a residential structure, for example. [8]

Specific gravity: Generally, specific gravity (it is synonomously used here as a density) and the major strength properties of wood are directly related. Specific gravity usually is used structural species ranges from roughly 0,30 to 0,90 gcm-3. Higher allowable design values are assigned to those pieces having narrower growth rings (more rings per inch) or more dense latewood per growth ring and hence, higher specific gravity. [8]

Thermal properties and temperature effects: Although wood is an excellent heat insulator, its strength and other properties are affected adversely by exposure for extended periods to temperatures above about 100F (38C). The combination of high relative humidity or MC and high temperatures, as in unventilated attic areas, can have serious effects on roof sheathing materials and structural elements over and above the potential for attack by decay organisms. Simple remedies and caution usually prevent any problems. At temperatures above 220F (104C), wood takes on a thermoplastic behavior. This characteristic, which is rarely encountered in normal construction, is an advantage in the manufacture of some reconstituted board products, where high temperatures and pressures are utilized. [8]

Wood defects: The major problems that arise in wood use may be attributed either to the effects of grain distortions (cell orientation or alignment), to the effects of excess moisture, or to defects that occur as a result of the drying process. The following specific defects of wood material taken into account in the grading of lumber products. [9]
Knots: Knots are areas of the trunk in which the base of a branch is embedded. When the wood is sawed into planks, knots become clear as somewhat circular discontinuities or irregularities in the grain structure. The result of cutting across a branch in lumber manufacture. If the branch is cut perpendicular to its axis, the knot is round or oblong and presents a miniature aspect of a tree with visible growth rings. Knots may be live (cut through a living branch with intact tissue) or dead (cut through a dead branch stub with loose bark, usually resulting in a knothole). If the saw is oriented so as to cut along the length of a branch, the knot is greatly elongated and is termed a spike knot. Knots are generally undesirable in lumber from the standpoint of appearance and their negative influence on the strength of the wood. Due to the obvious grain distortion around knots, they are areas of severe strength reduction. The lumber grading process takes this into account by classifying lumber grade by knot size, number,

type, and location within the member. Knots located along the edge of a piece are, for example, restricted in size more than are knots located along the centerline of the member. [9]

grain. Tensile strength (of the wood material) is even more adversely affected. [9]

Splits and cracks: Separations of the wood cells along the grain, most often the result of drying stresses as the wood shrinks. Cracks are small, whereas splits extend completely through the thickness of a piece. Splits at the ends of the member, particularly along the central portion of a beam, are limited in grading. [9] Slope of grain: A deviation of cell orientation from the longitudinal axis of the member. Slope of grain (of the wood) may be a natural phenomenon wherein the grain is at some angle to the tree axis (termed spiral grain), or it may be the result of sawing the member non-parallel to the tree axis. Slope of grain has a negative effect upon wood strength properties. For example, a slope of 1:20 has minimal effect, but a slope of 1:6 reduces strength to about 40% in bending and to about 55% in compression parallel to the

Shake: A lengthwise separation of the wood, which usually occurs between or through the annual growth rings. Shakes are limited in grading since they present a plane of greatly reduced shear strength. Shake may occur as a result of severe wind that bends a tree to produce an internal shear failure, or as a result of subsequent rough handling of the tree or its products. [9]

Wane: Lack of wood. Wane occurs whenever a board is sawn so as to intersect the periphery of the tree, resulting in one edge or portion of an edge of a board being rounded or including bark. Limited amounts of wane are permitted, depending upon lumber grade. The effect of wane on wood strength or nailing surface is obvious. [9]

WOOD: it is a miracle
The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 8,10,11,12,13,14,15,16.
8 http://www.aboutcivil.com/Properties%20of %20Wood%20and%20Timber.html 12 ezinearticles.com/?Wooden-Deck-Boards--5-Reasons-Why-Wood-is-the-Best-MaterialFor-Decking&id=4441832 13 www.askfactmaster.com/Five_Elements 14 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology 15 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating 16 http://www.essayclub.com/termpapers/Wooden-Chopsticks/2719.html

10 findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3575/is_128 1_213/ai_111268372/ 11 www.askfactmaster.com/Wood

Our existence on the planet is ecologically intimately bound to the life of trees. For instance, trees in forests have the ability to hold the large amount of carbon dioxide and through photosynthesis they absorb carbon dioxide and release the oxygen into the atmosphere. The effect of forests on the atmosphere is undoubted, yet their role as the lungs of the world is sometimes exaggerated. Natural forests are close to environmental equilibrium: allowing for growth and decay, their net wood increment is negligible, and so is their contribution to the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Indeed, it is sometimes argued by market-orientated ecologists that grassland prairie has just about the same properties in relationship to climate as natural forest. [10]
Global warming and greenhouse effects are caused by human activities which includes defrostation. Defrostation is one of the many causes and results for climate change. In this

case, decayed or damaged trees by fires release those carbon that reacts with the oxygen in the air which then creates carbon dioxide. Therefore, this increases greenhouse gases and result in speeding up global warming. When climate changes rapidly, hazards such as forest fires are increased. Then this becomes cycle of deforestation where forest being cut and burned down. [16]

The consequences are not only climate change, but that includes the unbalanced bio-organisms,

the decreased resources and quantity of water, the destruction of habitats for animals and insects and erosion of soil. Trees in forests that used to absorb carbon dioxide then release them into to the atmosphere during the biological life cycle, provide us with a safe environment with the added benefits of natural beauty. Additionally, they also support to many mill and lumber cooperations, and the logging business as a main raw material. The forests in all over the world must be saved and regulate carefully since they are prominent to the biodiversities and human beings. [16]

As it comes from tree, wood is a natural material that stores carbon and also has many practical purposes that enrich our lives. Wood add functionality to our lives with the benefits of carbon neutrality, beauty, warmth and security. [11] Wood has a natural charm: There is softness and warmth found in wood that makes it unique to all other building materials. Not only the staining or painting the timber to express our tastes and style, but the feel and texture of wood adds to its beauty. Wood can look rugged or contemporary and everything in between. Outdoor living is more comfortable with the charm of wood around us. Well-designed wood structures are comfortable to live in all year round no matter where you are. [8;12]
A particular feature of timber is the flexibility of design forms and finishes that can be used. This flexibility also extends to the ease with which existing buildings can be added to or modified to suit changing circumstances. User friendly versatile timber gives building designers creative freedom providing homeowners with flexible design choices. [8;12] Timber is simply the best building material for builders, designers and homeowners and can be used to construct the homes we love, structures we admire and warehouses, commercial buildings and other structures. The timber frame method of building gives designers flexibility in both layout and external appearance. High levels of thermal insulation are incorporated within the construction, reducing heating costs and conserving energy. [8;12]

Wood is easy to work with: This means that wooden objects can be designed and built with our lifestyle and tastes in mind. Because of its flexibility, professional contractors can create the perfect outdoor living room for us using wood material. Wood is generally lightweight and easy to cut, shape and adapt to suit our project's needs. Treated wood comes in a wide variety of precut sizes and can be pieced together to build a unique structure that looks fabulous. [8;12]
Increasingly specialist timber frame and truss manufacturers use high tech prefabrication enabling accurate and speedy installation. Recyclable timber is a forgiving material that can be easily disassembled and reworked. If demolition or deconstruction of a wooden building is necessary, many wood-based products can be recycled or reused. [8;12] Timber trusses and frames, factory fabricated from sawn timber and toothed metal plate connectors, have come to dominate roof construction for small buildings such as houses and large industrial buildings where clear spans up to 50 metres are required. Timber trusses compete with other roof structural systems on cost, high performance, versatility and ready availability, supported by design software packages supplied by the plate manufacturers to the fabricators. [8;12]

Wood is strong and lightweight: Wood is strong, light and reliable making timber construction simpler and safer than steel or concrete construction. A comparison with steel and concrete shows that radiata pine structural timber, for example, has a strength for weight ratio 20 percent higher than structural steel and four to five times better than unreinforced concrete in compression. People have been building with wood for thousands of years. When properly constructed, a wood structure will last for generations and continue to look beautiful. With treated wood material, durability and strength are enhanced and weather and insects won't harm it. Framing and railings built with wood are strong and dependable as well, with different dimensions and style options available. The lightweight structures possible in wood confer flowon advantages in terms of reduced foundation costs, reduced earthquake loading and easier transport. Building components and complete constructions are simple and safe to erect, and cheaper to deconstruct or reuse at the end of a buildings useful life. [8;12]. Wood is safe: Wood has low toxicity and therefore requires no special safety precautions to work with it, other than normal protection from dusts and splinters. Wood frame construction requires little in the way of heavy lifting equipment making building sites safer work places. Wood being non-conductive has obvious benefits in terms of electrical safety. It is important to express that modern timber construction has increased fire resistance due to incombustible linings protecting light frames. Though, would is chemically inert as compared to other materials but is affected by some acids and bases. Some species have proven very useful for food containers (berry boxes and crates) because they are nontoxic and impart no taste to the foods contained therein. Wood structures have also found widespread use as storage facilities for salt and fertilizer chemicals. [8;12] Wood is durable: Good detailing, coating and maintenance ensure that timber structures last for lifetimes. Although many buildings become obsolete and are demolished long before the end of their natural lives, timber buildings correctly designed and maintained can have an indefinite life. The key to long life is protection from weather, insect attack and decay, through well-established design detailing, surface coating systems, selection of durable species, and preservative treatment processes. In all countries of the world, and Australia is no exception, historic timber buildings testify to these principles. [8;12]
In termite-prone areas, all buildings are vulnerable to termite attack of contents, so protection is needed regardless of construction materials. Protection systems rely on physical or chemical barriers, or both, and their effectiveness depends on the quality of the design, construction, inspection and maintenance. The risk of termite attack should be assessed after consulting with local building authorities and an appropriate termite management system should be implemented.
[8;12]

The system may include physical or chemical barriers or in higher risk areas, a termite resistant treated timber or naturally termite resistant frame may also be chosen. In any case any management system should include regular inspection to ensure that barriers have not been breached. It is therefore critical that the system type and inspection schedule are understood by all future householders. Importantly, termites are an integral part of the ecology of Australia, however, with awareness, planning and using cost effective systems, they can be effectively managed. [8;12]

Wood is cost effective: Wood is an economical choice. Price is often a tipping point in home renovations. The good news is that wood material is economical when compared to other exterior grade building materials. Not only is the product cost effective, but installation charge tending to be lower based on the handling and flexibility of wood. Wood is also readily available in a wide variety of sizes and dimensions, making it easy to build a custom project with in stock

materials. Comparative studies of the economics of different wall framing systems indicate that, in terms of direct building expenses, timber frames are consistently the most cost-effective solution. There are many factors to consider when comparing the economics of different construction systems including the complexity of the layout, site, builder experience, and relative material prices at the time of building. However, comparative studies of the economics of different wall framing systems indicate that, in terms of direct building expenses, timber frames are consistently the most cost-effective solution. In the medium to long term, the forecasts for the Australian wood supply indicate a stable and growing supply. This means that prices for framing timber are likely to be more stable for builders in the long term. However, this price stability is questionable for materials such as steel, which consume considerable amounts of fossil fuels in their manufacture. The smelting of steel is heavily reliant on the continued availability of cheap sources of fossil fuels, a scenario which is becoming highly uncertain in an increasingly energy and security conscious world. [8;12]. Wood is an environmentally friendly: Wood is the most environmentally responsible building material. Wood has low production energy requirements and is a net carbon absorber. Using wood harvested from sustainable forests makes building with wood an eco-friendly choice. Choosing treated wood that will last for a lifetime also means that you won't need to replace the product, cutting down on waste. Wood is a natural material, making it an excellent choice for sustainable building. Wood is a renewable resource. Well-managed forests produce timber on a sustained continuous basis, with minimal adverse effects on soil and water values. Whether wood is chosen for its durability or flexibility, looks or low price, wood is the preferred raw material for many homeowners around the globe. [8;12] Wood is one of the five elements: In Chinese philosophy, things in nature can be classified into five types: metal, wood, earth, water, fire. In Chinese philosophy, everything we know or think of as reality is a symbol, and a reflection of the heavens, so by understanding the macrocosmic relationship of things we can understand these same relationship on a smaller scale: in the body, in personal astrology, or in politics. [13] These five elements are therefore not just the materials that the names refer to, but rather metaphors and symbols for describing how things interact and relate to each other: [13]
Wood is the element of growth and creativity, associated with the spring. It is a masculine element with a dark side of anger and depression. Water is a feminine, flowing element associated with patience and quiet strength, but it can also generate fear with its power. Fire is a dynamic, masculine element which moves upwards, and it is associated with joy and luck. When fire goes bad, it brings about hate. Earth balances feminine and masculine elements with a tendency to conserve, consolidate, and strengthen. Anxiety and disquiet are associated with earth imbalances. Metal is feminine with a contracting energy and the ability to conduct and control emotion. The negative association with metal is grief. These elements are utilized in several schools of Chinese thought, including feng shui, traditional philosophy, astrology, traditional Chinese medicine, and martial arts. Philosophers dedicate their lives to researching these elements and their interactions in the hope of learning

more about the intricate and carefully

balanced systems which make up the universe. [13] Thinking about the five elements in the traditional Western sense of elements can be confusing, because the Chinese view the five elements as constantly shifting entities which coexist in a cyclical cycle of change and

progression. According to Chinese philosophy, an imbalance in this cycle can lead to problems. Things like feng shui and traditional Chinese medicine are supposed to identify elemental imbalances and correct or prevent them to keep people happy and healthy. Chinese philosophy describes both a production cycle and a control cycle acting upon the elements: [13]

In the production cycle: [13] Wood produces Fire Fire produces Earth Earth produces Metal Metal produces Water Water produces Wood In the control cycle: [13] Wood controls Earth Earth controls Water Water controls Fire Fire controls Metal Metal controls Wood

The production cycle outlines a pentagon and the control chain outlines a five pointed star. These interactions and relationships form a framework for different schools of philosophy. The interaction of five elements becomes a tool that helps Chinese scholars sort out observations and empirical data. Based on observations of how things interact, things are classified into one of the five elements so that they fit into the observed pattern. Then one can draw high level conclusions or predictions based on the element types. [13]

The five elements feed each other and they can also consume each other. In the cycle of generation, wood feeds fire which creates earth in the form of ash, and earth bears metal which collects water to nourish wood. In the cycle of consumption or overcoming, wood parts earth which absorbs water, quenching fire to melt metal, which chops wood. When these five elements or wu xing are in a state of balance, the flow of energy between the elements is smooth and cyclical, rather than static or discordant. [13]

These elements are only a small part of a much larger framework of ideas within Chinese philosophy. In addition to interacting with each other, the five elements also interact with things like locations, people, periods of time, shapes, and colors. Understanding the full complexity of Chinese philosophy as it relates to things like astronomy, tai chi, or acupuncture is usually left to the experts, although you may hear people making a casual remark so and so has a lot of wood in a reference to the five elements and their associated traits. [13]

Wood is one of the devices of the proxies suggesting the climate patterns of the past: In many types of wood, dendrochronology or tree-ring dating (which is the scientific method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree-rings) can date the time at which tree rings were formed to the exact calendar year. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances also gives clues to the prevailing climate at that time. To make inferences about when a wooden object was created based on the estimated age of organic remains from

archaeological sites, some wood species can be dated by carbon dating (which is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years). [14;15]. WOOD: vulnerable behaviour based on the deterioration
The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 3,17,18,19,20.
3 Tsoumis, G.T. 1991. Science and technology of wood (Structure, properties, utilisation). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 18 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet 19 informationbible.com/article-how-toprotect-furniture-at-home-in-hot-summer78498.html 20 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothball

17 Eaton E.R.A, and Hale, M.D.C. 1993. Wood: decay, pests and protection. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London.

Wood is biodegradable subject to deterioration by natural agents. In other words, while wood kept under favorable conditions apparently lasts indefinitely, the most of the wood species are vulnerable which is likely to become endangered unless the circumstances threatening its survival and reproduction improve. The principal destroyers of wood are decay, caused by fungus, and attack by a number of animal organisms of which termites, carpenter ants, grubs of a wide variety of beetles, teredo, and limnoria are the principal offenders. In addition, fire annually causes widespread destruction of wood structures. Decay will not occur if wood is kept well ventilated and air-dry or, conversely, if it is kept continuously submerged so that air is excluded.[3] Wood involves moisture because it comes from trees where the cell structure contains excessive water that makes wood wet. Wood is satisfactory in its natural condition if the moisture available be dried down to a level consistent with the environment. When wood is used in a location where its moisture content can range above 20%, wood-inhabiting fungi will probably take up residence. Termites and carpenter-ant infestations also are encouraged by high moisture content, and some insects are troublesome even in dry wood.[17] Wood decay is a deterioration of wood by primarily enzymatic activities of microorganisms. For practical purposes, fungi are the only agents of wood decay. There are other kinds of deterioration, by insects, marine animals, and ultraviolet light (which is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays, in the range 10 nm (nanometer) to 400 nm, and energies from 3eV (electron volt) to 124 eV).[18]
Decay: Decay, caused by wood-destroying fungi, is precluded from wood use except for certain species in lower grades because the strength-reducing effects of fungal attack are quite significant even before visible evidence (wood discoloration, punkiness) appears. [3;17] It is important to note that decay organisms require moisture to live and grow; hence, the presence of active decay or mold implies access to a source of moisture. Moist wood will always decay, unless the wood is preservative-treated or is of a very durable species. [3;17] Insect attack: Insect attack may range from small blemishes that do not affect strength to large voids or extensive damage in the wood as the result of termite or other insect infestation. Insect attack is usually treated as equivalent to the effect of similarly sized knotholes. Most termites in the United States are subterranean and require contact with the soil. The drywood and dampwood termites found along the southern fringes of the country and along the west coast, however, do not require direct soil contact and are more difficult to control. Teredo, limnoria, and other water-borne wood destroyers are found only in salt or brackish waters.

Various wood species vary in natural durability and resistance to decay and insect attack. The sapwood of all species is relatively vulnerable; only the heart wood can be considered to be resistant. [3;17] Ultraviolet light: Ultraviolet (UV) light is found in sunlight and is emitted by electric arcs and classified as non-ionizing radiation, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce.[18] Many polymers used in consumer products are degraded by UV light, and need addition of UV absorbers to inhibit attack, especially if the products are exposed to sunlight. The problem appears as discoloration or fading, cracking, and, sometimes, total product disintegration if cracking has proceeded sufficiently. The rate of

attack increases with exposure time and sunlight intensity. It is known as UV degradation, and is one form of polymer degradation. [18] In addition, many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour, so paintings and textiles may need extra protection both from sunlight and fluorescent bulbs (two common sources of UV radiation). Old and antique paintings such as watercolour paintings, for example, usually must be placed away from direct sunlight. Common window glass provides some protection by absorbing some of the harmful UV, but valuable artifacts need extra shielding. Many museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings and ancient textiles, for example. Since watercolours can have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection from UV light. [18]

As wood is vulnerable material, product (which is manufactured from wood) requires the care, attention, and rigor necessary to be confident that such goods will not fail. For example; strong direct sunlight, frequent temperature changes caused by switching air conditioning and excessive dry or humid environment will cause damage to the wood furniture. It will have phenomenon of deformation, cracking and bulging. Especially the traditional mahogany furniture with large numbers of carved patterns is easier to expand with heat and contract with cold, because it basically has not been dealt on moisture content. No matter the furniture is made of solid wood or compound materials, they should be protected from damages caused by weather and humid changes and strong sunlight. People are recommended to adjust the placement of furniture. They should be placed far away from air conditioning and direct sunlight. In the afternoon with intense sunshine, it is better to pull the curtain. In addition, coating a layer of wax on edges of drawer and sliding door could prevent the difficult opening and closing caused by swelling. Put some mothballs (chemical pesticide) in humid areas to prevent the insect effectively, if storing clothing and other articles susceptible to damage from mold or moth larvae (especially common clothes moths like Tineola bisselliella).[19;20]

WOOD: problems in wood construction

The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 9.
9 www.aboutcivil.com/Wood%20as%20construction%20material.html

Wood and wood products are relatively simple engineering materials, but the conception, design, and construction process is fraught with problems and places to err. In using wood in its many forms and with its unique inherent characteristics, there are problem areas which seem to present easily overlooked pitfalls. As gentle reminders for caution, some of these areas are discussed below. [9]

Wood and water do not mix well: Wood is hygroscopic and (unless preservative-treated) rots when its moisture content (MC) rises above 20%. It must be protected in some way. [9]
Minor roof leakage often leads to pockets of decay, which may not be noticed until severe decay or actual failure has occurred. Stained areas on wood siding or at joints may indicate metal fastener rust associated with a wet spot or decay in adjoining, supporting members. In many cases what appears to be a minor problem ends up as major and sometimes extensive repair is required. Improper installation or lack of an adequate vapor barrier can result in serious decay in studs within a wall as well as paint peel on exterior surfaces. Ground contact of wood members can lead to decay as well as providing ready access to wood-deteriorating termites. Placement of preservative-treated members between the ground and the rest of the structure (as a bottom sill in a residence) is usually a code requirement. [9] Timber arches for churches, office buildings, and restaurants are usually affixed to a foundation by steel supports; if the supports are not properly installed, they may merely form a receptacle for rain or condensation to collect, enter the wood through capillary action, and initiate decay. Once decay is discovered, major repair is indicated; preservative treatment to a decayed area may prevent further decay, but it will not restore the strength of the material. Elimination of the causal agent (moisture) is paramount. Visible decay usually means that significant fungal deterioration has progressed for 1 to 2 feet (approximately 30.5 to 61.0 cm) along the grain of a member beyond where it is readily identifiable. [9]

Pay attention to detail: In an area that has high relative humidity, special precautions should be taken. [9]
A structure that is surrounded by trees or other vegetation or that prevents wind and sun from drying action, is prone to high humidity nearly every day, particularly on a north side. Likewise, if the structure is near a stream or other source of moisture, it may have moisture problems. Home siding in this type of atmosphere may warp or exhibit heavy mildew or fungal stain. Buildings with small (or nonexistent) roof overhangs are susceptible to similar siding problems if the siding is improperly installed, allowing water or condensation to enter and accumulate behind the siding. [9]. Inadequate sealing and painting of a surface can add to the problem. In a classic example, a three-story home on a tree-shaded area next to a small stream and with no roof overhang had poorly installed siding, which subsequently warped so badly that numerous pieces fell off of the home. Poor architecture, poor site, poor construction practice, and poor judgment combined to create a disaster. This type of problem becomes magnified in commercial structures, where large surfaces are covered with wood panel products that tend to swell in thickness at their joints if they are not properly sealed and protected from unusual moisture environments. If properly installed, these materials provide economical, long-term, excellent service. [9]

Wood is viscoelastic and will creep under load: This has created widespread problems in combination with clogged or inadequate drains on flat roofs. Ponding, with increasing roof joist deflection, can lead to ultimate roof failure. In situations where floor or ceiling deflection is important, a rule of thumb to follow is that increased deflection due to long-term creep may be assumed to be about equal to initial deflection under the design loading. In some cases the occupants of a building will report that they can hear wood members creaking, particularly under a snow load or ponding action. This is a good indication hat the structure is overstressed and failure, or increasing creep deformation with impending failure, is imminent. Deflection measurements over a several-week period can often isolate the problem and lead to suitable reinforcement. [9]

Repair structural members correctly: Epoxy resin impregnation and other techniques are often used to repair structural members. These methods are said to be particularly effective in repairing decayed areas in beams and columns. [9]
Removal of decayed spots and replacement by epoxy resin is acceptable only if the afflicted members are also shielded from the original causal agent (excess moisture or insect attack). Likewise, if a wood adhesive must be used as a fastener in an exposed area, use a waterproof adhesive; water-resistant or carpenters glue wont do. Although several wood adhesives will produce a wood-to-wood bond stronger than the wood itself, most of these adhesives are formulated for (and used in) furniture manufacture, where the wood is dry (about 6 to 7% MC) at time of fabrication and is presumed to be kept that way. [9] Structural-use adhesives (unless they are specially formulated epoxy or similar types) may be used where the wood is not above about 20% MC. Structural-use adhesives must also be gap-fillers; i.e. they must be able to form a strong joint between two pieces of wood that are not always perfectly flat, close-fitting surfaces. In addition, the adhesive should be waterproof. The most common and readily available adhesive that meets these criteria is a phenolresorcinol-formaldehyde adhesive, a catalyzed, dark purple-colored adhesive which is admirably suited to the task. [9]

Protect materials at the job site: Wood, which is subjected to be used as a constructional material, should be protected from damages caused by weather and humid changes until it is constructed properly. Wood materials at the job site under excessively humid conditions need to take extra precautions, because wood and water do not mix. Failure to do so has caused plywood and other panel products to become wet through exposure to rain so that they delaminate, warp severely, or swell in thickness to the point of needing to be discarded. [9]
Lumber piled on the ground for several days or more, particularly in hot, humid weather, will pick up moisture and warp or acquire surface fungi and stain. This does not harm the wood if it is subsequently dried again, but it does render it esthetically unfit for exposed use. [9] Make sure that panel products, such as plywood, OSB, or flakeboard are kept under roof prior to installation. Stacked on the ground or subjected to several weeks of rainy weather, not only will these panels warp, but they may lose their structural integrity over time. [9]

Take time to know what species and grades of lumber you require, and then inspect it: Engineers and architects tend to order the lumber grade indicated by mathematical calculations; carpenters use what is provided to them. Unlike times past, no one seems to be ultimately responsible for appropriate quality until a problem arises and expensive rework is needed. [9]
Case in point: a No. 2 grade (American Lumber Standard Committee) 2-by (which is tacitly presumed to be used in conjunction with other structural members to form an integrated structure) is not satisfactory for use as scaffolding plank or to serve a similar, critical function on the job site where it is subjected to large loads independent of neighboring planks. [9]

Inspect the wood quality based on the tree growth: As the old saying goes, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Be aware of wood and within-grade variability due to the uniqueness of tree growth and wood defects. [9]
It is often wise to screen lumber to cull out pieces that have unusually wide growth rings or wood that is from an area including the pith (center) of the tree. This material often tends to shrink along its length as much as ten times the normal amount due to an inherently high microfibrillar angle in growth rings close to the pith. [9]

In truss manufacture this has resulted in the lower chords of some trusses in a home (lower chords in winter being warmer and drier) to shorten as they dry, while the top chords do not change MC as much. The result is that the truss will bow upward, separating by as much as an inch (2.54 cm) from interior partitions (very disconcerting to the inhabitants and very

difficult to cure). A good component fabricator is aware of this phenomenon and will buy higher-quality material to at least minimize the potential problem. Conversely, avoid the expensive, cover all the bases approach of ordering only the top grade of the strongest species available. [9]

Inspect all timber connections during erection: Check on proper plate fasteners on trusses and parallel chord beams after installation; plates should have sufficient teeth fully embedded into each adjoining member. [9]
Occasionally in a very dense piece the metal teeth will bend over rather than penetrate into the wood properly. A somewhat similar problem arises if wood frames or trusses are not handled properly during erection; avoid undue out-ofplane bending in a truss during transport or erection since this will not only highly stress the lumber but may also partially remove the plates holding the members together. [9] Bolted connections must be retightened at regular intervals for about a year after erection to take up any slack due to subsequent lumber drying and shrinkage. Perhaps one of the major causes of disaster is the lack of adequate bracing during frame erection. This is a particularly familiar scenario on do-it-yourself projects, such as by church groups or unskilled erection crews. Thin, 2-by lumber is inherently unstable in long lengths; design manuals and warning labels on lumber or product shipments testify to this, yet the warnings are continually disregarded. Unfortunately, the engineer, designer, or architect and materials supplier often are made to share the resulting financial responsibility. [9]

Be aware of woods orthotropicity: A large slope of grain around a knot or a knot strategically poorly placed can seriously alter bending or compressive strength and are even more limiting in tension members. Allowable design values for tension parallel to the grain are dictated by an ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) standard (i.e. as being 55% of allowable bending values because test results have indicated that slope of grain or other defects greatly reduce tensile properties). Different orthotropic shrinkage values, due to grain deviations or improper fastening of dissimilar wood planes, can lead to warpage and subsequent shifts in loadinduced stresses. Care must be taken when using multiple fasteners (bolts, split rings, etc.) to avoid end splits as wood changes MC, particularly if the members are large and only partially dried at the time of installation. [9] When installing a deep beam that is end-supported by a heavy steel strap hanger, it is often best to fasten the beam to the hanger by a single bolt, installed near the lower edge of the beam. This will provide the necessary restraint against lateral movement, whereas multiple bolts placed in a vertical row will prevent the beam from normal shrinkage in place and often induce splits in the ends of the beam as the beam tries to shrink and swell with changes in relative humidity. Not only are the end splits unsightly, but they also reduce the horizontal shear strength of the beam at a critical point. In addition, if the beam has several vertically aligned bolts and subsequently shrinks, the bolts will become the sole support of the beam independent of the strap hanger, as shrinkage lifts the beam free of the supporting strap hanger. [9] Use metal joist hangers and other fastening devices (they add strength and efficiency in construction to a job): Toe-nailing the end of a joist may restrain it from lateral movement, but it does little to prevent it from over turning if there is no stabilizing decking. Erection stresses

caused by carpenters and erection crews standing or working on partially completed framework are a leading cause of member failure and job site injury. [9]
In renovating old structures, as long as decay is not present, the old members can be reused. However, because large sawn timbers tend to crack as they dry in place over a period of time, the members must be regraded by a qualified grader. [9] The dried wood (usually well below 19% MC) has increased considerably in strength, perhaps counter balancing the decrease in strength due to deep checking and/or splitting. End splits over supports should be carefully checked for potential shear failure. [9]

Wood and fire pose a unique situation: Wood burns, but in larger sizes (i.e. 15 cm (6 inch) and larger) the outer shell of wood burns slowly and (as the wood turns to charcoal) the wood becomes insulated and ceases to support combustion. Once the fire has been extinguished, the wood members can be removed, planed free of char, and reused, but at a reduced section modulus. Smaller members can also be fire retardanttreated to the degree that they will not support combustion. However, treating companies should be consulted in regard to any possible strength-reducing effects due to the treatment, particularly where such members are to be subjected to poorly ventilated areas of high temperature and high relative humidity, as in attic spaces. In recent years newly developed fire retardant treatments have reacted with wood when in a high temperaturehigh relative humidity environment to seriously deteriorate the wood in treated plywood or truss members. These chemicals, presumably withdrawn from the marketplace, act slowly over time, but have contributed to structural failure in the attics of numerous condominium-type buildings. [9]
Preventive measures where such problems may be anticipated include the addition of thermostatically controlled forced-air venting (the easiest and probably most effective measure). The addition of an insulation layer to the underside of the roof to reduce the amount of heat accumulation in the attic due to radiant heat absorption from the sun. The installation of a vapor barrier on the floor of the attic to reduce the amount of water vapor from the underlying living units. [9] In using preservative-treated wood, it is always best (certainly so when dealing with larger members) to make all cuts to length, bore holes, cut notches, etc., prior to treatment. Depth of preservative treatment in larger members is usually not complete, and exposure of untreated material through cutting may invite decay. Determination of the depth of penetration of a preservative by noting a color change in the wood is hazardous; penetration may be more or less than is apparent to the eye. Deep checking as a large member dries will often expose untreated wood to fungal organisms or insects. Periodic treatment by brushing preservative into exposed cracks is highly recommended. [9] This is particularly true for log hometype construction. Modern log home construction utilizes partially seasoned materials with shaped sections, which not only increase the insulative quality of the homes but also tend to balance, or relieve, shrinkage forces to reduce cracking. Treated or raised nonwood foundations are recommended. [9]

Wood is an excellent construction material, tested and used effectively over the years for a myriad (an unspecified large quantity) of structural applications provided one takes the time to understand its strengths and weaknesses and to pay appropriate attention to detail. Knowing species and lumber grade characteristics and how a member is to be used, not only in a structure but also during erection, can go a long way toward trouble-free construction. [9]

WOOD: treatment against biodegradation

The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 2,17,21,22,23,24,25.
2 Hoadley, R.B. 1980. Understanding wood (A craftman`s guide to wood technology). The Taunton Press, Inc., London. 23 Hiziroglu, S. 2009. Basics of pressure treatment of wood. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets, Natural Resource Ecology and Management, NREM-5047. (http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/ds web/Get/Document-2531/NREM 5047web%20color.pdf). 24 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tetraborate 25 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron

17 Eaton E.R.A, and Hale, M.D.C. 1993. Wood: decay, pests and protection. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London. 21 www.aboutcivil.com/Decay%20and%20pres ervation%20of%20wood%20timber.html 22 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_preservation

Although environmentally friendly and renewable wood material has been used extensively in industry, it poses major problems when exposed to fungi, insect and termite activity. Biodegradation of wood is accomplished in part by insects and marine borers, but the greatest degree of deterioration is the work of wood-inhabiting fungi. Wood is usually deteriorated by fungi (white rot, brown rot, dry rot, soft rot fungi), insects (termites, beetles, carpenter ants), marine borers (molluscans, crustaceans), and a host of other agents. Wood preservation protecting wood, wood products or timbers from deterioration, decomposition or damage due to pest attacks through application of chemical substances. [17] Certain wood species have heartwood extractives that resist the attack of fungi and are termed decay-resistant or durable woods, and certain woods have selective resistance to insect attack. In many cases, however, where conditions favorable to biological deterioration cannot be avoided, and where resistant species are not available, the best alternative may be to treat the wood with a substance that will give it the desired durability. Such chemicals are called wood preservatives (i.e. this term sometimes includes treatments to make the wood nonflammable, although the term fire-retardant is preferred for such materials).[21] The ideal preservative would readily penetrate the wood and would be permanent, toxic to fungi and insects, safe to handle, colorless, compatible with coatings and finishes, and of course, inexpensive. No one chemicals has yet been developed that has all of these attributes, but a wide array of chemicals with various advantages have emerged for specific purposes.[21;22]
For all practical purposes only a few native species are truly immune to fungal deterioration, and then, as stated earlier, only the heartwood portion of the wood is decay-resistant. Availability and economy usually dictate that where decay resistance is required, preservative treatment is a must. Any structural component that is in contact with the ground, subject to periodic wetting (leakage or rain), or in a highrelative-humidity atmosphere for extended time periods, may be expected to decay. There are several preservatives available; degree of exposure and the use of the member will indicate which specific preservative to use. In all cases a pressure treatment is required; dip treating, soaking, or painting the surface with a preservative solution are only temporary deterrents at best and are not recommended where structural integrity is required. [21] The key to using preservatives is penetration. Only areas of the wood that are penetrated by preservative chemicals will be protected. [22] A first consideration, then, is choosing the most penetrable wood. Generally, sapwood or species with low extractive content (ironically those that usually have the least natural decay resistance)

are the best choice for preservative treatment. Except for very thin pieces, the only way to attain any worthwhile degree of penetration is under pressure. Commercially, this is done using cylinders that produce pressures up to about 150 psi, and sometimes also with vacuum treatment or elevated temperatures. Since such conditions are beyond the capability of the average woodworker, it is usually most logical to buy

commercially treated lumber for use where constant moisture problems prevail. [22] No single preservative is available which can meet all desirable requirements. Wood preservatives may be oil-borne, water-based or a mixture of different substances. Preservativetreated structural lumber is available in several grades, depending upon intended use and retention level. [22]

The life of preservative-treated timber products depends on penetration, retention and degree of fixation of preservatives used. The penetration and retention of a preservative, however, depends on the preservation method. The different wood protection methods being used in worlwide either using pressure or non-pressure (including with washing and coating, brushing, spraying and dipping, soaking, Boucherie process, hot and cold bath process, diffusion process). [17;22]

Pressure wood treatment: The purpose of wood pressure treatment is to force preservative chemicals deep into the cellular structure of the wood. The chemical acts as a barrier between the wood and biological deterioration agents, so that the service life of the wood can be substantially increased.[23]
Pressure treatment methods are classified into two basics groups: full-cell and empty-cell processes. [23] In the full-cell method, both cell wall and lumen are filled with the preservative solution, while the objective of empty-cell process is to retain preservative chemical in only the cell wall. The full-cell method is the oldest treatment process and is the best for the highest penetration and retention of preservative. [23] In the ful-cell process, air inside the wood is removed by initial vacuum and then empty cells of woods are filled up with preservative chemical by applying pressure. The full-cell method is generally used where a large amount of preservative is needed for certain applications such as treatment of utility poles, farm fence, bridge timbers, and pier timbers. This process results in high retention, but not necessarily deeper penetration than that of other processes.
[23]

Preservative chemicals used for the pressure treatment process can be classified into three groups: tar oil based, oil-borne, and water-borne preservatives. [23]

Oil-borne preservatives: Creosote and pentachlorophenol (PCP) are the organic oil-based preservatives, earlier used for treating of wood poles, piles and railway sleepers. Nowadays creosote is used only for railway ties. [23]
One of the oldest and most effective treatments, is creosote that is used primarily for treating utility poles and marine piling. It is often called coal tar creosote because of its close relationship to toluene, benzene, and tar. These materials are condensed from the distillation of coal as it is converted to carbon. It is an oil-borne preservative of high toxicity and is not recommended where human contact is anticipated. [23] Creosote penetrates deep into and remains in the wood for a long time. Exposure to creosote may be harmful to humans and special precautions should be taken for handling creosote-treated wood products. [23] Creosote can be successfully used for farm, fence, and other outdoor building materials. Coal tar creosote has been used commercially to preserve such things as railroad ties and utility

poles. However creosote should not be used for the interior of farm buildings. [23] An oil borne preservative, pentachlorophenol (PCP) is also widely used to treat wood products. PCP-treated wood can be used for

commercial interior applications except for laminated beams or as construction component where a direct ground contact exists. In a typical application, the surface of the treated laminated beam should be coated with a sealer. [23]

Water-borne preservatives: Arsenic and copper-based preservatives, such as ammonium copper zink arsenate (ACZA), ammoniacal copper arsenate (ACA), chromated copper arsenate (CCA), and copper naphthenate are water-borne preservatives which have been used extensively by the wood processing industry for many years. [17;22;23]

CCA (chromated copper arsenate): Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is considered as effective inorganic water-based preservative and is being used for treating electric wood poles, anchor logs and corsairs. A number of arsenic containing treatments are commonly used. CCA (chromated copper arsenate) is used with dimension lumber, particularly with southern pine, and ACA (ammoniacal copper arsenate) is also commonly used. Both CCA and ACA are waterborne preservatives that are pressure-impregnated into dry (below fiber saturation point) lumber; the chemicals become permanently bonded to the wood as the wood becomes redried after treatment. It is very important to know that until the wood has become dry again after treatment, it is dangerous to handle. Resawn wood that is wet on the inside of the piece, even if it appears dry on the outside, can produce arsenic poisoning.[17;23] It is also important to know that even under high impregnation pressures, the depth of penetration of the preservative into the wood may be incomplete. Resawing may expose untreated wood to decay; treatment after cutting or boring members to final size is recommended. CCA and ACA treatments are commonly used for foundations, decks, and greenhouses. Dry CCAtreated and ACA-treated lumber is approved for human contact use. [17;22;23] Under no circumstances are wood scraps of CCA-treated or ACA-treated wood to be burned in the open air; this will ultimately release poisonous arsenic and chromium compounds into the air. Borate compounds are effective wood preservatives and are economical and nontoxic to humans and animals. Unfortunately, they also leach out of the wood rather readily

when subjected to rain or wet conditions. Research on these and other compounds may result in a new family of leach-resistant, nontoxic-to-humans preservatives for wood in the future. [23] Preservative companies producing CCA, which is one of the most commonly used preservatives on the market, have requested the cancellation of that product for certain uses due to possible health concerns. The Environmental Protection Agency in USA has accepted this request and as of December 31, 2003 no wood will be treated with CCA for residential uses such as decking, playground, and constructional purposes. However, CCA will still be used for nonresidential application. Similar to PCP and creosote, arsenic-based chemicals are also poisonous. Special precautions stated on the consumers safety information label should be followed closely. [23] Chromated copper boron (CCB): A preservative containing Cr (chromium), Cu (copper), and B (boron) (namely, CCB: chromated copper boron) is another water-borne preservative, used for indoor use such as for electric meter boards, wooden packings, doors and windows, furniture etc. In its formulation, it is considered to be less toxic than the most widely used water-borne preservative CCA (because of the absence of arsenic), but it also is considered to be less effective because of the high leaching of boron. Leaching of preservative components may take place at different rates depending of a number of factors, such as the wood species, the surface area exposed, the preservative retention, and the local environmental conditions. [22;24]

In addition, leaching of metals is not proportional to their initial retention in wood. CCB may be as effective as CCA in sites where temperate climatic conditions with long dry periods are dominant. [24] Boron is a chemical compound (with a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements) that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions. [25] Borax (also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate) is an important boron compound, a mineral and a salt of boric acid. It is usually a white powder consisting of soft colorless crystals that dissolve easily in water. Borax has a wide variety of uses. It is a component of many detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes. It is also used to make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as a fire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound for fiberglass, as an

insecticide, as a flux in metallurgy, a texturing agent in cooking, and as a precursor for other boron compounds. [25] Boron compounds (such as borax, boric acid, boric oxide and borate salts) are effective wood preservatives and are supplied under numerous brand names throughout the world. Borate treated wood is of low toxicity to humans, and does not contain copper or other heavy metals. However, unlike most other preservatives, borate compounds do not become fixed in the wood and can readily be leached out. Therefore they should not be used where they will be exposed to rain, water or ground contact. Recent interest in low toxicity timber for residential use, along with new regulations restricting some wood preservation agents, has resulted in a resurgence of the use of borate treated wood for floor beams and internal structural members.
[25]

Non-pressure wood treatment: Non-pressure treatments include soaking, dipping and brush application. For any use involving contact with the soil or constantly wet or moist conditions, such as fence posts or sills lying on bare ground, nothing less than immersion in preservative for several days will be worth the expense and effort. The wood should be at least air-dried to facilitate penetration and to ensure that no further drying occurs after penetration, which might open checks and thus expose untreated wood. [2] Hot and cold baths: Where possible to do so safely, heating the preservative solution will improve penetration. Heating the wood expands and drives out air from the cell structure; when allowed to cool, the remaining air contracts, drawing the preservative solution into the cell structure. Cutting open test pieces indicates the degree of penetration. Chemical indicators are available for determining the penetration of colorless materials. [2] Superficial treatment: Brush and dip methods give only superficial treatment and should be relied upon only where the wood needs surface protection, as with above-ground parts of a structure exposed to intermittent rainfall. Dip treatments (total immersion for a few minutes) will do a far beter job than brush treatment of reaching vulnerable voids such as bolt holes, deep end checks, splits and loose knots. Dipping or flooding the surface may give fairly good end penetration, but side-grain penetration by either method may be as little as 0.8 mm varying somewhat according to species. [2]
The most common mistake in using surface treatments is application after rather than before construction. Consider an outdoor structure such as a deck, porch, bench, boardwalk, railing or flower trellis. During a rain, water seeps and settles into joints and crevices and is absorbed by the wood, especially into concealed end-grain surfaces, such as the bottom ends of vertical posts resting on horizontal surfaces. After the rain, most exposed surfaces, especially side-grain surfaces, dry quickly enough that fungal activity does not make significant progress. In hidden joints, water is held longer, absorption is prolonged and drying is delayed. The hidden surfaces of joints are therefore the most vulnerable places. These places are seldom reached by preservative brushed on after construction. For this reason, every effort should be made to apply preservative to bolt holes, joint surfaces and inside mortises before assembly. In

nailing exposed horizontal surfaces, such as deck boards or stair treads, nail heads should be driven in flush. Setting nails below the surface exposes end grain and creates a water pocket. [2] The superficial brush treatment can never compensate for poor design. For exterior application, promoting runoff and preventing entrapment of water should be primary considerations. Many modern fungicidal preservatives are both water-repellent and fungicidal. They are called water-repellent preservatives anda re-marketed as such. [2] In combination with good design, brush application of these preservatives can be quite effective. Remember, however, that no brushedon preservative will last forever. The chemical itself eventually leaches out of the wood becomes diluted or simply degrades after prolonged exposure to the weather. This deterioration takes place from the exposed surfaces inward, another reason why depth of penetration is so important. [2]

WOOD: epilogue
The following references were used in the preparation of this section: 2,3,8,11,23,26.
2 Hoadly, R.B. 1980. Understanding wood (A craftman`s guide to wood technology). The Taunton Press, Inc., London. Tsoumis, G.T. 1991. Science and technology of wood (Structure, properties, utilisation). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. www.aboutcivil.com/Properties%20of%20 Wood%20and%20Timber.html 11 www.askfactmaster.com/Wood 23 Hiziroglu, S. 2009. Basics of pressure treatment of wood. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets, Natural Resource Ecology and Management, NREM-5047. (http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/ds web/Get/Document-2531/NREM 5047web%20color.pdf). 26 http://www.kramers.org/whywood.html

Wood is a material found as the primary content of the stems of woody plants, especially trees, but also shrubs. These perennial plants are characterised by stems that grow outward year after year, and that are composed of cellulose and lignin based tissue. Plants that do not produce wood are called herbaceous, i.e. this group of plants includes all annual plants, many perennial plants, and most submerged and floating aquatic plants. The woody tissue is formed by the plant for structural purposes, and because it is an effective and efficient structural material, it is useful to humans. Wood is made of cellulose fibers, held together with lignin. Wood that is broken down into fibers is called pulp, which may then be made into paper. Artists and craftsmen shape and join pieces of wood with special tools, which is called woodworking or carpentry.[ 11] Wood is the oldest material used by humans for construction after stone. Despite its complex chemical nature, wood has excellent properties which lend themselves to human use. [8]
Structurally it is easily machinable. Exceptionally strong relative to its weight. A renewable and biodegradable resource. Readily and economically available. Clearly it is a good heat and electrical insulator. Has a natural charm and beauty. Wood is amenable to fabrication into an infinite variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-site building techniques. Originally it has a vulnerable behaviour. Our ancestors used wood as the primary material through the development of civilizations. Due to structural issues, its allure for customer is increasing importance.

Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, and remains in plentiful use today. However, wood has some drawbacks of which the user must be aware. The major problems that arise in wood use may be attributed either to the effects of grain distortions (cell orientation or alignment), to the effects of excess moisture, or to defects that occur as a result of the drying process. The specific defects taken into account in the grading of lumber products include knots, slope of grain, wane, shake, splits and cracks, insect attack, and decay. [11]
Wood is a natural material and is available in limited amount. The woodworker finds that wood is satisfactory in its natural condition for most uses, requiring only that the moisture or sap be dried down to a level consistent with the environment. [2] When cut down and dried, wood is used for many different purposes. [11] Wood is an excellent renewable building material. However, when a wood product is used in contact with the ground or exposed to high moisture conditions it may be subjected to biological and insecticidal deterioration. [3] As a result of termite or fungi attack, wood from most species can be destroyed within five to eight years. To extend the service life of wood to 20-25 years in moist environmental conditions, it is important to use pressure treatment methods.[23]

One of the first things we must remember is to use each wood to its best purpose. Until this century wood was the single greatest material aid and comfort in every century of our ancestors lives. Wood is the most important material contact we have with the entire body of our ancestry. It has been paramount in aiding, comforting and paving the road to civilization.[26] Wood is the natural material that positively benefits the planet and our relationship to it. We should therefore explore as many ways of using it in our daily life as possible. REFERENCES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree Hoadley, R.B. 1980. Understanding wood (A craftman`s guide to wood technology). The Taunton Press, Inc., London. Tsoumis, G.T. 1991. Science and technology of wood (Structure, properties, utilisation). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumber http://www.matbase.com/material/wood/ http://www.aboutcivil.com/Properties%20of%20Wood%20and%20Timber.html http://www.aboutcivil.com/Wood%20as%20construction%20material.html

10 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3575/is_1281_213/ai_111268372/ 11 http://www.askfactmaster.com/Wood 12 http://ezinearticles.com/?Wooden-Deck-Boards---5-Reasons-Why-Wood-is-the-Best-MaterialFor-Decking&id=4441832 13 http://www.askfactmaster.com/Five_Elements

14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronology 15 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating 16 http://www.essayclub.com/term-papers/Wooden-Chopsticks/2719.html 17 Eaton E.R.A, and Hale, M.D.C. 1993. Wood: decay, pests and protection. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London. 18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet 19 http://informationbible.com/article-how-to-protect-furniture-at-home-in-hot-summer-78498.html 20 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothball 21 http://www.aboutcivil.com/Decay%20and%20preservation%20of%20wood%20timber.html 22 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_preservation 23 Hiziroglu, S. 2009. Basics of pressure treatment of wood. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets, Natural Resource Ecology and Management, NREM-5047. (http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-2531/NREM 5047web%20color.pdf). 24 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_tetraborate 25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron 26 http://www.kramers.org/whywood.html