FHSST Physics

10/24/13
FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world
FHSSTPhysics/Printversion
ATextbookforHighSchoolStudentsStudyingPhysics.
TheFreeHighSchoolScienceTexts:
AboutFHSST
FreeHighSchoolScienceTexts(FHSST)isaninitiativetodevelopanddistributefreesciencetextbookstograde1112learnersinSouthAfrica. Theprimaryobjectivesare: Toprovidea*free*resource,thatcanbeusedaloneorinconjunctionwithothereducationinitiativesinSouthAfrica,toalllearnersandteachers Toprovideaquality,accurateandinterestingtextthatadherestotheSouthAfricanschoolcurriculumandtheoutcomesbasededucationsystem TomakealldevelopedcontentavailableinternationallytosupportEducationonthelargestpossiblescale ToprovideatextthatiseasytoreadandunderstandevenforsecondlanguageEnglishspeakers TomakeadifferenceinSouthAfricathroughhelpingtoeducateyoungSouthAfricans FHSSTWebsite(http://www.fhsst.org/)FHSSTPhysicsonWikibooks OtherFHSSTbooksonWikibooks: FHSSTBiology FHSSTComputerLiteracy FHSSTChemistry
Introduction
<<MainPageFirstChapter(Units)>>
Introduction
Physicsisthestudyofthelawswhichgovernspace,structureandtime.Inasensewearemorequalifiedtodophysicsthananyotherscience.Fromthedaywearebornwestudythethingsaroundusinanefforttounderstandhowtheyworkandrelate toeachother.Forexample,learninghowtocatchorthrowaballisaphysicsundertaking. Inthefieldofstudywerefertoasphysicswejusttrytomakethethingseveryonehasbeenstudyingmoreclear.Weattempttodescribethemthroughsimplerulesandmathematics.Mathematicsismerelythelanguageweuse.Thebestapproachto physicsistorelateeverythingyoulearntothingsyouhavealreadynoticedinyoureverydaylife.Sometimeswhenyoulookatthingsclosely,youdiscoverthingsyouhadinitiallyoverlooked.
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics/Print_version
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Itisthecontinuedscrutinyofeverythingweknowabouttheworldaroundusthatleadspeopletothelifelongstudyofphysics.Youcanstartwithaskingasimplequestionlike"Whyistheskyblue?",whichcouldleadyoutoelectromagneticwaves,which inturncouldleadyoutowaveparticledualityandenergylevelsofatoms.Beforelongyouarestudyingquantummechanicsorthestructureoftheuniverse. Inthesectionsthatfollownoticethatwewilltrytodescribehowwewillcommunicatethethingswearedealingwith.Thisisourlanguage.Oncethisisdonewecanbegintheadventureoflookingmorecloselyattheworldwelivein.
Units Introduction
Sciencefocusesonstudyinghowthingshappenintherealworldthingsyoucansee,touch,hear,smell,feel,orimaginesuchastime.
Fractionsanddecimals
Earlysocietyhadprimitiveideas(shIt)suchas one,twoormany,thenmoresophisticatedmeansofcountingemerged,mainlyrelatingtotrade.Unitsofweight,volumeandmoneywereatfirst integerwholeunits,oftenrecordedbynotchesinatally stickormarksinclaytablets.About6000yearsago,withtheadventofwritingcame unitssuchasthelengthoftheking'sarm,togetherwiththeideaof multiplessuchasdozensandscores,togetherwith vulgarfractionsbasedonhalves,quartersand soon.,Inordertodescribethesethings,itisnecessarytocarefully measurewhatisobserved. In1791,followingtheFrenchRevolution,thedecimalsystemwaspublishedbasedontensandmultiplesorfractionsoften.Theideaoftenmonthsperyearandtendaysinaweekwerequicklydropped,butformostpurposesitwasrevolutionary,with integratedstandardweightsandmeasures,suchasfixingthesecondtothelengthofapendulumofonemetre,andtheweightofakiloofwaterthesameasalitrevolume.Sincethe1960stheInternationalSystemofUnits("SystmeInternational d'Units"inFrench,hence"SI")hasbeenalmostuniversaloutsidetheUnitedStatesofAmerica,whichstillprefersaversionoftheImperialRomanmeasuringsystemwhichemergedmorethan2000yearsgoandwhichiscomplicatedandillogical. Measurementsmustalwaysbereportedwithappropriate units,whichspecifywhat typeofquantityisbeingdiscussedweight,lengthorwhatever.Forscienceandengineering,theSIsystemisuniversalandisnot'owned'byanyone,soitremains constantandfreeofpoliticalmanipulation.Asrecentlyas1897theIndianaStateLegislature,attempted(unsuccessfully)tosetthevalueofPito3.2,andduring1940,inBritain,theweightofapound(lb)loafofbreadwaslegislatedatalowerweightto concervesuppliesduringfoodrationing,givingrisetotheexpression'baker'sdozen'becauseyouneededthirteennewloavesorbunsforthesamequantityofbreadas12ofthecorrectweight!
TheMeasurementandtheDecimalMetricSystem
Asasimpleexampleoftheimportanceofunits,imagineyouhadtomakecurtainsandneededtobuymaterial.Theshopassistantwouldneedtoknowhowmuchmaterialwasrequired.Tellingheryouneedmaterial2wideand6longwouldbe insufficientyouhavetospecifythe unit(i.e.2 metreswideand6 metreslong).Withouttheunit,theinformationisincompleteandtheshopassistantwouldhavetoguess.Ifyouweremakingcurtainsforadoll'shousethedimensionsmightbe2 centimetreswideand6centimetreslong! Itisnotjustlengthsthathaveunits.Anymeasurementofanyphysicalphenomenontime,temperature,force,orvoltage,justtonameafewhasunits.
Tip:Manyphysicsproblemsaskyoutodetermineaspecificnumericquantity.Whenyousolvetheproblem, donotforgettospecifythe unitsofyouranswer:evenifyouhavetherightnumber,youranswerisnotcorrectunlessyou includethecorrectunits.
SIUnits
Intheremainderofthisclasswewillbeusing SI units,whicharedefinedinthetablebelow.Thesesevenunitsareusedtomeasurefundamentalquantities,andarethebasisofeverythingwewilldo,aswillbediscussedinmoredetailinthenextsection. Table1.1:SIBaseUnits Basequantity length mass time electriccurrent thermodynamictemperature countableamountofsubstance luminousintensity Name metre kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela Symbol m kg s A K mol cd
SIUnits(SystmeInternationald'Units)
Theseunitsareinternationallyagreeduponandformthesystemwewilluse.HistoricallytheseunitsarebasedonthemetricsystemwhichwasdevelopedinFranceatthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution.
Table1.1:SIBaseUnits
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Basequantity length mass time electriccurrent thermodynamictemperature amountofsubstance luminousintensity Name metre kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela Symbol m kg s A K mol cd
Allphysicalquantitieshaveunitswhichcanbebuiltfromthe7baseunitslistedinTable1.1(incidentallythechoiceofthesesevenwasarbitrary).Theyarecalledbaseunitsbecausenoneofthemcanbeexpressedascombinationsoftheothersix.Thisis similartobreakingalanguagedownintoasetofsoundsfromwhichallwordsaremade.Anotherwayofviewingthebaseunitsislikethethreeprimarycolours.Allothercolourscanbemadefromtheprimarycoloursbutnoprimarycolourcanbemadeby combiningtheothertwoprimaries. Unitnamesarealwayswrittenwithlowercaseinitials(e.g.themetre).Thesymbols(orabbreviations)ofunitsarealsowrittenwithlowercaseinitialsexceptiftheyarenamedafterscientists(e.g.thekelvin(K)andtheampere(A)).Anexceptiontothisrule isthe litre,whichisabbreviatedaseitherLorl. Tomakelifeconvenient,particularcombinationsofthebaseunitsaregivenspecialnames.Thismakesworkingwiththemeasier,butitisalwayscorrecttoreduceeverythingtothebaseunits.Table1.2listssomeexamplesofcombinationsofSIbase unitsassignedspecialnames.Donotbeconcernediftheformulaelookunfamiliaratthisstagewewilldealwitheachindetailinthechaptersahead(aswellasmanyothers)! Itisveryimportantthatyouareabletosaytheunitscorrectly.Forinstance,the newtonisanothernameforthe kilogrammetrepersecondsquared(kgms2),whilethe kilogrammetresquaredpersecondsquared(kgm2s2)iscalledthe joule. Table1.2:SomeExamplesofCombinationsofSIBaseUnits AssignedSpecialNames UnitExpressed Quantity Formula in BaseUnits kgms2 s1 F s W/ A kgm2s2 kgm2s3A 1 Nameof
Force Frequency Work&Energy ElectricalPotential
ma
Combination N(newton) Hz(hertz) J(joule) V(volt) .Groupingthe103and
Anotherimportantaspectofdealingwithunitsistheprefixesthattheysometimeshave(prefixesarewordsorletterswritteninfrontthatchangethemeaning).Thekilogram(kg)isasimpleexample:1kgis1000gor thegtogetherwecanreplacethe103withtheprefixk(kilo).Thereforethektakestheplaceofthe103.IncidentallythekilogramisuniqueinthatitistheonlySIbaseunitcontainingaprefix.
Thereareprefixesformanypowersof10(Table1.3listsalargesetoftheseprefixes).Thisisalargersetthanyouwillneedbutitservesasagoodreference.Thecaseoftheprefixsymbolisveryimportant.Wherealetterfeaturestwiceinthetable,itis writteninuppercaseforexponentsbiggerthanoneandinlowercaseforexponentslessthanone. Thoseprefixeslistedinboldfaceshouldbelearnt.
Table1.3:UnitPrefixes Prefix Symbol Exponent Prefix Symbol Exponent yotta zetta exa peta tera Y Z E P T 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 yocto zepto atto femto pico y z a f p 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012
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giga mega kilo hecto deca G M k h da 109 106 103 102 101 nano micro milli centi deci n m c d 109 106 103 102 101
Asanotherexampleoftheuseofprefixes, canbewrittenas1mg(1milligram).
TheOtherSystemsofUnits
Theremainingsetsofunits,althoughnotusedbyus,arealsointernationallyrecognisedandstillinusebyothers.Wewillmentionthembrieflyforinterestonly.
CGSandMKSUnits
Inthissystemthebasicmeasureoflengthisthecentimetre,weightisingramsandtimeisinseconds.Laterthemetreisreplacedthecentimetreandthekilogramreplacedthegram.TheSecondhasremainedthebasicunitoftimethroughout.Thisisa simplechangebutitmeansthatallunitsderivedfromthesetwoarechanged.Forexample,theunitsofforceandworkaredifferent.Theseunitsareusedmostofteninastrophysicsandatomicphysics. Whenelectromagnetismcomesintoplay,therearethreeCGSsystems,adaptedtothefundamentalequationseachtheoryviewsasbasic:TheelectricCGS,themagneticCGS,andthecombinedGaussian.Thelatterhastheadvantagethat correspondingelectricandmagneticphenomenahavethesameunitsandrelatedequations. Ithastheadditionaladvantagethatthereisonlyonenaturalconstantintheequations,the speedoflight ,wheretheSIsystemhastwo.Andexperience,i.e.measurements,hasshownthatthereisonlyoneconstant.SotheGaussionsystemisabit more'right'. Theseunitsystemsalsoshowthatthechoiceofbaseunitsisarbitrary.InSI,thereisabaseunitforthecurrent,theampere[A],derivedfromittheunitofcharge,coulomb[C].TheGaussiansystemdoeswithoutadedicatedunitforelectricity.Itsimply definesthefactorinthelawofforcebetweentwochargedparticlesasoneandlo,theunitCdisappearstheesu(electrostaticunit)canbederivedfromg,cm,stheCcannot,itisAs,andAisbasic. [Thesamecouldbedonewithmass,leadingtokgvanishing,justbysettingthegravitationalconstantinNewton'slawtoone.kgwouldthenbereplacedbyacombinationofmands.
ImperialUnits
Theseunits(astheirnamesuggests)stemfromthedayswhentheRomanEmpiredecidedmeasures.Someofthesewerelateralteredbylocalrulers.Asaresult,differentcountriesuseddifferentbaseunitsforeachquantity(exceptfortime).TheBritish abandonedtheRomanmeasurementandmoneysystemin1972.Therewere12penniesordenariesinashillingorsolidus,and20shillingsinapoundorlibraergotherewere240'oldpennies'andarenow100newpenniesinthepoundsterlingorGBP whichlargeunitwasunchanged.TheBritishalsousedbothavoirdupoisandtroyweightandothercapriciouslocalmeasures,butfollowingitsintegrationintheEU,BritainnowofficiallyusedecimalSIunitsforallmeasurements. AlthoughtheBritishonceusedanimperialmetricsystemsimilartothatinuseintheUS,itisimportanttoknowthattherearesomedifferences,becausethecolonistsmadecertainincorrectassumptions,suchasthatbecausetherewere16ouncesina poundweight,therewerealso16fluidouncesinapintofliquid,whentheRomansandBritishdefined20floz.Thismatters,becauseduringWorldWarII,forexample,greatfraudwasperpetratedbytheBritishsellingthesmallerAmericangallons(8 pints)atthepriceforthelargerBritishmeasure! ThedecimalmetricsystemwasinventedinFrancein1791,followingtheFrenchrevolution.ThislaterbecametheMKS(Meter/Kilogram/Second)systemandisnowtheSystemInternational(SI)system,whichisstillclosethatearlyFrenchsystem.Using differentunitsindifferentplaceswouldmakeeffectivescientificcommunicationverydifficult.ThatiswhythescientificcommunityhasadoptedSIunitsasitsinternationallyagreeduponstandard.ThereforetheSIisoverwhelminglypredominantfornearly allinternationalscientificandtechnicaluse.
NaturalUnits
Thisisthemostsophisticatedchoiceofunits.Herethemostfundamentaldiscoveredquantities(suchasthespeedoflight)aresetequalto1.Theargumentforthischoiceisthatallotherquantitiesshouldbebuiltfromthesefundamentalunits.This systemofunitsisusedinhighenergyphysicsandquantummechanics.
TheImportanceofUnits
Withoutunitsmuchofourworkasscientistswouldbemeaningless.Weneedtoexpressourthoughtsclearlyandunitsgivemeaningtothenumberswecalculate.Dependingonwhichunitsweuse,thenumbersaredifferent(e.g.3.8mand3800mm actuallyrepresentthesamelength).Unitsareanessentialpartofthelanguageweuse.Unitsmustbespecifiedwhenexpressingphysicalquantities.Inthecaseofthecurtainexampleatthebeginningofthechapter,theresultofamisunderstanding wouldsimplyhavebeenanincorrectamountofmaterialcut.However,sometimessuchmisunderstandingshavecatastrophicresults.HereisanextractfromastoryonCNN'swebsite:
NASA:HumanerrorcausedlossofMarsorbiterNovember10,1999 WASHINGTON(AP)FailuretoconvertEnglishmeasurestometricvaluescausedthelossoftheMarsClimateOrbiter,aspacecraftthatsmashedintotheplanetinsteadofreachingasafeorbit,aNASAinvestigationconcluded Wednesday.TheMarsClimateOrbiter,akeycraftinthespaceagency'sexplorationoftheredplanet,vanishedafterarocketfiringSeptember23thatwassupposedtoputthespacecraftonorbitaroundMars.Aninvestigationboard concludedthatNASAengineersfailedtoconvertEnglishmeasuresofrocketthruststonewton,ametricsystemmeasuringrocketforce.OneEnglishpoundofforceequals4.45newtons.Asmalldifferencebetweenthetwovalues causedthespacecrafttoapproachMarsattoolowanaltitudeandthecraftisthoughttohavesmashedintotheplanet'satmosphereandwasdestroyed.Thespacecraftwastobeakeypartoftheexplorationoftheplanet.Fromits
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stationabouttheredplanet,theMarsClimateOrbiterwastorelaysignalsfromtheMarsPolarLander,whichisscheduledtotouchdownonMarsnextmonth.``Therootcauseofthelossofthespacecraftwasafailedtranslationof Englishunitsintometricunitsandasegmentofgroundbased,navigationrelatedmissionsoftware,"saidArthusStephenson,chairmanoftheinvestigationboard.ReportedbyCNNat http://www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9911/10/orbiter.02/
Thisstoryillustratestheimportanceofbeingawarethatdifferentsystemsofunitsexist.Furthermore,wemustbeabletoconvertbetweensystemsofunits!
ChoiceofUnits
Therearenowrongunitstouse,butacleverchoiceofunitscanmakeaproblemlooksimpler.Thevastrangeofproblemsmakesitimpossibletouseasinglesetofunitsforeverythingwithoutmakingsomeproblemslookmuchmorecomplicatedthan theyshould.Wecan'teasilycomparethemassofthesunandthemassofanelectron,forinstance.Thisiswhyastrophysicistsandatomicphysicistsusedifferentsystemsofunits. Wewon'taskyoutochoosebetweendifferentunitsystems.ForyourpresentpurposestheSIsystemisperfectlysufficient.InsomecasesyoumaycomeacrossquantitiesexpressedinunitsotherthanthestandardSIunits.Youwillthenneedtoconvert thesequantitiesintothecorrectSIunits.Thisisexplainedinthenextsection.
HowtoChangeUnitsthe"Multiplyby1"Technique
Alsoknownasfractionaldimensionalanalysis,thetechniqueinvolvesmultiplyingalabeledquantitybyaconversionratio,orknowledgeofconversionfactors.First,arelationshipbetweenthetwounitsthatyouwishtoconvertbetweenmustbefound. Here'sasimpleexample:convertingmillimetres(mm)tometres(m)theSIunitoflength.Weknowthatthereare1000mmin1mwhichwecanwriteas
Nowmultiplyingbothsidesby
weget
whichsimplygivesus
Thisistheconversionratiofrommillimetrestometres.Youcanderiveanyconversionratiointhiswayfromaknownrelationshipbetweentwounits.Let'susetheconversionratiowehavejustderivedinanexample: Question:Express3800 mminmetres. Answer:
Notethatwewroteeveryunitineachstepofthecalculation.Bywritingtheminandcancellingthemproperly,wecancheckthatwehavetherightunitswhenwearefinished.Westartedwith mmandmultipliedby Thiscancelledthe mmleavinguswithjust m,whichistheSIunitwewanted!Ifwewishedtodothereverseandconvertmetrestomillimetres,thenwewouldneedaconversionratiowithmillimetresonthetopandmetresonthebottom. Itishelpfultounderstandthatunitscancelwhenoneisinthenumeratorandtheotherisinthedenominator.Iftheunityouaretryingtocancelisonthetop,thentheconversionfactorthatyoumultiplyitwithmustbeonthebottom. Thissametechniquecanbeusedtonotjusttoconvertunits,butcanalsobeusedasawaytosolveforanunknownquantity.Forexample:IfIwasdrivingat65milesperhour,thenIcouldfindhowfarIwouldgoin5hoursbyusing conversionfactor. asa
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Thiswouldlooklike
Thiswouldyieldaresultof325milesbecausethehourswouldcancelleavingmilesastheonlyunit.
PracticeProblem
Problem:Convert3millenniaintoseconds. Mostpeopledon'tknowhowmanysecondsareinamillennium,buttheydoknowenoughtosolvethisproblem.Sinceweknow1000years=1millennium,1year=about365.2425days,1day=24hours,and1hour=3600secondswecansolvethis problembymultiplyingbyonemanytimes.
HowUnitsCanHelpYou
Weconcludeeachsectionofthisbookwithadiscussionoftheunitsmostrelevanttothatparticularsection.Itisimportanttotrytounderstandwhattheunitsmean.Thatiswhythinkingabouttheexamplesandexplanationsoftheunitsisessential. Ifwearecarefulwithourunitsthenthenumberswegetinourcalculationscanbecheckedina'sanitytest'.
Whatisa'sanitytest'?
Thisisn'taspecialorsecrettest.Allwedoisstop,takeadeepbreath,andlookatouranswer.Surewealwayslookatouranswersordowe?Thistimewemeanstopandreallylookdoesouranswermakesense? Imagineyouwerecalculatingthenumberofpeopleinaclassroom.Iftheansweryougotwas1000000peopleyouwouldknowitwaswrongthat'sjustaninsanenumberofpeopletohaveinaclassroom.That'sallasanitycheckisisyouranswer insaneornot?Butwhatunitswereweusing?Wewereusingpeopleasourunit.Thishelpedustomakesenseoftheanswer.Ifwehadusedsomeotherunit(ornounit)thenumberwouldhavelackedmeaningandasanitytestwouldhavebeenmuch harder(orevenimpossible). Itisusefultohaveanideaofsomenumbersbeforewestart.Forexample,let'sconsidermasses.Anaveragepersonhasmass70kg,whiletheheaviestpersoninmedicalhistoryhadamassof635kg.Ifyoueverhavetocalculateaperson'smassand youget7000kg,thisshouldfailyoursanitycheckyouranswerisinsaneandyoumusthavemadeamistakesomewhere.Inthesamewayananswerof0.00001kgshouldfailyoursanitytest. Theonlyproblemwithasanitycheckisthatyoumustknowwhattypicalvaluesforthingsare.Intheexampleofpeopleinaclassroomyouneedtoknowthatthereareusually2050peopleinaclassroom.Onlythendoyouknowthatyouranswerof1000 000mustbewrong.Hereisatableoftypicalvaluesofvariousthings(bigandsmall,fastandslow,lightandheavyyougettheidea): Table1.4:Everydayexamplestohelpwith sanitychecks Category Quantity Minimum Maximum People Mass Height
(NOTETOSELF:Addtothistableaswegoalongwithexamplesfromeachsection) Notethatyoudonothavetomemorizethistable.However,readitsothatyoucanrefertoitwhenyoudoacalculation.
Temperature
Ineverydaylife,manypeoplemeasuretemperaturesinCelsius.Butinphysics,weprefertousetheKelvinscalewhichstartsat absolutezero(273.15C). Asweallknow,Celsiustemperaturescanbenegative.Thismightsuggestthatanynumberisavalidtemperature.Infact,thetemperatureofagasisameasureoftheaveragekineticenergyoftheparticlesthatmakeupthegas.Aswelowerthe temperaturesothemotionoftheparticlesisreduceduntilapointisreachedwhereallmotionceases.Thetemperatureatwhichthisoccursiscalledabsolutezero.Thereisnophysicallypossibletemperaturecolderthanthis.InCelsius,absolutezeroisat 273.15C.InKelvin,theordinaryfreezingpointofwater0Cistherefore273.15K Physicistshavedefinedanewtemperaturescalecalledthe Kelvinscale.Accordingtothisscaleabsolutezeroisat0Kandnegativetemperaturesarenotallowed.ThesizeofoneunitkelvinisexactlythesameasthatofoneunitdegreeCelsius.This meansthatachangeintemperatureof1kelvinisequaltoachangeintemperatureof1degreeCelsiusthescalesjuststartindifferentplaces.ThinkoftwoladderswithstepsthatarethesamesizebutthebottommoststepontheCelsiusladderis labelled273,whilethefirststepontheKelvinladderislabelled0.Therearestill100'steps'ordegrees(CelsiusorKelvin)betweenthepointswherewaterfreezesandboilswhenitisatat1.0atmosphereofpressure(waterboilsatlowertemperaturesif theairpressureislowerO.
| | 1 0 2d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 1 0 1d e g r e e sC e l s i u s
| | 3 7 5k e l v i n | | 3 7 4k e l v i n
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w a t e rb o i l s > | | 1 0 0d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 9 9 d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 9 8 d e g r e e sC e l s i u s . . . | | 2 d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 1 d e g r e eC e l s i u s | | 0 d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 1 d e g r e eC e l s i u s | | 2 d e g r e e sC e l s i u s . . . | | 2 6 9d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 2 7 0d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 2 7 1d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 2 7 2d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 2 7 3d e g r e e sC e l s i u s | | 3 7 3k e l v i n | | 3 7 2k e l v i n | | 3 7 1k e l v i n
i c em e l t s
>
| | | | | | | | | |
2 7 5k e l v i n 2 7 4k e l v i n 2 7 3k e l v i n 2 7 2k e l v i n 2 7 1k e l v i n
a b s o l u t ez e r o>
| | | | | | | | | |
4k e l v i n 3k e l v i n 2k e l v i n 1k e l v i n 0k e l v i n
(NOTETOSELF:Comeupwithadecentpictureoftwoladderswiththelabelswaterboilingandfreezinginthesameplacebutwithdifferentlabellingonthesteps!) ThismakestheconversionfromkelvintodegreeCelsiusandbackveryeasy.ToconvertfromdegreesCelsiustokelvinsadd273.ToconvertfromkelvinstodegreesCelsiussubtract273.RepresentingtheKelvintemperatureby TKandtheCelsius temperatureby TC,
or
ConvertingbetweenkelvinandCelsiusisadditivesoadifferenceintemperatureof1degreeCelsiusisequaltoadifferenceof1kelvin.Themajorityofconversionsbetweenunitsaremultiplicative.Forexample,toconvertfrommetrestomillimetreswe multiplyby1000.Thereforeachangeof1misequaltoachangeof1000mm. AlthoughitseemsasthoughthereisnotmuchreasonforthescientificcommunitytousetheKelvinscaleovertheCelsiusscale,thereisactuallyaveryremarkabledifferenceinusingtheKelvinscaleotherthantheremindingeffectstatedabove.It happensthattheidealisedformofsomematerialsvariesproportionatelyaccordingtotheKelvinscale,suchthatsomerequiredvaluescanbesimplyfoundbymultiplicationanddivision.Insuchcalculations,itisjustachoretousetheCelsiusscale.
FahrenheitScale
Fahrenheitisatemperaturescalepreviouslyusedinmeteorologyuntilabout1970,andwhichisstillwidelyusedintheUSA.ItwasdevisedbyaGermanphysicistin1724.Heneededascalethatwentbelowthefreezingpointofwater,anduseda mixtureofice,water,andammoniumchloridewhichfreezesatamuchlowertemperature. Inthisscale,thefreezingpointofwater(0C)is32degreesFahrenheit(32F)andtheboilingpoint(100C)is212F,placingtheboilingandfreezingpointsofwaterexactly180degreesapart.AtemperatureintervalofonedegreeFahrenheitisan intervalof59ofadegreeCelsius.TheFahrenheitandCelsiusscalescoincideat40degrees(i.e.40Fand40Cdescribethesametemperature). ToconvertCelsiustoFahrenheit: 1)TakeyournumberinCelsiusandmultiplyby9. 2)Dividetheresultofstep1by5. 3)Add32totheresultofstep2.
ConvertingFahrenheittoCelsius: 1)TakeyournumberinFahrenheitandsubtract32 2)Multiplytheresultofstep1by5. 3)Dividetheresultofstep2by9.
RankineScale
Absolutezerois459.67F.TheRankinetemperaturescalewascreatedtousedegreesthesamesizeasthoseoftheFahrenheitscale,suchthatatemperaturedifferenceofonedegreeRankine(1R)isthesameasatemperaturedifferenceof1F, butwithabsolutezerobeing0R.
ScientificNotation,SignificantFiguresandRounding
Ifyouareonlysureofsay,bothdigitsofatwodigitnumber,andputitinaformulaandgetalongseriesofnumberstotherightofthedecimalplace,thenthosedigitsareprobablynotveryaccurate.Thisistheideaofsignificantfigures.
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Take10anddivideby3.Ifyouarenotsurethatthenumber10isperfectlyaccurate,thenyoudonotneedtowritedown3.333...andcangetawaywithsomethinglike3.3or3.33 (NOTETOSELF:stilltobewritten) Theaccuracyofameasurementusingsignificantfiguresisrepresentedbythenumberofdigitsthatitcontains.Anumberissaidtohavethenumberofsignificantfiguresequaltothenumberofdigitsinthenumbernotincludingleading0sortrailing0s unlessthereisadecimalpoint.Thetablebelowcontainsalistofnumbersandhowmanysignificantdigitseachcontains. Table?:SignificantDigits Number 1000 1000. 10.0 010 232 23.2 SignificantDigits 1 4 3 2 3 3 1 3
Asyoumayhavenoted,somenumberscannotbeshowninpropersignificantfigurenotationwithouttheuseofscientificnotation.Forexample,thenumber1000canonlybeshowntohave1or4ormoresignificantdigitsbytheinclusionofadecimalpoint.However,b afterthedecimalpoint. Sometimesyoumaybeaskedtodeterminethenumberofsignificantfiguresinagivennumber.Therearethreerulestodeterminewhatnumeralsaresignificant. 1. Leadingzerosareneversignificant.Leadingzerosarezerosthatappearontheleftendofthenumber. 2. Allnonzerodigitsaresignificant. Trappedzeros(zerosbetweennonzerodigits)arealsosignificant. 3. Trailingzerosareneversignificant unlessthereisadecimalpoint.Trailingzerosarezerosthatappearontherightendofthenumber.
Enotation
Verylargenumberssuchasthespeedoflight(theCpartofinEinstein'sfamous Wecouldwrite300,000,000m/sec, )aredifficulttowriteaccurately.
,300millionmeterspersecondorsomesuch.Thereisamuchbetterway!
Wesimplyseparatethenumber(coefficient)part 3fromitsmultiplier 00000000base! Butbecareful,thereisan E lephanttraphere,anditisthatinscientificnotationthenumberisalwaysexpressesasa decimalfractionwithamaximumvalueof1.0,(inthiscase=0.3)sothemultiplierpartisonebiggerthanyoumightexpect! Atinydustparticlemightweighaslittleas0.000000000678kg.!Thistimeweshiftthedecimalpoint9placestotherightsothenumber(678)hasa negativebasesoourweightiswrittenas0.678E 9kg. Nowisthatnotawholeloteasiertowriteandunderstand?Thatiswhymanyscientificcalculatorsandmostspreadsheetsallowinputanddisplayin Enotationformat.
Commasandpoints
MostEnglishspeakingpeopleusethecomma[ , ]toseparatethousandsandthedot(fulstop,orpoint)[ . ]forthedecimalindicator.Europeansoftenusethesetheotherwayaround.Manyspreadsheetsallowboth,butitisjustonemorecomplexityyouneedtoknow
Conclusion WavesandWavelikeMotion
WavesandWavelikeMotion
Inthischapterwehavediscussedtheimportanceofunits.Wehavediscoveredthattherearemanydifferentunitstodescribethesamething,althoughyoushouldsticktoSIunitsinyourcalculations.Wehavealsodiscussedhowtoconvertbetweendifferentunits.This
Wavesoccurfrequentlyinnature.Themostobviousexamplesarewavesinwateronadam,intheocean,orinabucket,butsoundwavesandelectromagneticwavesareother,lessvisibleexamples.Wearemostinterestedinthepropertiesthatwaveshave.Allwaves howothertypesofwaveswillbehave.
Wavesareassociatedwithenergy.Asthewavesmove,theycarryenergyfromonepointtoanotherinspace.Itistrueforwaterwavesaswell.Youcanseethewaveenergyworkingwhileashipdriftsalongthewaveinroughsea.Themostspectacularexampleisthee electromagneticwavesnotevenrequiringamediumtopropagate.
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SimpleHarmonicMotion
SimpleHarmonicmotionisawavelikemotion.Itisconsideredwavelikebecausethegraphoftimevs.displacementfromtheequilibriumpositionisasinecurve.
Anexampleofsimpleharmonicmotionisamassoscillatingonaspring.Itwillbehardtounderstandtheforcesinvolvedthisearlyinthecoursethatcausethemotiontosimpleharmonic,butitisstillpossibletolookatamassoscillatingonaspringandunderstandtha slowerthemasswillbemoving.Thenthemassreachesapointwherethestringwon'tstretchanyfurther,soitquitsmovingandthenitreversesdirection.Asitmovesclosertotheequilibriumpositionismovesfaster.
Whatarewaves?
Generally,awaveisdefinedasanyphenomenonwhichcanbemodeledbyafunctionoftheform onespatialdimension'x',forinstanceawavetravellingonatautstring,itcanbewrittensimplyas
Wavesarephenomenathateveryoneexperiencesconstantlywaterwaves,soundwaves,lightwaves,humanwaveswhenthehometeamscores...thelistgoeson.Whenaskedwhatmakesawaveawave,themostcommonresponseswouldprobablybethatawavei Thesepropertiesdocapturetheessentialqualitiesofwaves.Nowwemustdeterminethesepropertiesquantitatively,anddiscoverwhatgovernstheirbehavior.
wherethervectorrepresentsapositioninspace,andtrepresentsatime,andthekvectorandomegaarebothconstants.Don'tbeintimidatedbytheve .
Anyfunctionofthisform"propagates"alongthe directionovertime.Astimeincreases,theargumentofthefunctionincreasesovertimetheformofthefunctioneffectivelyadvancesthroughspace.Trycomingupwithfunctionsofthisform,andplotthemattimet= velocitywithwhichyourfunctionadvances!(wewillstudythislater)Thenegativesigninfrontofthetimetermcausesthewavetopropagateinthedirectiondefinedaspositive(ifthatseemsconfusing,tryplottingmorefunctionsovertime,andexaminetheresults).Ify propagateinthenegativedirection. Averyspecialandimportantcaseofawaveisthemathematicalfunction ,orinonedimension,
.Thisisasinusoidalwaveitoscillatesupanddowninfinitelyinbothdirections,andmoves
periodicity.However,manyfunctionsoftheformmentionedabovedonotseemtorepeat.However,youwillfindthatALLwavescanbedecomposedintoasumofmanyofthesesimple,infinitelyrepeatingwaveswhenyoulearnaboutFouriertransformations. Morethananyotherconcept,physicistsarefindingthat wavescharacterizethestructureoftheuniverseateveryscaleimaginable.Asyoulearnaboutthephysicsofwavesineverydaylife,keepanopenmindtowardsfindingwavesandwavebehavioreverywhereyout
Let'sconsideraverywellknowncaseofawavephenomenon:waterwaves.Wavesinwaterconsistofmovingpeaksandtroughs.Apeakisaplacewherethewaterriseshigherthanwhenthewaterisstillandatroughisaplacewherethewatersinkslowerthanwhent Sowaveshavepeaksandtroughs.Thiscouldbeourfirstpropertyforwaves.Thefollowingdiagramshowsthepeaksandtroughsonawave.
Inphysicswetrytobeasquantitativeaspossible.Ifwelookverycarefullywenoticethattheheightofthepeaksabovethelevelofthestillwateristhesameasthedepthofthetroughsbelowthelevelofthestillwater.
Wavesarerepetitionsofphysicalquantityinaperiodicmanner,carryingenergyintheprocess.Thewaterwaves,forexample,canbevisualizedtorepeatanyofthephysicalquantitieslike"peaks","troughs","potentialenergy"or"kineticenergy".Even,wecanvisualize understandingofdifferenttypesofwaves,manyofwhicharenotvisible.
Lookingcloselyatthewaterwave,wecanrecognizethatcrestsandtroughsbasicallyrepresentofextremepotentialandkineticenergiesinadditiontorepresentingriseandfallofwaterfromthestilllevel.Atthepeak,energyisonlypotential,whereasenergyisonlykin andelectricfieldinspacewithcertainperiodicity.Asexistenceofelectricalormagneticfieldsdoesnotrequireanymedium,electromagneticwavescanmoveevenintheabsenceofanymedium.
CharacteristicsofWaves:Amplitude
Weusesymbolsagreeduponbyconventiontolabelthecharacteristicquantitiesofthewaves.Thecharacteristicheightofapeakanddepthofatroughiscalledtheamplitudeofthewave.Theverticaldistancebetweenthebottomofthetroughandthetopofthepeak crestortrough
WorkedExample1 Question:(NOTETOSELF:Makethisamoreexcitingquestion)Theheightofthewavefromthemediumis2m.Whatisthedistancefromthepeaktothetrough.What Answer: Theamplitudeis2m.(Readaboveparagraphtoknowwhy).Thedistancefromthepeaktotroughis4m.
CharacteristicsofWaves:Wavelength
Lookalittlecloseratthepeaksandthetroughs.Thedistancebetweentwoadjacent(nexttoeachother)peaksisthesamenomatterwhichtwoadjacentpeaksyouchoose.Sothereisafixeddistancebetweenthepeaks.
Similarly,you'llnoticethatthedistancebetweentwoadjacenttroughsisthesamenomatterwhichtwotroughsyoulookat.But,moreimportantly,itsisthesameasthedistancebetweenthepeaks.Thisdistancewhichisacharacteristicofthewaveiscalledthewavele
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Waveshaveacharacteristicwavelength.ThesymbolforthewavelengthistheGreekletterlambda, .
Thewavelengthisthedistancebetweenanytwoadjacentpointswhichareinphase.Twopointsinphaseareseparatebyaninteger(0,1,2,3,...)numberofcompletewavecycles.Theydon'thavetobepeaksortroughbuttheymustbeseparatedbyacompletenumber
CharacteristicsofWaves:Period
Nowimagineyouaresittingnexttoapondandyouwatchthewavesgoingpastyou.Firstonepeak,thenatroughandthenanotherpeak.Ifyoumeasurethetimebetweentwoadjacentpeaksyou'llfindthatitisthesame.Nowifyoumeasurethetimebetweentwoad youhavebeenmeasuringisthetimeforonewavelengthtopassby.Wecallthistimetheperiodanditisacharacteristicofthewave. Theperiodofthewaveisdenotedwiththesymbol .
CharacteristicsofWaves:Frequency
Thereisanotherwayofcharacterisingthetimeintervalofawave.Wetimedhowlongittakesforonewavelengthtogopast.Wecouldalsoturnthisaroundandsayhowmanywavesgobyin1second.
Wecaneasilydeterminethisnumber,whichwecallthefrequencyanddenotef.Todeterminethefrequency,howmanywavesgobyin1s,weworkoutwhatfractionofawavesgoesbyin1secondbydividing1secondbythetimeittakesT.Ifawavetakes1/2aseco Waveshaveacharacteristicfrequency.
f :frequency(Hzor s1) T :period(s) generally,thefrequencyofawaveisthenumberofcreststhatpassbyperunittime.
CharacteristicsofWaves:Speed
Nowifyouarewatchingawavegobyyouwillnoticethattheymoveataconstantvelocity.Thinkingbacktorectilinearmotionyouwillbeabletorememberthatweknowhowtoworkouthowfastsomethingmoves.Thespeedisthedistanceyoutraveldividedbythet atimeT.Thismeansthatwecandeterminethespeed.
v :speed(m. s1) :wavelength(m) T :period(s)
Thereareanumberofrelationshipsinvolvingthevariouscharacteristicquantitiesofwaves.Asimpleexampleofhowthiswouldbeusefulishowtodeterminethevelocitywhenyouhavethefrequencyandthewavelength.Wecantaketheaboveequationandsubstitu
Threeforcesinequilibriumcanbere
Newton'sLawso
Ourcurrentlawsofmotionweredisc andgravitationafterbeingstruckon
Newtondiscovered3lawsdescribing
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FirstLaw
Newton'sfirstlawbasicallysaysthat definitelymakessense.Theonlyway mightnotbequiteaseasytojusttak theonlywaytostopanobject'smoti forcethatwedon'tseeistheforceo
Frictionistheforcethatresistsmotio youtrytorub2piecesofsandpaper degree.Thisfrictionalforceiswhats
SecondLaw
Definition:Thetimerateo force.
Thelawisrepresentedinthefollowin
Theproductofmassandvelocityi.e. theparticlewithtime.Generallymas
Forconstantmass,
Forceisequalto mass changewithtime,andassuch,does beappliedtothemotionofarocket,
Itmakessensethatthedirectionoft movetowardyouunlessofcourseth
WorkedExample16Newton's
Question:Ablockofmass10kgis Answer: Step1: Wearegiven theblock'smass theblock'sacceleration allinthecorrectunits. Step2:
Weareaskedtofindthemagnitude forceforanobject.Sinceweareonly
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Thus,theremustbeanetforceof20
Question:A12Nforceisappliedin resultingaccelerationoftheblock? Answer: Step1: Wearegiven theblock'smass theappliedforce
butthemassisnotinthecorrectuni Step2:
Letusbeginbyconvertingthemass:
Step3:
Weknowthatnetforceresultsinacc earlierexampleoftheblockpushedo Newton'sSecondLaw. Step4:
Todeterminethemagnitudeofthea
FromNewton'sSecondLawthedirec acceleratesat
WeightandMass
Youmusthaveheardpeoplesaying
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Youmusthaveheardpeoplesaying becauseitismassthatismeasured istheforceofgravityexertedbythe
Assuch,weightismeasuredinnewt
IfyoucomparethisequationtoNewt theonlyforceactingonanobject(i.e
Fweightistheresultantforceactingo thesameforallobjects(i.e.itisinde
Youwilllearnhowtocalculatethisv placetoplaceontheEarth'ssurface
Thereasonthatweoftengetconfuse usingtheequationabove.
WorkedExample18Calculatin
Question:Ablock(mass20kg)ona appliedinthenegative Answer: Step1: Wearegiven
theblock'smass Force F1=45Ninthepositiv Force F2=25Ninthenegati allinthecorrectunits. Step2:
Weareaskedtodeterminewhathap actingontheblock. Step3:
Since F1and F2actalongthesame determinetheresultantforce.Choos
Positivexdirectionisthepositivedir
wherewerememberedinthelastste accelerateinthedirectionofthisresu Step4:
Nextwedeterminethemagnitudeof
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Thefinalresultisthenthattheblock
WorkedExample19Blockon
Question:Ablock(mass10kg)isre degreesandthecoefficientoffriction
Solution:
Step1:Theaccelerationoftheblock (whichmustcanceloutsincethereis
Step2:Weknowthatthereisnoacc Thereforeweknowthat:
Step3:Summingforcesparalleltot
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Thefinalresultisthattheblockacce
ThirdLaw
Definition:Foreveryforce anotherbodyappliesbackt
Thislawisadirectconsequenceoft
Newton'sThirdLawiseasytounders forcescanneveractonthesameob
WorkedExample20Identifyin
Question:Considerpushingaboxo
1. Drawaforcediagramindicatin 2. Identifythereactionforcefor Answer:
1. Thefollowingforcediagrams
Thereisanimportantthingtorealise exertsaforceonit(seeChapter??? reactionaryforcetotheweightofthe example.
Question:Astoneofmass0.5kgis
1. Whatistheforceexertedbyt 2. Whatistheforceexertedbyt
3. Whatistheaccelerationofth Answer: 1. Step1:Wearegiven
thestone'smass thestone'sacceleration
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1. ByNewton'sThirdLawthesto stoneontheearth. 2. Wehave
theforceactingonthe theEarth'smass File:Fhsstforces13.png
Newtonfirstpub resultsconcernin
Newton'sLawss File:Fhsstforces15.png
Thenexttwoworkedexamplesareq importanceofNewton'sLaws.
WorkedExample22Rockets
Question:Howdorocketsaccelerate Answer:
Gasexplodesinsidetherocke Thisexplodinggasexertsafo File:Fhsstforces17.png
Notethattheforcesshowninthispic
Duetothesymmetryofthesi forceoppositetheopenside. Thisisthereforetheresultant
SystemsandExternalForces
Theconceptsofasystemandanext boxaroundsuchasystemthenanex pullingatrailer.
Conceptofsystemisextremelyimpo Nowcounttheforces:
(i)Boxpressesthepersondown(ii)T pulledupbythebox(v)Personpress bytheperson.
Quiteamess.Whichonesareintern theboxorthepersonasasystemfo watchwhileselectingasystemistha eachofthemshouldbetreatedasa
Newton'sLawof
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics/Print_version 16/91
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WhydoestheEarthstayinorbitarou
ThesequestionsintriguedNewtonan
Newtonrealizedthataforcemustbe reasonedthatthisforce,whichhete betweenthetwobodies.
where
isauniversalgravitational
Newtonalsorealizedthatthissame ground.Inthiscase,thetwomasses thecenteroftheEarth.Whilewecan twofacts:
TheEarthsmass, Thedistancebetweentheapp dominatingterm.
Thuswecanrewritetheequationssu
where,
ExamplesofForc
Mostofphysicsrevolvesaroundforce resultantsandaccelerationdonotde
Atfirstglance,thenumberofdiffere physicistshavefoundthatallthesef nuclearforceandweaknuclearforce Doesn'tthatmakelifeeasy?
NewtonianGravity
Gravityistheattractiveforcebetwee massattracteachother,whichleads ball.ThemovementoftheEarthtow
ElectromagneticForce
Almostalloftheforcesthatweexpe peoplethoughtthatelectricforcesan theyareactuallydifferentmanifestat
TheElectricForce
Ifwehaveobjectscarryingelectrical actuallymuchstrongerthangravity.T bethemostimpressivethingelectros nearby.Butaballoonrubbedinsom chargesintheballoonandthewall!
Magneticforce
Themagneticforceisadifferentma tothefixedchargesinvolvedinCoulo
Examplesofthemagneticforceinac Magnetsarealsousedinthewreckin
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=Friction
Newton'sFirstLawstatesthatanob Theanswerisfriction.Frictionarises interactioniselectromagneticinorigi thatmostofthetimewearetoldton
Frictionisalsouseful.Iftherewasn climbersusefrictiontomaintaintheir
Frictionisaforcethatimpedesmotio
DragForce
Thisistheforceanobjectexperience travelsandbecauseofthistheairex takentotryandreducetheamounto
Thedragforceisveryusefulforpara acceleratingallthewaytotheground sloweryouhittheground.
SummaryofImpo
Equilibrium:Objectsatrestormov Equilibrant:The equilibrant TriangleLawforForcesinEquili triangletakeninorder.
Newton'sFirstLaw:Everyobjectw ofanexternalforce.
Newton'sSecondLaw andisdirectlyproportionaltothema
Newton'sThirdLaw:Foreveryforc
RectilinearMotio Whatisrectilinea
Rectilinearmotionmeansmotionalo astraightroadoroftrainsalongstra motion,and(2)oppositetothedirec
Toillustratethisimagineatrainhea
Ifitisacceleratingawayfromthesta Ifitisbrakingthedirectionofaccele
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SpeedandVeloc
Let'stakeamomenttoreviewourd
WorkedExample23Sp
Question:AcyclistmovesfromAth Answer: Step1:
Analysethequestiontodeterminew
thedistancebetweenAandB thedistancebetweenBandC thetotaltimeforthecyclistto allinthecorrectunits! Step2:
Whatisbeingasked?Weareasked Hisspeedascalarwillbe
Sincevelocityisavectorwewillfirst
Thetotaldisplacementisthevector
UsingtheruleofPythagoras
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Forthiscyclist,hisvelocityisnotthe directlyfromAtoC without
andhisvelocitywouldbe
Inthiscasewherethecyclistisnotu thevelocityarethesame.Thisisthe
Formotionalongastraightlineth
Graphs
Inphysicsweoftenusegraphsasim displacement,velocityandaccelerat
DisplacementTimeGr
Belowisagraphshowingthedispla
Thisgraphsshowsushow,in10sec
changeinydividedbythechangein velocity.
Theslopeofadisplacementtimeg
Theslopeisthesameallthewayfro examplesofthedisplacementtimeg
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a)showsthegraphforanobjectsta
b)showsthegraphforanobjectmo gradient,however,staysconstant(re objectismovinginthedirectionwe
c)showsthegraphforanobjectmo graph)increasewithtime.Thegradi
VelocityTimeGraphs
File:Fhsstrectmot17.png
Lookatthevelocitytimegraphbelow
RIAANNote:firstimageonpage8
Thisisthevelocitytimegraphofac ofthisgraphisjust
accelerationofthecyclistisconstan Important:
Notonlycanwegettheacceleration Lookatthegraphbelow:
Thisgraphshowsanobjectmoving shadedarea)oftheaboveplotwillg rectanglewithwidth5sandheight1
So,herewe'veshownthatanobject
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Theareabetweenavelocitytimeg
Hereareacouplemorevelocitytime
Figure5.2:Somecommonvelocity
Infigure5.2areexamplesofthedis
a)showsthegraphforanobjectmo
b)showsthegraphforanobjectwhi constant(remember:itstheslopeof acceleratingintheoppositedirection
AccelerationTimeGra
Inthischapteronrectilinearmotion likethesetwo:
Hereisadescriptionofthegraphsb
a)showsthegraphforanobjectwhi
b)showsthegraphforanobjectmo negative.
Wecanobtainthevelocityofaparti andthetimeaxis.Inthegraphbelow secondscorrespondstotheshaded
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Itsusefultorememberthesetofgra eachother.Givenadisplacementtim theslopeofadisplacementtimegra timegraph.
Figure5.3:ARelationshipBetween
WorkedExamples
WorkedExample24Relating
Question:Giventhedisplacementt themotionoftheobject.
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Answer:
Step1:Analysethequestiontodet Step2:Whatisasked? 3things:
1. Drawavelocitytimegraph 2. Drawanaccelerationtimegra 3. Describethebehaviourofthe
Forthefirst2secondswecanseeth time.Wecanreachthisconclusionb 2secondswecanseethatthedispla zeroandtheobjectisstationary.
Forthenext2seconds,displacemen canseethatitisnotconstant.Infac gradientofadisplacementtimegrap
Forthefinal2secondsweseethat isnowtravellingataconstantveloci
Soourvelocitytimegraphlookslike graph,wecannotfigureoutwhatthe importanttoshowwhethervelocities
Oncewehavethevelocitytimegrap isthejusttheacceleration.
Forthefirst2secondsthevelocityti (Thismakessensebecauseweknow accelerating).
Forthenext2secondsthevelocityt secondssotheremustbeaconstan
Forthefinal2secondstheobjectis zero,andthustheobjectisnotacce
Theaccelerationtimegraphlookslik
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Abriefdescriptionofthemotionoft stationaryuntil t =2swhenitbegins velocityforafurther2seconds.
WorkedExample25Calculatin
Question:Thevelocitytimegrapho
Answer:Weareaskedtocalculate graphandthetimeaxisgivesusthe For t =0sto t =5sthisisthetriangl
For t =5sto t =12sthedisplacemen
For t =12sto t =14sthedisplaceme
For t =14sto t =15sthedisplaceme
Nowthetotaldisplacementoftheca thevelocityofthecarisnegative,it displacement,wehavetoaddthefir
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displacementintheoppositedirectio
WorkedExample26Velocityf
Question:Giventhediplacementtim
1. whatisthevelocityoftheobj 2. whatisthevelocityoftheobj
Answer: 1. forthefirst4secvelocityissl
1. Forthelast3secondswecan
WorkedExample27Froman
Question:Giventheaccelerationtim Answer:
EquationsofMot
Thissectionisaboutsolvingproblem showyouhowtoderivethem,anda
u=startingvelocity(m/s)at v=finalvelocity(m/s)attime s=displacement(m) t =time(s)
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a=acceleration(m/s}
(5.1)
(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)
Makesureyoucanrhymetheseoff, whenyouareansweringaquestion 1. 2. 3. 4.
Findoutwhatvaluesyouhav Figureoutwhichequationyo Writeitdown!!! Fillinallthevaluesyouhave
(1.5,0)
GalileoGalileio covered,startin
objectsretainth thatobjects"na lawsofmotion
Equation5.1
Bythedefinitionofacceleration
Equation5.2
Intheprevioussectionwesawthat uniformlyacceleratedmotionthemo anobjectwithastartingvelocityof
Tocalculatethefinaldisplacementw thetriangle.
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Equation5.3
Thisequationissimplyderivedbyel
thenequation5.2becomes
Equation5.4
Thisequationisjustderivedbyelim
SubstitutingthisintoEquation5.3g
Thisgivesusthefinalvelocityinterm
WorkedExample28
Answer: Step1: Wearegiventhequantities Step2: Wecanuseequation5.3 Step3: Rearrangingequation5.3wehave
Question:Aracingcarhasaninitia
Substitutinginthevaluesofthekno
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Theracingcarisacceleratingat5.5
itsbettertousea=vu/tthena=(725
WorkedExample29
Question:Anobjectstartsfromres
itsacceleration itsfinalvelocity atwhattimetheobjecthadc whatdistancetheobjecthad Answer:
Step1:Wearegiventhequantities
Step2:Tocalculatetheacceleratio
Substitutinginthevaluesofthekno
Step3:Tocalculateitsfinalvelocit
Step4:Thetimeatwhichtheobjec wefirstuseequation5.4tocalculate
Nowwecanuseequation5.2tocalc
Step5:Thedistancetheobjecthad useequation5.3togetthedistance
WorkedExample30
Question:Aballisthrownvertically
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Question:Aballisthrownvertically groundandgravitationalaccleration ground.
Answer:1
Step1:Inthiscaseitoftenhelpsto
Firsttheballgoesupwardswithgrav beginsdescendingwithgravitational Stage1theupwardmotionofthe
Stage2thedownwardmotionofth
We'llchoosetheupwarddirectionas variablesofStage1.Sofarwehave
Usingequation5.1tofind
Wecanfind s1byusingequation5.4
ForStage2wehavethefollowingq
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Wecandeterminethefinalvelocity
Nowwecandeterminethetimefor
Finally,
a)thetimerequiredforthestoneto
b)thevelocitywithwhichithitstheg
Answer:2
applying
solvingwewillget
sotimetoreachis3second,nowa
Thesequestionsdonothavethewo
Question:Acarstartsoffat10m/s Answer:20m/s
Question:Acarstartsfromrest,an Answer:50m
Question:Acarisgoing30m/sand Answer:30m
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Question:Acargoingat20m/ssto
1. Whatisitsdeceleration? 2. Ifthecaris1tonne(1000kg
ImportantEquati
Momentum WhatisMomentu
Momentumisaphysicalquantitywh isaconservedquantity.Thismakes thedefinitionofmomentum.
The momentum
Mathematically,
v :speed(m. s1) :wavelength(m) f :frequency(Hzor s1) Isthiscorrect?Rememberasimplefirstcheckistochecktheunits!Ontherighthandsidewehavespeedwhichhasunits ms1.On thelefthandsidewehavefrequencywhichismeasuredin s1multipliedbywavelengthwhichismeasurein m.Onthelefthandside wehave ms1whichisexactlywhatwewant.
:momentum( m :mass( :velocity(
Thus,momentumisapropertyofa samemomentumasamuchsmalle Notethearrowsintheequationdef
Speedofawavethroughstrings
Thespeedofawavetravelingalongavibratingstring(v)isdirectlyproportionaltothesquarerootofthetension(T)overthelinear density():
Sincethedirectionofanobject'smo
includeinthefinalanswerth
WorkedExample31C
Question:Aballofmass3 Answer:
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isequaltothemassofthestringdividedbythelengthofthestring.

Step1:
Analysethequestiontodeterminew theball'smass,and theball'svelocity
TwoTypesofWaves
Weagreedthatawavewasamovingsetofpeaksandtroughsandweusedwaterasanexample.Movingpeaksandtroughs,withall thecharacteristicswedescribed,inanymediumconstituteawave.Itispossibletohavewaveswherethepeaksandtroughsare perpendiculartothedirectionofmotion,likeinthecaseofwaterwaves.Thesewavesarecalledtransversewaves. Therearetwoadditionaltypesofwaves.Thefirstiscalledlongitudinalwavesandhavethepeaksandtroughsinthesamedirection asthewaveismoving.Thequestionishowdoweconstructsuchawave? Anexampleofalongitudinalwaveispressurewavesmovingthroughagas.Thepeaksinthiswaveareplaceswherethepressure reachesapeakandthetroughsareplaceswherethepressureisaminimum. Inthepicturebelowweshowtherandomplacementofthegasmoleculesinatube.Thepistonattheendmovesintothetubewitha repetitivemotion.Beforethefirstpistonstrokethepressureisthesamethroughoutthetube.
inthecorrectunits! Step2:
Whatisbeingasked?Weareasked
weseethatweneedthemassand Step3:
Firstlywecalculatethemagnitudeo
Finallywequotetheanswerwithth
Whenthepistonmovesinitcompressesthegasmoleculestogetherattheendofthetube.Ifthepistonstoppedmovingthegas moleculeswouldallbangintoeachotherandthepressurewouldincreaseinthetube.
WorkedExample32C
Question:Aballofmass500 Answer: Step1:
Whenthepistonmovesoutagainbeforethemoleculeshavetimetobangaroundthentheincreaseinpressuremovesdownthetube likeapulse(singlepeakandtrough,asinglewavecycle).
Asthisrepeatswegetwavesofincreasedanddecreasedpressuremovingdownthetubes.Wecandescribethesepulsesof increasedpressure(peaksinthepressure)anddecreasedpressure(troughsofpressure)byasineorcosinegraph.
theball'smass,and themagnitudeoftheball'sv
butwiththeball'smassintheincorr Step2:
Thesecondadditionaltypeofwaveisthetorsionalwave.Thepeaksandtroughsrotatearoundthedirectionofmotion.Insimpler terms,a"twistingmotion"istransmittedthroughthemedium.Ofthetwowavetypes,thisisthehardestonetodescribeand visualize. Thereareanumberofexamplesofeachtypeofwave.Notallcanbeseenwiththenakedeyebutallcanbedetected.
Thus,weneedthemassandveloci Step3:
Inordertodeterminethevelocityof areforcedtobegeneral.Inacasel soundsillybutthelackofinformatio thedirectionofmotion. Step4:
PropertiesofWaves
Wehavediscussedsomeofthesimplepropertiesofwavesthatweneedtoknow.Thesehavejustbeendescribingthecharacteristics thatwaveshave.Nowwecanprogressontosomemoreinterestingand,perhaps,lessintuitivepropertiesofwaves.
Nextweconvertthemasstotheco
PropertiesofWaves:Reflection
Whenwavesstrikeabarriertheyarereflected.Thismeansthatwavesbounceoffthings.Soundwavesbounceoffwalls,lightwaves bounceoffmirrors,radarwavesbounceoffplanesandhowbatscanflyatnightandavoidthingsassmallastelephonewires.etc. Thepropertyofreflectionisaveryimportantandusefulone. (NOTETOSELF:Getanessaybyanairtrafficcontrolleronradar)(NOTETOSELF:Getanessaybyonsonarusageforfishingor forsubmarines) Step5:
Now,letusfindthemagnitudeofth
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Whenwavesarereflected,theprocessofreflectionhascertainproperties.Ifawavehitsanobstacleatarightangletothesurface (NOTETOSELF:diagramsneeded)thenthewaveisreflecteddirectlybackwards. Step6:
Finally,wequotetheanswerwithth
WorkedExample33C
Question:Themoonis [footnode.html Answer: Step1:
Ifthewavestrikestheobstacleatsomeotheranglethenitisnotreflecteddirectlybackwards.Theanglethatthewavesarrivesatis thesameastheanglethatthereflectedwavesleavesat.Theanglethatwavesarrivesatorisincidentatequalstheanglethewaves leavesatorisreflectedat.Angleofincidenceequalsangleofreflection
themoon'smass, thedistancetothemoon,an thetimeforoneorbitofthe
withmassinthecorrectunitsbutal Theunitswerequireare
(2.1)
seconds(s)fortime,and metres(m)fordistancepeste Step2:
Whatisbeingasked?Weareasked ordertodothiswerequirethemoon :angleofincidence :angleofreflection Step3:
Howdowefindthespeedormagni
Wearegiventhetimethemoontak themoonandthefactthatthemoo
Intheopticschapteryouwilllearnthatlightisawave.Thismeansthatallthepropertieswehavejustlearntapplytolightaswell.Its veryeasytodemonstratereflectionoflightwithamirror.Youcanalsoeasilyshowthatangleofincidenceequalsangleofreflection. Ifyoulookdirectlyintoyouseeyourself.... Needtomentionthattheincidentwave,normaltothesurfaceandthereflectedwavealllieinthesameplane.Thesame alsoholdsforrefractionatasurface.
Usingtheequationforthecircumfer orbit:
Phaseshiftofreflectedwave
Whenawaveisreflectedfromamoredensemedium,itundergoesaphaseshift.Thatmeansthatthepeaksandtroughsare swappedaround. Theeasiestwaytodemonstratethisistotieapieceofstringtosomething.Stretchthestringoutflatandthenflickthestringonceso apulsemovesdownthestring.Whenthepulse(asinglepeakinawave)hitsthebarrierthatthestringistiedto,itwillbereflected. Thereflectedwavewilllooklikeatroughinsteadofapeak.Thisisbecausethepulsehadundergoneaphasechange.Thefixedend islikereflectionoffamoredensemedium.
Nextwemustconverttheorbittime andaminuteis60secondslong,
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Therefore,
Combiningthedistancetravelledby magnitudeofthemoon'svelocityor
Step4:
Finallywecancalculatethemagnitu
3 3
Iftheendofthestringwasnotfixed,i.e.itcouldmoveupanddownthenthewavewouldstillbereflectedbutitwouldnotundergoa phaseshift.
TheMomentumo
InChapter4Forcestheconceptof movingwithdifferentvelocities.Ino
The totalmomentumofa
Sincemomentumisavector,thete system.Letusconsideranexample
WorkedExample34C
whileball2ismovingat
Question:Twobilliardballsrolltow
Calculatethetotalmomentumofth Answer: Step1:
PropertiesofWaves:Refraction
Sometimeswavesmovefromonemediumtoanother.Themediumisthesubstancethatiscarryingthewaves.Inourfirstexample thiswasthewater.Whenthemediumpropertieschangeitcanaffectthewave. Letusstartwiththesimplecaseofawaterwavemovingfromonedepthtoanother.Thespeedofthewavedependsonthedepth.If thewavemovesdirectlyfromtheonemediumtotheotherthanweshouldlookcloselyattheboundary.Whenapeakarrivesatthe boundaryandmovesacrossitmustremainapeakontheothersideoftheboundary.Thismeansthatthepeakspassbyatthesame timeintervalsoneithersideoftheboundary.Theperiodandfrequencyremainthesame!Butwesaidthespeedofthewave changes,whichmeansthatthedistanceittravelsinonetimeintervalisdifferenti.e.thewavelengthhaschanged. Goingfromonemediumtoanothertheperiodorfrequencydoesnotchangeonlythewavelengthcanchange. Nowifweconsiderawaterwavemovingatanangleofincidencenot90degreestowardsachangeinmediumthenweimmediately knowthatnotthewholewavewillarriveatonce.Soifapartofthewavearrivesandslowsdownwhiletherestisstillmovingfaster beforeitarrivestheangleofthewavefrontisgoingtochange.Thisisknownasrefraction.Whenawavebendsorchangesits directionwhenitgoesfromonemediumtothenext. Ifitslowsdownitturnstowardstheperpendicular.
Analysethequestiontodeterminew themassofeachball, thevelocityofball1, thevelocityofball2, allinthecorrectunits! Step2:
Whatisbeingasked?Weareasked findthetotalmomentumwemusts
Sinceball1ismovingtotheright,i
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Thus,wearerequiredtofindthesu inthischaptercanthusbeused. Step3:
Firstlywechooseapositivedirectio Step4: Thetotalmomentumofthesystem travellingat Ifthewavespeedsupinthenewmediumitturnsawayfromtheperpendiculartothemediumsurface. Whenyoulookatastickthatemergesfromwateritlookslikeitisbent.Thisisbecausethelightfrombelowthesurfaceofthewater bendswhenitleavesthewater.Youreyesprojectthelightbackinastraightlineandsotheobjectlookslikeitisadifferentplace. Rightisthepositivedirection
Inthelaststepthedirectionwasad thepositivedirection(i.e.totherigh
ChangeinMome
Ifeitheranobject'smassorvelocity ,thenitschangeinmomentum, =
PropertiesofWaves:Interference
Iftwowavesmeetinterestingthingscanhappen.Wavesarebasicallycollectivemotionofparticles.Sowhentwowavesmeetthey bothtrytoimposetheircollectivemotionontheparticles.Thiscanhavequitedifferentresults. Iftwoidentical(samewavelength,amplitudeandfrequency)wavesarebothtryingtoformapeakthentheyareabletoachievethe sumoftheirefforts.Theresultingmotionwillbeapeakwhichhasaheightwhichisthesumoftheheightsofthetwowaves.Iftwo wavesarebothtryingtoformatroughinthesameplacethenadeepertroughisformed,thedepthofwhichisthesumofthedepths ofthetwowaves.Nowinthiscasethetwowaveshavebeentryingtodothesamethingandsoaddtogetherconstructively.Thisis calledconstructiveinterference.
WorkedExample35C
Question:Arubberballofmass0. .Calculatethechangein Answer: Step1:
Analysethequestiontodeterminew theball'smass, theball'sinitialvelocity,and theball'sfinalvelocity allinthecorrectunits.
Donotbeconfusedbythequestion heresincetheballwillobviouslyslo Step2:
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Wehaveeverythingweneedtofind direction,wecanusethealgebraic
Step3:Firstly,wechooseapositiv Downisthepositivedirection
Ifonewaveistryingtoformapeakandtheotheristryingtoformatroughthentheyarecompetingtododifferentthings.Inthis casetheycancancelout.Theheightofthepeaklessthedepthofthetroughwillbetheresultingeffect.Ifthedepthofthetroughis thesameastheheightofthepeaknothingwillhappen.Iftheheightofthepeakisbiggerthanthedepthofthetroughasmallerpeak willappearandifthetroughisdeeperthenalessdeeptroughwillappear.Thisisdestructiveinterference. File:Fhsstwaves23.png
wherewerememberedinthelastst
ih a t ey o um a r c o s
Whatproperties
Youmayatthisstagebewondering anisolatedsystemthetotalmomen momentumofthesystemnevercha remainsthesame.
Momentumisconservedinisolated
PropertiesofWaves:StandingWaves
Whentwowavesmoveinoppositedirections,througheachother,constructiveinterferencehappens.Ifthetwowaveshavethesame frequencyandwavelengththenaspecifictypeofconstructiveinterferencecanoccur:standingwavescanform. Standingwavesaredisturbanceswhichdon'tappeartomove,theystandinthesameplace.Letsdemonstrateexactlyhowthiscomes about.Imaginealongstringwithwavesbeingsentdownitfromeitherend.Thewavesfrombothendshavethesameamplitude, wavelengthandfrequencyasyoucanseeinthepicturebelow:
This PrincipleofConservationof definitionofmomentum.Sincemom happensincollisionsandexplosions beforethecollisionisequaltotheir
PrincipleofConse
Thetotallinearmomentu
Inanisolatedsystemthe Tostopfromgettingconfusedbetweenthetwowaveswe'lldrawthewavefromtheleftwithadashedlineandtheonefromtheright withasolidline.Asthewavesmoveclosertogetherwhentheytouchbothwaveshaveanamplitudeofzero:
(orexplosion)isequal
Letusconsiderasimplecollisionof Ifwewaitforashorttimetheendsofthetwowavesmovepasteachotherandthewavesoverlap.Nowweknowwhathappenswhen twowavesoverlap,weaddthemtogethertogettheresultingwave.
ball(mass m2)movestowardsthef ballwegetatotalmomentumforth
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File:Fhsstmom2.png Figure6.1:Beforethecollision.
Nowweknowwhathappenswhentwowavesoverlap,weaddthemtogethertogettheresultingwave.Inthispictureweshowthe twowavesasdottedlinesandthesumofthetwointheoverlapregionisshownasasolidline: Figure6.2:Afterthecollision.
Afterthetwoballscollideandmove velocityofball2
(seeFigure6.2
Theimportantthingtonoteinthiscaseisthattherearesomepointswherethetwowavesalwaysdestructivelyinterferetozero.Ifwe letthetwowavesmovealittlefurtherwegetthepicturebelow:
Thissystemoftwoballsisisolated momentum,thetotalmomentumbe conservationofmomentuminacoll
m1 :massofobject1( Againwehavetoaddthetwowavestogetherintheoverlapregiontoseewhatthesumofthewaveslookslike. m2 :massofobject2(
:initialvelocityofob
:initialvelocityofob
:finalvelocityofobje
:finalvelocityofobje Inthiscasethetwowaveshavemovedhalfacyclepasteachotherbutbecausetheyareoutofphasetheycanceloutcompletely. Thepointat0willalwaysbezeroasthetwowavesmovepasteachother. Whenthewaveshavemovedpasteachothersothattheyareoverlappingforalargeregionthesituationlookslikeawaveoscillating inplace.Ifwefocusontherange4,4oncethewaveshavemovedoverthewholeregion.Tomakeitclearerthearrowsatthetopof thepictureshowpeakswheremaximumpositiveconstructiveinterferenceistakingplace.Thearrowsatthebottomofthepicture showplaceswheremaximumnegativeinterferenceistakingplace.
Thisequationisalwaystruemome
Thechapter`CollisionsandExplosio
Atthebeginningofthischapteritw connection. Consideranobjectofmass toafinalvelocity object. Astimegoesbythepeaksbecomesmallerandthetroughsbecomeshallowerbuttheydonotmove. File:Fhsstwaves33.png Foraninstanttheentireregionwilllookcompletelyflat. File:Fhsstwaves34.png Thevariouspointscontinuetheirmotioninthesamemanner. File:Fhsstwaves35.png Eventuallythepicturelookslikethecompletereflectionthroughthexaxisofwhatwestartedwith: File:Fhsstwaves36.png Thenallthepointsbegintomoveback.Eachpointonthelineisoscillatingupanddownwithadifferentamplitude.
Figure6.3:Anobjectundertheact
StartingfromNewton'sSecondLaw
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Ifwesuperimposethetwocaseswherethepeakswhereatamaximumandthecasewherethesamewaveswhereataminimumwe canseethelinesthatthepointsoscillatebetween.Wecallthistheenvelopeofthestandingwaveasitcontainsalltheoscillationsof theindividualpoints.Anodeisaplacewherethetwowavescanceloutcompletelyastwowavesdestructivelyinterfereinthesame place.Anantinodeisaplacewherethetwowavesconstructivelyinterfere.
ThisalternativeformofNewton'sSe Mathematically,
Tomaketheconceptoftheenvelopeclearerletusdrawarrowsdescribingthemotionofpointsalongtheline.
:resultantforce
:changeinmom
t :timeoverwhic Everypointinthemediumcontainingastandingwaveoscillatesupanddownandtheamplitudeoftheoscillationsdependsonthe locationofthepoint.Itisconvenienttodrawtheenvelopefortheoscillationstodescribethemotion.Wecannotdrawtheupand downarrowsforeverysinglepoint!
RearrangingtheLawofMomentum
Reflectionfromafixedend
Ifwavesarereflectedfromafixedend,forexampletyingtheendofaropetoapoleandthensendingwavesdownit.Thefixedend willalwaysbeanode.Remember:Wavesreflectedfromafixedendundergoaphaseshift. Thewavelength,amplitudeandspeedofthewavecannotaffectthis,thefixedendisalwaysanode. Theproduct
Reflectionfromanopenend
Ifwavesarereflectedfromend,whichisfreetomove,itisanantinode.Forexampletyingtheendofaropetoaring,whichcan moveupanddown,aroundthepole.Remember:Thewavessentdownthestringarereflectedbutdonotsufferaphaseshift.
Fromthisequationwesee,thatfor
Wavelengthsofstandingwaveswithfixedandopenends
theresultantforcemustbeapplied resultantforcemustbeincreasedto
WorkedExample36Im
Question:A150 Nresultantforce
Answer: Step1:
theobject'smass, theobject'sinitialvelocity, theobject'sfinalvelocity,and theresultantforceactingon allinthecorrectunits! Step2:
Whatisbeingasked?Weareasked FromtheLawofMomentum,
Beats
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Thuswehaveeverythingweneedt Step3:
Ifthewavesthatareinterferingarenotidenticalthenthewavesformamodulatedpatternwithachangingamplitude.Thepeaksin amplitudearecalledbeats.Ifyouconsidertwosoundwavesinterferingthenyouhearsuddenbeatsinloudnessorintensityofthe sound. Thesimplestillustrationistodrawtwodifferentwavesandthenaddthemtogether.Youcandothismathematicallyanddrawthem yourselftoseethepatternthatoccurs. Hereiswave1:
Firstwechooseapositivedirection. object'svelocityincreasesinthisdir Step4: Substituting, Rightisthepositivedirection
Nowweaddthistoanotherwave,wave2:
WorkedExample37C
Whenthetwowavesareadded(drawnincoloureddashedlines)youcanseetheresultingwavepattern:
Question:Acricketballweighing1 km/h.Calculatei)theball'simpulse Answer: Step1:
theball'smass, theball'sinitialvelocity, theball'sfinalvelocity,and thetimeofcontactbetween Tomakethingsclearertheresultingwavewithoutthedashedlinesisdrawnbelow.Noticethatthepeaksarethesamedistanceapart buttheamplitudechanges.Ifyoulookatthepeakstheyaremodulatedi.e.thepeakamplitudesseemtooscillatewithanotherwave pattern.Thisiswhatwemeanbymodulation.
allexceptthetimeinthewrongunit Answerto(i): Step2:
Sincewedonothavetheforceexe theball.Now,since
Themaximumamplitudethatthenewwavegetstoisthesumofthetwowavesjustlikeforconstructiveinterference.Wherethe wavesreachamaximumitisconstructiveinterference. Thesmallestamplitudeisjustthedifferencebetweentheamplitudesofthetwowaves,exactlylikeindestructiveinterference. Thebeatshaveafrequencywhichisthedifferencebetweenthefrequencyofthetwowavesthatwereadded.Thismeansthatthe beatfrequencyisgivenby
weneedtheball'smass,initialvelo
Step3:Firstlyletuschangeunitsf
(2.2) Step4:
Nextwechangeunitsforthevelocit
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f B :beatfrequency(Hzors1) f 1 :frequencyofwave1(Hzors1) f 2 :frequencyofwave2(Hzors1)
PropertiesofWaves:Diffraction
Oneofthemostinteresting,andalsoveryuseful,propertiesofwavesisdiffraction.Whenawavestrikesabarrierwithahole,only partofthewavecanmovethroughthehole.Iftheholeissimilarinsizetothewavelengthofthewavediffractionsoccurs.Thewaves thatcomesthroughtheholenolongerlookslikeastraightwavefront.Itbendsaroundtheedgesofthehole.Iftheholeissmall enoughitactslikeapointsourceofcircularwaves. Thisbendingaroundtheedgesoftheholeiscalleddiffraction.ToillustratethisbehaviourwestartwithHuygen'sprinciple.
Step5:
Huygen'sPrinciple
Huygen'sprinciplestatesthateachpointonawavefrontactslikeapointsourceorcircularwaves.Thewavesemittedfromeachpoint interferetoformanotherwavefrontonwhicheachpointformsapointsource.Alongstraightlineofpointsemittingwavesofthe samefrequencyleadstoastraightwavefrontmovingaway. Tounderstandwhatthismeansletsthinkaboutawholelotofpeaksmovinginthesamedirection.Eachlinerepresentsapeakofa wave.
Nextwemustchooseapositivedire initialvelocityoftheballis Step6:
Nowwecalculatethechangeinmo
Directionfrombatsmantobowleris
wherewerememberedinthelastst Step7:
Finallysinceimpulseisjustthecha Ifwechoosethreepointsonthenextwavefrontinthedirectionofmotionandmakeeachofthememitwavesisotropically(i.e.the sameinalldirections)wewillgetthesketchbelow:
Answerto(ii): Step8:
Wearegiven Step9: Whatwehavedrawnisthesituationifthosethreepointsonthewavefrontweretoemitwavesofthesamefrequencyasthemoving wavefronts.Huygensprinciplesaysthateverypointonthewavefrontemitswavesisotropicallyandthatthesewavesinterfereto formthenextwavefront. Toseeifthisispossiblewemakemorepointsemitwavesisotropicallytogetthesketchbelow:
andwehavecalc
Nextwechooseapositivedirection.
Directionfrombatsmantobowleris
wherewerememberedinthefinals
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SummaryofImp
Youcanseethatthelinesfromthecircles(thepeaks)starttooverlapinstraightlines.Tomakethisclearweredrawthesketchwith dashedlinesshowingthewavefrontswhichwouldform.Ourwavefrontsarenotperfectlystraightlinesbecausewedidn'tdrawcircles fromeverypoint.Ifwehaditwouldbehardtoseeclearlywhatisgoingon.
Momentum:The momentum MomentumofaSystem
PrincipleofConservationofLin thetotalmomentumbeforeacollis Huygen'sprincipleisamethodofanalysisappliedtoproblemsofwavepropagation.Itrecognizesthateachpointofanadvancing wavefrontisinfactthecenterofafreshdisturbanceandthesourceofanewtrainofwavesandthattheadvancingwaveasawhole mayberegardedasthesumofallthesecondarywavesarisingfrompointsinthemediumalreadytraversed.Thisviewofwave propagationhelpsbetterunderstandavarietyofwavephenomena,suchasdiffraction.
LawofMomentum::Theappliedr isinthedirectionofthechangeinm
WavefrontsMovingThroughanOpening
Nowifweallowthewavefronttoimpingeonabarrierwithaholeinit,thenonlythepointsonthewavefrontthatmoveintothehole cancontinueemittingforwardmovingwavesbutbecausealotofthewavefronthavebeenremovedthepointsontheedgesofthe holeemitwavesthatbendroundtheedges.
WorkandEnergy WhatareWorka
Duringthischapteryouwilldiscove workanddoing workastheprocess
anobjectwithlotsofenergy whenworkisdone,energyi
Liftingobjectsorthrowingthemreq Somethingmusthaveenergyandt
Work
Todoworkonanobject,onemust isgivenby
Thewavefrontthatimpinges(strikes)thewallcannotcontinuemovingforward.Onlythepointsmovingintothegapcan.Ifyou employHuygens'principleyoucanseetheeffectisthatthewavefrontsarenolongerstraightlines. File:Fhsstwaves51.png RiaanNote:stillcantfindthisimage,havetogetitfromthepdf Forexample,iftworoomsareconnectedbyanopendoorwayandasoundisproducedinaremotecornerofoneofthem,apersonin theotherroomwillhearthesoundasifitoriginatedatthedoorway.Asfarasthesecondroomisconcerned,thevibratingairinthe doorwayisthesourceofthesound.Thesameistrueoflightpassingtheedgeofanobstacle,butthisisnotaseasilyobserved becauseoftheshortwavelengthofvisiblelight. W :workdone(
F| :componentofappli
s :displacementofthe
Itisveryimportanttonotethatfor perpendiculartothedirectionofmo Thismeansthatwhenwavesmovethroughsmallholestheyappeartobendaroundthesidesbecausetherearen'tenoughpointson
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Thismeansthatwhenwavesmovethroughsmallholestheyappeartobendaroundthesidesbecausetherearen'tenoughpointson thewavefronttoformanotherstraightwavefront.Thisisbendingroundthesideswecalldiffraction.
Aswithallphysicalquantities,work combinationofS.I.unitsisthejoul
PropertiesofWaves:Dispersion
Dispersionisapropertyofwaveswherethespeedofthewavethroughamediumdependsonthewavelength.Soiftwowavesenter thesamedispersivemediumandhavedifferentwavelengthstheywillhavedifferentspeedsinthatmediumeveniftheybothentered withthesamespeed. 1jouleistheworkdone
PracticalApplicationsofWaves:SoundWaves
DopplerEffect
The DopplerEffectisaninterestingphenomenonthatoccurswhenanobjectproducingsoundismovedrelativelytothelistener. Considerthefollowing:Whenacarblaringitshornisbehindyou,thepitchishigherasitisapproaching,andbecomeslowerasitis movingaway.Thisisonlynoticeableiftheobjectismovingatafairlyhighspeed,althoughitisstilltheoreticallypresentatany speed. Whenanobjectismoving awayfromthelistener,thesoundwavesarestretchedoverafurtherdistancemeaningtheyhappenless often.Thewavelengthendsupbeinggreatersothefrequencyislessandthepitchislower.Whenanobjectismoving towardsthe listener,thewavesarecompressedoverasmalldistancemakingaverysmallwavelengthandthereforealargefrequencyandhigh pitch.Sincethepitchofthesounddependsonthe frequencyofthewaves,thepitchincreaseswhentheobjectismovingtowardsthe listener.
Theworkdonebyanobjectcanbe equationdependsontheirdirection
If F|actsinthesamedirecti
gainsenergy. Ifthedirectionofmotionan
oppositedirection.Forexam youaredoingnegativework
WorkedExample38C
Question:Ifyoupushabox20 Answer:
Step1:Analysethequestiontode
Theforceappliedis Thedistancemovedis Theappliedforceanddistan f'istheobservedfrequency,fistheactualfrequency,visthespeedofsound( )Tistemperatureindegrees Celsius, isthespeedoftheobserver,and isthespeedofthesource.Iftheobserverisapproachingthesource,usethetop operator(the+)inthenumerator,andifthesourceisapproachingtheobserver,usethetopoperator(the)inthedenominator.Ifthe observerismovingawayfromthesource,usethebottomoperator(the)inthenumerator,andifthesourceismovingawayfromthe observer,usethebottomoperator(the+)inthedenominator.
Thesequantitiesareallinthecorre
Exampleproblems
A.Anambulance,whichisemittinga40Hzsiren,ismovingataspeedof30m/stowardsastationaryobserver.Thespeedofsound inthiscaseis339m/s.
Weareaskedtofindthewo
Step3:Nextwesubstitutethevalu
B.AnM551Sheridan,movingat10m/sisfollowingaRenaultFT17whichismovinginthesamedirectionat5m/sandemittinga 30Hztone.Thespeedofsoundinthiscaseis342m/s.
Rememberthattheanswermustb pusher)loseenergy,whilethebox
WorkedExample39C UltraSound
stilltobecompleted Ultrasoundissoundthathastoohighafrequencyforhumanstohear.Someotheranimalscanhearultrasoundthough.Dogwhistles areanexampleofultrasound.Wecan'thearthesound,butdogscan.Audiblesoundisinthefrequencyrangebetween20Hzand 20000Hz.Anythingabovethatisultrasound,andanythingbelowthatiscalledinfrasonic. Ultrasoundalsohasmedicalapplications.Itcanbeusedtogenerateimageswithasonogram.Ultrasoundiscommonlyusedtolook atfetusesinthewomb.
Question:Whatistheworkdoneb slidesdownhill30cm? Answer:
Theforceappliedis Theappliedforceanddistan
Weareaskedtofindthewo
Step3:Substitutethevaluesand
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PracticalApplicationsofWaves:ElectromagneticWaves
Inphysics,waveparticledualityholdsthatlightandmattersimultaneouslyexhibitpropertiesofwavesandofparticles.Thisconceptis aconsequenceofquantummechanics. In1905,EinsteinreconciledHuygens'viewwiththatofNewton.Heexplainedthephotoelectriceffect(aneffectinwhichlightdidnot seemtoactasawave)bypostulatingtheexistenceofphotons,quantaofenergywithparticulatequalities.Einsteinpostulatedthat thefrequencyoflight, ,isrelatedtotheenergy, ,ofitsphotons:
Againwehavetheappliedforcean
Notethattheanswermustbe persontryingtopush.
(2.3) where isPlanck'sconstant( ).
Whathappenswhentheappliedfo forcethentodeterminetheworkdo thismeansaforceperpendicularto
WorkedExample40C
In1924,DeBroglieclaimedthatallmatterhasawavelikenature.Herelatedwavelength andmomentump:
Question:Calculatetheworkdone horizontal. Answer: Step1:
(2.4) ThisisageneralizationofEinstein'sequationabove,sincethemomentumofaphotonisgivenby
Analysethequestiontodetermine Theforceappliedis Thedistancemovedis
Theanglebetweentheappl Thesequantitiesareinthecorrect
Step2:Analysethequestiontode (2.5)
Weareaskedtofindthewo .
Step3:Calculatethecomponento where isthespeedoflightinvacuum,and
DeBroglie'sformulawasconfirmedthreeyearslaterbyguidingabeamofelectrons(whichhaverestmass)throughacrystallinegrid andobservingthepredictedinterferencepatterns.Similarexperimentshavesincebeenconductedwithneutronsandprotons.Authors ofsimilarrecentexperimentswithatomsandmoleculesclaimthattheselargerparticlesalsoactlikewaves.Thisisstilla controversialsubjectbecausetheseexperimentershaveassumedargumentsofwaveparticledualityandhaveassumedthevalidityof deBroglie'sequationintheirargument. ThePlanckconstanthisextremelysmallandthatexplainswhywedon'tperceiveawavelikequalityofeverydayobjects:their wavelengthsareexceedinglysmall.Thefactthatmattercanhaveveryshortwavelengthsisexploitedinelectronmicroscopy. Inquantummechanics,thewaveparticledualityisexplainedasfollows:everysystemandparticleisdescribedbystatefunctions whichencodetheprobabilitydistributionsofallmeasurablevariables.Thepositionoftheparticleisonesuchvariable.Beforean observationismadethepositionoftheparticleisdescribedintermsofprobabilitywaveswhichcaninterferewitheachother.
Sincetheforceandthemotionare motion.
Fromtheforcediagramweseetha
ImportantEquationsandQuantities
Frequency:
Step4:Substituteandcalculateth
Nowwecancalculatetheworkdon (2.6)
Speed:
Notethattheanswerispositiveas
Wewillnowdiscussenergyingrea
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Table2.1:UnitsusedinWaves Quantity Amplitude Period Wavelength Frequency Speed f v Symbol S.I.Units Direction A T m s m Hzor s1 m. s1
Energy
Likework(W)theunitofenergy(
Aswementionedearlier,energyis energy.Infact, theenergylostby
Averyimportantpropertyofourun
Energyisnevercreatedn
Vectors
Introduction
``Avectoris`something'thathasbothmagnitudeanddirection. ```Thing'?Whatsortsof`thing'?"Anypieceofinformationwhich containsamagnitudeandarelateddirectioncanbeavector.Avectorshouldtellyouhowmuchandwhichway. Consideramandrivinghiscareastalongahighwayat100 km/ h.Whatwehavegivenhereisavectorthecar'svelocity.Thecaris movingat100 km/ h(thisisthemagnitude)andweknowwhereitisgoingeast(thisisthedirection).Thus,weknowthespeedand directionofthecar.Thesetwoquantities,amagnitudeandadirection,formavectorwecallvelocity.
transformedfromo
Energyconservationandtheconse
Whenworkisdo Definition:A vectorisameasurementwhichhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.
theobjectgainsenergy Inphysics,magnitudesoftenhavedirectionsassociatedwiththem.Ifyoupushsomethingitisnotveryusefulknowingjusthowhard youpushed.Adirectionisneededtoo.Directionsareextremelyimportant,especiallywhendealingwithsituationsmorecomplicated thansimplepushesandpulls. Differentpeopleliketowritevectorsindifferentways.Anywayofwritingavectorsothatithasbothmagnitudeanddirectionisvalid. Arevectorsphysics?No,vectorsthemselvesarenotphysics.Physicsisjustadescriptionoftheworldaroundus.Todescribe somethingweneedtousealanguage.Themostcommonlanguageusedtodescribephysicsismathematics.Vectorsformavery importantpartofthemathematicaldescriptionofphysics,somuchsothatitisabsolutelyessentialtomastertheuseofvectors.
Thermalenergy(heat)isthedisorg usefulnessfordoingfurtherworkin
Mathematicalrepresentation
Numerousnotationsarecommonlyusedtodenotevectors.Inthistext,vectorswillbedenotedbysymbolscappedwithanarrow.As anexample, , and areallvectors(theyhavebothmagnitudeanddirection).Sometimesjustthemagnitudeofavectoris required.Inthiscase,thearrowisomitted.Inotherwords, Fdenotesthemagnitudeofvector representingthesizeofavector. . isanotherwayof
onlysomeoftheenergy
therestofthee
TotalWorkDone=Us
Graphicalrepresentation
Graphicallyvectorsaredrawnasarrows.Anarrowhasbothamagnitude(howlongitis)andadirection(thedirectioninwhichit points).Forthisreason,arrowsarevectors. Inordertodrawavectoraccuratelywemustspecifyascaleandincludeareferencedirectioninthediagram.Ascaleallowsusto translatethelengthofthearrowintothevector'smagnitude.Forinstanceifonechoseascaleof1cm=2N(1cmrepresents2N),a forceofmagnitude20Nwouldberepresentedasanarrow10cmlong.Areferencedirectionmaybealinerepresentingahorizontal surfaceorthepointsofacompass.
TypesofEnergy
Sowhatdifferenttypesofenergye typesthatexist.Bytheprincipleof fromonetypeofenergytoanother
KineticEnergy
WorkedExample2:Drawingvectors
Question:Usingascaleof a) b) Answer: north east representthefollowingvelocities:
Kineticenergyistheenergyofmot oftenabbreviateas E
Thetranslationalkineticenergyofa
E k :kineticenergy( m :massofobject(
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v :speedoftheobjec
Notethedependenceofthekinetic greateritskineticenergy.
WorkedExample41Calculation Question:Ifarockhasamassof Answer:
SomeExamplesofVectors
Displacement
Imagineyouwalkedfromyourhousetotheshopsalongawindingpaththroughtheveld.YourrouteisshowninblueinFigure3.1. Yoursisteralsowalkedfromthehousetotheshops,butshedecidedtowalkalongthepavements.Herpathisshowninredand consistedoftwostraightstretches,oneaftertheother.
Themassoftherock Thespeedoftherock
Thesearebothinthecorrectunits
Weareaskedtofindthekin
oftheobjectandwearegiv
Step3:Substituteandcalculateth
Tocheckthattheunitsintheabove
Figure3.1:IllustrationofDisplacement
Theunitsareindeedcorrect!
Althoughyoutookverydifferentroutes,bothyouandyoursisterwalkedfromthehousetotheshops.Theoveralleffectwasthe same!Clearlytheshortestpathfromyourhousetotheshopsisalongthestraightlinebetweenthesetwopoints.Thelengthofthis lineandthedirectionfromthestartpoint(thehouse)totheendpoint(theshops)formsaveryspecialvectorknownas displacement.Displacementisassignedthesymbol
finishanexamearlythen Definition: Displacement isdefinedasthemagnitudeanddirectionofthestraightlinejoiningone'sstartingpoint toone'sfinalpoint.
OR
WorkedExample42MixingUnits
Question:Ifacarhasamassof9 Definition: Displacement isavectorwithdirectionpointingfromsomeinitial(starting)pointtosomefinal(end) pointandwhosemagnitudeisthestraightlinedistancefromthestartingpointtotheendpoint. Answer:
Step1:Analysethequestiontode Themassofthecar
(NOTETOSELF:chooseoneoftheabove) Inthisexamplebothyouandyoursisterhadthesamedisplacement.ThisisshownastheblackarrowinFigure3.1.Remember displacementisnotconcernedwiththeactualpathtaken.Itisonlyconcernedwithyourstartandendpoints.Ittellsyouthelengthof thestraightlinepathbetweenyourstartandendpointsandthedirectionfromstarttofinish.Thedistancetravelledisthelengthof
Weareaskedtofindthekin Step3:Substituteandcalculate
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thepathfollowedandisascalar(justanumber).Notethatthemagnitudeofthedisplacementneednotbethesameasthedistance travelled.Inthiscasethemagnitudeofyourdisplacementwouldbeconsiderablylessthantheactuallengthofthepathyoufollowed throughtheveld!
Weknowweneedthemassandth theequationfor E k:
Velocity
Definition: Velocityistherateofchangeofdisplacementwithrespecttotime.
Theterms rateofchangeand withrespecttoareoneswewilluseoftenanditisimportantthatyouunderstandwhattheymean. Velocitydescribeshowmuchdisplacementchangesforacertainchangeintime. Weusuallydenoteachangeinsomethingwiththesymbol thegradientofastraightlineis (theGreekletterDelta).Youhaveprobablyseenthisbeforeinmaths
WorkedExample43MixingUnits
Question:Ifabullethasamasso Answer:
.Thegradientisjusthowmuch ychangesforacertainchangein x.Inotherwordsitisjust
therateofchangeof ywithrespectto x.Thismeansthatvelocitymustbe
Wearegiventhemuzzleve
Step2:Analysethequestiontode (NOTETOSELF:Thisisactuallyaveragevelocity.Forinstantaneous 's changetodifferentials.Explainthatif thenwehaveaveragevelocityelseforinfinitesimaltimeintervalinstantaneous!) islarge
Weareaskedtofindthekin Step3:Substituteandcalculate
Whatthenisspeed?Speedishowquicklysomethingismoving.Howisitdifferentfromvelocity?Speedisnotavector.Itdoesnot tellyouwhichdirectionsomethingismoving,onlyhowfast.Speedisthemagnitudeofthevelocityvector (NOTETOSELF: instantaneousspeedisthemagnitudeoftheinstantaneousvelocity....nottrueofaverages!). Considerthefollowingexampletotestyourunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenvelocityandspeed.
Wejustsubstitutethemassandve
WorkedExample3:SpeedandVelocity
Question:Amanrunsaroundacirculartrackofradius100m.Ittakeshim120stocompletearevolutionofthetrack.Ifherunsat constantspeed,calculate: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. hisspeed, hisinstantaneousvelocityatpointA, hisinstantaneousvelocityatpointB, hisaveragevelocitybetweenpointsAandB, hisaveragevelocityduringarevolution.
PotentialEnergy
Ifyouliftanobjectyouhavetodo storedintheobjectandiscalled move.
Potentialenergyisthee
Asanobjectraisedabovethegrou itmovesasmoreofthestoredpote merelytransformedfromonetypet
Intheexampleofafallingmassth earthwhichcausesthemasstoacc Answer: 1.Todeterminetheman'sspeed,weneedtoknowthedistancehetravelsandhowlongittakes.Weknowittakes to completeonerevolutionofthetrack.Whatdistanceisonerevolutionofthetrack?Weknowthetrackisacircleandweknow itsradius,sowecandeterminetheperimeterordistancearoundthecircle.Westartwiththeequationforthecircumferenceof acircle:
Anotherexampleisarubberband. bandanditgainspotentialenergy. andelasticpotentialenergyistrans
GravitationalPotentialEnerg
2.Nowthatwehavedistanceandtime,wecandeterminespeed.Weknowthatspeedisdistancecoveredperunittime.Ifwe
Aswehavementioned,whenlifting gravitationalpotentialenergy.Obje energy.Toavoidnegativenumbers potentialenergyofanobjectisgive
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dividethedistancecoveredbythetimeittook,wewillknowhowmuchdistancewascoveredforeveryunitoftime.
:Changeingra
m :massofobjec 3.ConsiderpointAinthediagram:
g :accelerationd
:changeinheig
Whenanobjectislifteditgainsgra
WorkedExample44Gravitationa
Question:Howmuchpotentialene Answer: Weknowwhichwaythemanisrunningaroundthetrack,andweknowhisspeed.HisvelocityatpointAwillbehisspeed(the magnitudeofthevelocity)plushisdirectionofmotion(thedirectionofhisvelocity).HeismovingattheinstantthathearrivesatA, asindicatedinthediagrambelow.
Step1:Analysethequestiontode Themassofthebrickis Theheightliftedis
Theseareinthecorrectunitssowe
Weareaskedtofindthega Hisvelocityvectorwillbe West.
Step3:Identifythetypeofpotenti
4.ConsiderpointBinthediagram:
Sincetheblockisbeingliftedwea objectandtheheightlifted.Asboth Step4:Substituteandcalculate
MechanicalEner
Weknowwhichwaythemanisrunningaroundthetrack,andweknowhisspeed.HisvelocityatpointBwillbehisspeed(the magnitudeofthevelocity)plushisdirectionofmotion(thedirectionofhisvelocity).Heismovingattheinstantthathearrives atB,asindicatedinthediagrambelow.
Kineticenergyandpotentialene thenthesumofitskineticandpote
Now,
INTHEABSENCE
Mechanicalenerg Hisvelocityvectorwillbe South.
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4.So,now,whatistheman'saveragevelocitybetweenPointAandPointB? Asherunsaroundthecircle,hechangesdirectionconstantly.(Imagineaseriesofvectorarrowspointingoutfromthecircle,onefor eachstephetakes.)Ifyouaddupallthesedirectionsandfindtheaverageitturnsouttobe...Right.Southwest.And,noticethatif youjustlookedfortheaveragebetweenhisvelocityatPointAandatPointB,thatcomesoutsouthwest,too.Sohisaverage velocitybetweenPointAandPointBis southwest.
Thisprincipleofconservationofme frictionsomeofthemechanicalene
5.Nowweneedtocalculatehisaveragevelocityoveracompleterevolution.Thedefinitionofaveragevelocityisgivenearlier andrequiresthatyouknowthetotaldisplacementandthetotaltime.Thetotaldisplacementforarevolutionisgivenbythe vectorfromtheinitialpointtothefinalpoint.Ifthemanrunsinacircle,thenheendswherehestarted.Thismeansthevector fromhisinitialpointtohisfinalpointhaszerolength.Acalculationofhisaveragevelocityfollows:
(Themechanicalen
WorkedExample45U
Question:A2kgmetalballissusp whatisitsvelocityatpoint Remember:Displacementcanbezeroevenwhendistanceisnot!
Acceleration
Definition: Accelerationistherateofchangeofvelocitywithrespecttotime. Answer:
Accelerationisalsoavector.Rememberthatvelocitywastherateofchangeofdisplacementwithrespecttotimesoweexpectthe velocityandaccelerationequationstolookverysimilar.Infact:
(3.2) (NOTETOSELF:averageandinstantaneousdistinctionagain!expandfurtherwhatdoesitmean?) Accelerationwillbecomeveryimportantlaterwhenweconsiderforces.
Themassofthemetalballi Thechangeinheightgoing Theballisreleasedfrompo
Theseareinthecorrectunitssowe
Force
Imaginethatyouandyourfriendarepushingacardboardboxkeptonasmoothfloor.Bothofyouareequallystrong.Canyoutellme inwhichdirectiontheboxwillmove?Probablynot.BecauseIhavenottoldyouinwhichdirectioneachofyouarepushingthebox.If bothofyoupushittowardsnorth,theboxwouldmovenorthwards.Ifyoupushittowardsnorthandyoufriendpushesittowardseast, itwouldmovenortheastwards.Ifyoutwopushitinoppositedirections,itwouldn'tmoveatall! Thusindealingwithforceappliedonanyobject,itisequallyimportanttotakeintoaccountthedirectionoftheforce,asthe magnitude.Thisisthecasewithallvectors.
Findthevelocityofthemeta
Step3:DeterminetheMechanical
Tosolvethisproblemweuseconse
Thereforeweneedtoknowtheme
MathematicalPropertiesofVectors
Vectorsaremathematicalobjectsandwewillusethemtodescribephysicsinthelanguageofmathematics.However,firstweneed tounderstandthemathematicalpropertiesofvectors(e.g.howtheyaddandsubtract). Wewillnowusearrowsrepresentingdisplacementstoillustratethepropertiesofvectors.Rememberthatdisplacementisjustone exampleofavector.Wecouldjustaswellhavedecidedtouseforcestoillustratethepropertiesofvectors.
Wealreadyknow m, freetochoosealinecorresponding Nowwehave,
AdditionofVectors
Ifwedefineadisplacementvectoras2stepsintheforwarddirectionandanotheras3stepsintheforwarddirectionthenadding
Asalreadystated UB
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Ifwedefineadisplacementvectoras2stepsintheforwarddirectionandanotheras3stepsintheforwarddirectionthenadding themtogetherwouldmeanmovingatotalof5stepsintheforwarddirection.Graphically,thiscanbeseenbyfirstfollowingthefirst vectortwostepsforward,andthenfollowingthesecondonethreestepsforward: ForcewasfirstdescribedbyArchimedes.ArchimedesofSyracuse(circa287BC212BC), wasaGreekmathematician,astronomer,philosopher,physicistandengineer.Hewaskilled byaRomansoldierduringthesackofthecity,despiteordersfromtheRomangeneral, Marcellus,thathewasnottobeharmed. Weaddthesecondvectorattheendofthefirstvector,sincethisiswherewenowareafterthefirstvectorhasacted.Thevector fromthetailofthefirstvector(thestartingpoint)totheheadofthelast(theendpoint)isthenthesumofthevectors.Thisisthetail toheadmethodofvectoraddition.
E Q U I L I B R I U MO FF O R C E S .
because hB=0.Thismeansthat
DEFINITIONTheEquilibriumofforcesisthesingleforerequiredtoproduceanequilibrium Theorderinwhichyouaddvectorsdoesnotmatter.Intheexampleabove,ifyoudecidedtofirstgo3stepsforwardandthenanother Whenonlythreeforcesactonanobjectthisclosedfigureisatriangle.Thisleadstothe triangleslawforthreeforcesinequilibrium. 2stepsforward,theendresultwouldstillbe5stepsforward. Thefinalanswerwhenaddingvectorsiscalledtheresultant.
SummaryofImp
Forcediagrams
Definition:The resultant ofanumberofvectorsisthesinglevectorwhoseeffectisthesameastheindividual vectorsactingtogether. Theresultantforceactingonanobjectisthevectorsumofthesetofforcesactingonthat oneobject.Itisveryimportanttorememberthatweconsideralltheforcesthatactonthe objectunderconsiderationnottheforcesthattheobjectmight,inturn,applyonother objects. havea Theeasiestwaytodeterminethisresultantforceistoconstructwhatwecallaforce diagram.Inaforcediagramwerepresenttheobjectbyapointanddrawalltheforce vectorsconnectedtothatpointasarrows.RememberfromtheVectorschapterthatweuse thelengthofthearrowtoindicatethevector'smagnitudeandthedirectionofthearrowto showwhichdirectionitactsin. Thesecondstepistorearrangetheforcevectorssothatitiseasytoaddthemtogether andfindtheresultantforce. Letusconsideranexampletogetstarted: Twopeoplepushonaboxfromoppositesideswithaforceof5N. PrincipleofConservationofEn
Inotherwords,theindividualvectorscanbereplacedbytheresultanttheoveralleffectisthesame.Ifvectors resultant ,thiscanberepresentedmathematicallyas,
and
Letusconsidersomemoreexamplesofvectoradditionusingdisplacements.Thearrowstellyouhowfartomoveandinwhat direction.Arrowstotherightcorrespondtostepsforward,whilearrowstotheleftcorrespondtostepsbackward.Lookatallofthe examplesbelowandcheckthem.
ConservationofMechanicalEne
CollisionsandE TypesofCollisio
Elasticcollisions Inelasticcollisions
Letustestthefirstone.Itsaysonestepforwardandthenanotherstepforwardisthesameasanarrowtwiceaslongtwosteps forward. Whenwedrawtheforcediagramwerepresenttheboxbyadot.Thetwoforcesare Itispossiblethatyouendupbackwhereyoustarted.Inthiscasethenetresultofwhatyouhavedoneisthatyouhavegone nowhere(yourstartandendpointsareatthesameplace).Inthiscase,yourresultantdisplacementisavectorwithlengthzerounits. representedbyarrows,withtheirtailsonthedot. Weusethesymbol todenotesuchavector:
Wewillconsidertwotypesofcollis
Inbothtypesofcollision,totalene forinelasticcollisions.
ElasticCollisions
Seehowthearrowspointinoppositedirectionsandhavethesamemagnitude(length). Thismeansthattheycanceloutandthereisno net forceactingontheobject. Thisresultcanbeobtainedalgebraicallytoo,sincethetwoforcesactalongthesameline. Firstlywechooseapositivedirectionandthenaddthetwovectorstakingtheirdirections intoaccount. Checkthefollowingexamplesinthesameway.Arrowsupthepagecanbeseenasstepsleftandarrowsdownthepageassteps right. Tryacoupletoconvinceyourself! Consideringdirectiontowardsrightasthepositivedirection
Anelasticcollisionisac
Thismeansthatthetotalmomentu kindsofcollisions,thekineticenerg
BeforetheCollision
Asyouworkwithmorecomplexforcediagrams,inwhichtheforcesdonotexactlybalance, youmaynoticethatsometimesyougetanegativeanswer(e.g.2N).Whatdoesthis mean?Doesitmeanthatwehavesomethingwhichisoppositeoftheforce?No,allit meansisthattheforceactsintheoppositedirectiontotheonethatyouchosetobe positive.Youcanchoosethepositivedirectiontobeanywayyouwant,butonceyouhave chosenityoumuststickwithit. Inthefollowingdiagram,twoballs
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Onceaforcediagramhasbeendrawnthetechniquesofvectoradditionintroducedinthe previouschaptercanbeimplemented.Dependingonthesituationyoumightchoosetouse agraphicaltechniquesuchasthetailtoheadmethodortheparallelogrammethod,orelse analgebraicapproachtodeterminetheresultant.Sinceforceisavector,allofthese methodsapply! Alwaysremembertocheckyoursigns
Beforetheballscollide,thetotalm amomentumwhichwecall collisionis
Itisimportanttorealisethatthedirectionsaren'tspecial forwardandbackwardsor leftandright aretreatedinthesameway.The sameistrueofanysetofparalleldirections:
WorkedExample13SingleForceonablock
Question:Ablockonafrictionlessflatsurfaceweighs100N.A75Nforceisappliedtothe blocktowardstheright.Whatisthenetforce(orresultantforce)ontheblock? Answer: Step1:Firstlyletusdrawaforcediagramfortheblock: File:Fhsstforces4.png RIAANNoteimageonpage68ismissing Becarefulnottoforgetthetwoforcesperpendiculartothesurface.Everyobjectwithmass isattractedtothecentreoftheearthwithaforce(theobject'sweight).However,ifthis weretheonlyforceactingontheblockintheverticaldirectionthentheblockwouldfall throughthetabletotheground.Thisdoesnothappenbecausethetableexertsanupward force(thenormalforce)whichexactlybalancestheobject'sweight.
Wecalculatethetotalkineticenerg ontherighthasakineticenergyw
AftertheCollision
Thefollowingdiagramshowstheb
Aftertheballscollideandbounceo thesystemisequaltoalltheindivi
Intheaboveexamplestheseparatedisplacementswereparalleltooneanother.Howeverthesame tailtoheadtechniqueofvector additioncanbeappliedtovectorsinanydirection.
Step2: Thus,theonlyunbalancedforceistheappliedforce.Thisappliedforceisthentheresultant forceactingontheblock.
ballontherightnowhasamomen
EquilibriumofForces
Atthebeginningofthischapteritwasmentionedthatresultantforcescauseobjectsto accelerate.Ifanobjectisstationaryormovingatconstantvelocitytheneither:
Theballontheleftnowhasakine thatthetotalkineticenergyafterth
Nowyouhavediscoveredoneuseforvectorsdescribingresultantdisplacementhowfarandinwhatdirectionyouhavetravelled afteraseriesofmovements. Althoughvectoradditionherehasbeendemonstratedwithdisplacements,allvectorsbehaveinexactlythesameway.Thus,ifgiven anumberofforcesareactingonabody,youcanusethesamemethodtodeterminetheresultantforceactingonthebody.Wewill returntovectoradditioninmoredetaillater.
noforcesareactingontheobject,or theforcesactingonthatobjectareexactlybalanced. Aresultantforcewouldcauseastationaryobjecttostartmovingoranobjectmovingwitha givenvelocitytospeeduporslowdownorchangedirectionsuchthatthevelocityofthe objectchanges. Inotherwords,forstationaryobjectsorobjectsmovingwithconstantvelocity,theresultant forceactingontheobjectiszero.Theobjectissaidtobein equilibrium. Ifaresultantforceactsonanobjectthenthatobjectcanbebroughtintoequilibriumby applyinganadditionalforcethatexactlybalancesthisresultant.Suchaforceiscalledthe equilibrant andisequalinmagnitudebutoppositeindirectiontotheoriginalresultantforce actingontheobject.
Sincethisisan elastic energybeforethecollisionequalst
SubtractionofVectors
Whatdoesitmeantosubtractavector?Wellthisisreallysimple:ifwehave5applesandwesubtract3apples,wehaveonly2 applesleft.Nowletsworkinstepsifwetake5stepsforward,andthensubtract3stepsforward,weareleftwithonlytwosteps forward:
D e f i n i t i o n :T h ee q u i l i b r a n to fa n yn u m b e ro ff o r c e si st h es i n g l ef o r c er e q u i r e dt op r o d u c ee q u i l i b r i u m .
WorkedExample46AnElas
Whathavewedone?Youoriginallytook5stepsforwardbutthenyoutook3stepsback.Thatbackwarddisplacementwouldbe representedbyanarrowpointingtotheleft(backwards)withlength3.Thenetresultofaddingthesetwovectorsis2stepsforward:
Asanexampleofanobjectinequilibrium,consideranobjectheldstationarybytworopes inthearrangementbelow:
Wewillhavealookatthecollision massofeachballis0.3kg.Aftert 1? Step1:Drawthe before
Letusdrawaforcediagramfortheobject.Intheforcediagramtheobjectisdrawnasadot andallforcesactingontheobjectaredrawninthecorrectdirectionsstartingfromthatdot. Inthiscase,threeforcesareactingontheobject. Thus,subtractingavectorfromanotheristhesameasaddingavectorintheoppositedirection(i.e.subtracting3steps
Beforethecollision,ball2ismovin andmomentum.
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Eachropeexertsaforceontheobjectinthedirectionoftheropeawayfromtheobject. Sincetheobjecthasmass,itisattractedtowardsthecentreoftheearth.Thisweightis representedintheforcediagramas . Sincetheobjectisstationary,theresultantforceactingontheobjectiszero.Inotherwords thethreeforcevectorsdrawntailtoheadformaclosedtriangle: [Ingeneral,whendrawntailtoheadtheforcesactingonanobjectinequilibriumforma closedfigurewiththeheadofthelastvectorjoiningupwiththetailofthefirstvector.When onlythreeforcesactonanobjectthisclosedfigureisatriangle.Thisleadstothe triangle lawforthreeforcesinequilibrium: TriangleLawforThreeForcesinEquilibrium: Step2:Drawthe after Afterthecollision,ball2isatrest
Thus,subtractingavectorfromanotheristhesameasaddingavectorintheoppositedirection(i.e.subtracting3steps forwardsisthesameasadding3stepsbackwards). Thissuggeststhatinthisproblem,arrowstotherightarepositive,andarrowstotheleftarenegative.Moregenerally,vectorsin oppositedirectionsdifferinsign(i.e.ifwedefineupaspositive,thenvectorsactingdownarenegative).Thus,changingthesignofa vectorsimplyreversesitsdirection:
RIAANNote:secondimageonp File:Fhsstexpl4.png
Becausethecollisioniselastic,we waystoshowthattheansweristh
Step3:Showtheconservationof
Westartbywritingdownthatthem
Inmathematicalform,subtracting
from
givesanewvector Weknowthatmomentumisjust ofthevelocitiesoftheballs
Thisclearlyshowsthatsubtractingvector vectorsubtraction.
from
isthesameasadding
to
.Lookatthefollowingexamplesof
(8.8)
ScalarMultiplication
Whathappenswhenyoumultiplyavectorbyascalar(anordinarynumber)? Goingbacktonormalmultiplicationweknowthat isjust2groupsof2addedtogethertogive4.Wecanadoptasimilar approachtounderstandhowvectormultiplicationworks. (8.9)
Soball1exitswiththevelocitytha
Step4:Showtheconservationof
TechniquesofVectorAddition
Nowthatyouhavebeenacquaintedwiththemathematicalpropertiesofvectors,wereturntovectoradditioninmoredetail.Thereare anumberoftechniquesofvectoraddition.Thesetechniquesfallintotwomaincategoriesgraphicalandalgebraictechniques.
Westartbywritingdownthatthek
GraphicalTechniques
Graphicaltechniquesinvolvedrawingaccuratescalediagramstodenoteindividualvectorsandtheirresultants.Wenextdiscussthe twoprimarygraphicaltechniques,thetailtoheadtechniqueandtheparallelogrammethod.
TheTailtoheadMethod
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Indescribingthemathematicalpropertiesofvectorsweuseddisplacementsandthetailtoheadgraphicalmethodofvectoraddition asanillustration.Inthetailtoheadmethodofvectoradditionthefollowingstrategyisfollowed: Chooseascaleandincludeareferencedirection. Chooseanyofthevectorstobesummedanddrawitasanarrowinthecorrectdirectionandofthecorrectlengthremember toputanarrowheadontheendtodenoteitsdirection. Takethenextvectoranddrawitasanarrowstartingfromthearrowheadofthefirstvectorinthecorrectdirectionandofthe correctlength. Continueuntilyouhavedrawneachvectoreachtimestartingfromtheheadofthepreviousvector.Inthisway,thevectorsto beaddedaredrawnoneaftertheothertailtohead. Theresultantisthenthevectordrawnfromthetailofthefirstvectortotheheadofthelast.Itsmagnitudecanbedetermined fromthelengthofitsarrowusingthescale.Itsdirectiontoocanbedeterminedfromthescalediagram.
Weknowthatkineticenergyisjust
energyintermsofthevelocitiesof
WorkedExample4TailtoHeadGraphicalAdditionI Question:AshipleavesharbourHandsails6kmnorthtoportA.Fromheretheshiptravels12kmeasttoportB,beforesailing 5.5kmsouthwesttoportC.Determinetheship'sresultantdisplacementusingthetailtoheadtechniqueofvectoraddition. Answer: Now,wearefacedwithapracticalissue:inthisproblemthedisplacementsaretoolargetodrawthemtheiractuallength!Drawinga 2kmlongarrowwouldrequireaverybigbook.Justlikecartographers(peoplewhodrawmaps),wehavetochooseascale.The choiceofscaledependsontheactualquestionyoushouldchooseascalesuchthatyourvectordiagramfitsthepage.Before choosingascaleoneshouldalwaysdrawaroughsketchoftheproblem.Inaroughsketchoneisinterestedintheapproximateshape ofthevectordiagram. Step1: Letusdrawaroughsketchofthesituation Inaroughsketchoneshouldincludealloftheinformationgivenintheproblem.Allofthemagnitudesofthedisplacementsare shownandacompasshasbeenincludedasareferencedirection. Step2: Nextwechooseascaleforourvectordiagram.Itisclearfromtheroughsketchthatchoosingascalewhere1cmrepresents1km (scale:1cm=1km)wouldbeagoodchoiceinthisproblem)thediagramwillthentakeupagoodfractionofanA4page.Wenow starttheaccurateconstruction. Step3: ConstructionStep1:StartingattheharbourHwedrawthefirstvector6cmlonginthedirectionnorth(rememberinthediagram 1cmrepresents1km): ConstructionStep2:SincetheshipisnowatportAwedrawthesecondvector12cmlongstartingfromthispointinthedirection east: Step2: Drawthepicture: Beforethecollision:
Soball1exitswiththevelocitytha momentum.
(8.12)
WorkedExample47ElasticC
Question:Nowforaslightlymore rollmarble2alongthegroundtow inthepositive Answer: Step1:
Firstly,putallthequantitiesintoS
Afterthecollision:
Step3:
Sincethecollisioniselastic,bothm
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Therearetwounknowns( andmomentumconservationinthi
Step4:Let'sstartwithenergycon
But
,andsolvingfor
Step5:Nowwehavesimplifieda ConstructionStep3:SincetheshipisnowatportBwedrawthethirdvector5.5cmlongstartingfromthispointinthedirection southwest.Aprotractorisrequiredtomeasuretheangleof45o. But =0,andsolvingfor
Step6:
Nowwecansubstitute(B)into(A)
ConstructionStep4:Asafinalstepwedrawtheresultantdisplacementfromthestartingpoint(theharbourH)totheendpoint (portC).Weusearulertomeasurethelengthofthisarrowandaprotractortodetermineitsdirection
Wewereluckyinthisquestionbec quadraticequations.Remember:
So,justtocheck:
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Step7:
Sofinally,substitutingintoequatio
If
But,accordingtothequestion,ma
Step4: Wenowusethescaletoconvertthelengthoftheresultantinthescalediagramtotheactualdisplacementintheproblem.Sincewe havechosenascaleof1cm=1kminthisproblemtheresultanthasamagnitudeof8.38 km.Thedirectioncanbespecifiedinterms oftheanglemeasuredeitheras75.4oeastofnorthoronabearingof75.4o. Step5: Nowwecanquotethefinalanswer:Theresultantdisplacementoftheshipis8.38 kmonabearingof75.4o!
InelasticCollisions
Aninelasticcollisionisa WorkedExample5TailtoHeadGraphicalAdditionII Question:Amanwalks40 mEast,then30 mNorth. a)Whatwasthetotaldistancehewalked? b)Whatishisresultantdisplacement? Answer: Step1: Whatdistancedidthemantravel?Inthefirstpartofhisjourneyhetraveled40 mandinthesecondparthetraveled30 m.This givesusatotaldistancetraveledof Step2: Whatishisresultantdisplacement?Theman'sresultantdisplacementisthe vectorfromwherehestartedtowhereheended.Itis thesumofhistwoseparatedisplacements.Wewillusethetailtoheadmethodofaccurateconstructiontofindthisvector.Firstly,we drawaroughsketch: File:Fhsstvectors36.png Step3: Nextwechooseascalesuitablefortheproblem.Ascaleof1cmrepresents5m(1cm=5m)isagoodchoicehere.Nowwecanbegin theprocessofconstruction. Step4: Wedrawthefirstdisplacementasanarrow8cmlong(accordingtothescale )inthedirectioneast: standsfor
Sothetotalmomentumbeforean inelasticcollisionisdifferent.Ofco transformedintoanothertypeofen
Asaruleofthumb,inelasticcollisi modifytheshapeofanobjectrequ isacarcrash.Thecarschangesha energywasusedtobendthemeta Hereanasteroid(thesmallcircle) totalmomentumofthesystemis:
Whentheasteroidcollides largeenough,itcancausetheaste theasteroid,themoltenrockflows
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Afterthecollision,thetotalmomen achangeintheshapeofobjectsh
So: Step5: Startingfromtheheadofthefirstvectorwedrawtheseconddisplacementasanarrow6cmlong(accordingtothescale )inthedirectionnorth:</math>
WorkedExample48Inelastic
Question:Let'sconsiderthecollis Bothcarseachhaveamassof500 ofmetal? Answer: Step1:
Drawthepicture:Beforethecollisi
Step6: Nowweconnectthestartingpointtotheendpointandmeasurethelengthanddirectionofthisarrow(theresultant) Step7: Finallyweusethescaletoconvertthelengthoftheresultantinthescalediagramtotheactualmagnitudeoftheresultant displacement.Accordingtothechosenscale1cm=5m.Therefore10cmrepresents50m.Theresultantdisplacementisthen50m 36.9onorthofeast. Afterthecollision: File:Fhsstexpl11.png Step2:
Weknowthecollisionisinelastica tostartandafterthecollisionthere totalmomentumisconserved. So:
TheParallelogramMethod
Whenneedingtofindtheresultantoftwovectorsanothergraphicaltechniquecanbeappliedtheparallelogrammethod.The followingstrategyisemployed:
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Chooseascaleandareferencedirection. Chooseeitherofthevectorstobeaddedanddrawitasanarrowofthecorrectlengthinthecorrectdirection. Drawthesecondvectorasanarrowofthecorrectlengthinthecorrectdirection fromthetailofthefirstvector. Completetheparallelogramformedbythesetwovectors. Theresultantisthenthediagonaloftheparallelogram.Itsmagnitudecanbedeterminedfromthelengthofitsarrowusingthe scale.Itsdirectiontoocanbedeterminedfromthescalediagram.
Step3:
Sowemustuseconservationofm
WorkedExample6 ParallelogramMethodofGraphicalAdditionI Question:Aforceof F1=5Nisappliedtoablockinahorizontaldirection.Asecondforce F2=4Nisappliedtotheobjectatan angleof30abovethehorizontal.
Therefore,
Determinetheresultantforceactingontheblockusingtheparallelogrammethodofaccurateconstruction. Answer: Step1: Firstlywemakearoughsketchofthevectordiagram:
Explosions
Whenanobjectexplodes,itbreaks transformedfromonekind
So,likeininelasticcollisions,total momentaofsomeofthepartsoft
Step2: Nowwechooseasuitablescale.Inthisproblemascaleof1cm=0.5Nwouldbeappropriate,sincethenthevectordiagramwould takeupareasonablefractionofthepage.Wecannowbegintheaccuratescalediagram. Step3: Letusdraw F1first.Accordingtothescaleithaslength10cm:
Inthefollowingpicture,aclosedca Step4: Nextwedraw F2.Accordingtothescaleithaslength8cm.Wemakeuseofaprotractortodrawthisvectorat30tothehorizontal:
Beforethecanheatsupandexplo
andthetotalkineticenergyofthe
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sincethecanisn'tmoving.Onceth becomessogreatthatthecanexp transformedfromheatenergyinto
Step5: Nextwecompletetheparallelogramanddrawthediagonal: RIAANNOTE:Imagemissingimg155.pngPDFpage51File:Fhsstvectors43.png Step6: Finallyweusethescaletoconvertthemeasuredlengthintotheactualmagnitude.Since1cm=0.5N,17.4cmrepresents8.7N. Thereforetheresultantforceis8.7Nat13.3abovethehorizontal. Theparallelogrammethodisrestrictedtotheadditionofjusttwovectors.However,itisarguablythemostintuitivewayofaddingtwo forcesactingatapoint.
Aftertheexplosion,thecaniscom
However,thekineticenergyofthe wasnotmoving,butaftertheexplo
AlgebraicAdditionandSubtractionofVectors
VectorsinaStraightLine
Wheneveryouarefacedwithaddingvectorsactinginastraightline(i.e.somedirectedleftandsomeright,orsomeactingupand othersdown)youcanuseaverysimplealgebraictechnique: Chooseapositivedirection.Asanexample,forsituationsinvolvingdisplacementsinthedirectionswestandeast,youmight choosewestasyourpositivedirection.Inthatcase,displacementseastarenegative. Nextsimplyadd(orsubtract)thevectorswiththeappropriatesigns. Asafinalstepthedirectionoftheresultantshouldbeincludedinwords(positiveanswersareinthepositivedirection,while negativeresultantsareinthenegativedirection). Letusconsideracoupleofexamples. Answer: WorkedExample7 AddingvectorsalgebraicallyI Question:Atennisballisrolledtowardsawallwhichis10mawaytotheright.Ifafterstrikingthewalltheballrollsafurther2.5m alongthegroundtotheleft,calculatealgebraicallytheball'sresultantdisplacement. (NOTETOSELF:PGCEsuggesta`morereallooking'diagram,followedbyadiagramonewoulddrawtosolvetheproblem(likeour existingonewiththepositivedirectionshownasanarrow)) Answer: Step1: Letusdrawapictureofthesituation: Step1: Drawthepicture.Before
Alwaysopenthecanor
WorkedExample49E
Question:Anobjectwithmass
andmovesoffinthenegativexdir
Aftertheexplosion,thetwopieces
RiaanNote:secondimageonpa File:Fhsstexpl16.png Step2:
Nowweknowthatinanexplosion, wecanalwaysusemomentumcon
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So:
Buttheobjectwasinitiallyatrests
Step2: Weknowthattheresultantdisplacementoftheball( and ): )isequaltothesumoftheball'sseparatedisplacements( Step3: Nowweknowthat m
Sincethemotionoftheballisinastraightline(i.e.theballmovesleftandright),wecanusethemethodofalgebraicadditionjust explained. Step3: Firstwechooseapositivedirection.Let'smaketotherightthepositivedirection.Thismeansthattotheleftbecomesthenegative direction. Step4: Withrightpositive: Step4:
Nowwecansubstituteallthevalue signandthenegative
Step5: Nextwesimplyaddthetwodisplacementstogivetheresultant: Therefore,
WorkedExample50E
Step6: Finally,inthiscaserightmeanspositiveso: Question:Anobjectwithmass
andmovesoffinthepositivexdire Answer: Step1:
Letusconsideranexampleofvectorsubtraction.
Drawthepicture.Before
WorkedExample8 SubtractingvectorsalgebraicallyI Question:Supposethatatennisballisthrownhorizontallytowardsawallat3m. s1totheright.Afterstrikingthewall,theball returnstothethrowerat2m. s1.Determinethechangeinvelocityoftheball. Answer: Step1: Rememberthatvelocityisavector.Thechangeinthevelocityoftheballisequaltothedifferencebetweentheball'sinitialandfinal velocities: Afterthecollision: RiaanNote:imageonpage156 File:Fhsstexpl18.png Sincetheballmovesalongastraightline(i.e.leftandright),wecanusethealgebraictechniqueofvectorsubtractionjustdiscussed. Step2: Step2: ConvertallunitsintoS.I.units:
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Let'smaketotherightthepositivedirection.Thismeansthattotheleftbecomesthenegativedirection. Step3: Withrightpositive: Step3:
Step4: Thus,thechangeinvelocityoftheballis:
Rememberthatinthiscase right meanspositiveso:
Step4: Nowweknowthat m
Rememberthatthetechniqueofadditionandsubtractionjustdiscussedcanonlybeappliedtovectorsactingalongastraightline.
AMoreGeneralAlgebraictechnique
Inworkedexample3thetailtoheadmethodofaccurateconstructionwasusedtodeterminetheresultantdisplacementofaman whotravelledfirsteastandthennorth.However,theman'sresultantcanbecalculatedwithoutdrawinganaccuratescalediagram. Letusrevisitthisexample. Step5:
WorkedExample9 AnAlgebraicsolutiontoWorkedExample3 Question:Amanwalks40 mEast,then30 mNorth. 1. Calculatetheman'sresultantdisplacement. Answer: Step1: Asbefore,theroughsketchlooksasfollows:
Therefore,
Explosions:Ene
Inexplosions,youhaveseenthatk happenstotheenergyinsomemo kineticenergy.Duetothedeforma heatupthepieces.
Energyisconservedbutsomeofit energyback.Itwillberadiatedinto
Nowwecanstarttomixtheideas complicatedjustlonger.Wewillsta
Longproblemsshouldbe Step2: Notethatthetriangleformedbyhisseparatedisplacementvectorsandhisresultantdisplacementvectorisarightangletriangle.We canthususePythogoras'theoremtodeterminethelengthoftheresultant.Ifthelengthoftheresultantvectoriscalled sthen:
WorkedExample51E
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Question:Anobjectwithamasso
inthenegative xdirectionand howmuchwasusedinanoncons Step3:Nowwehavethelengthoftheresultantdisplacementvectorbutnotyetitsdirection.Todetermineitsdirectionwecalculate theangle betweentheresultantdisplacementvectorandEast. Wecandothisusingsimpletrigonometry: Answer: Step1: Drawthepicture.Before
RiaanNote:firstimageonpage
Step4: Ourfinalansweristhen: ResultantDisplacement:50mat36.9oNorthofEast Thisisexactlythesameanswerwearrivedatafterdrawingascalediagram! Inthepreviousexamplewewereabletousesimpletrigonometrytocalculateaman'sresultantdisplacement.Thiswaspossiblesince theman'sdirectionsofmotionwereperpendicular(northandeast).Algebraictechniques,however,arenotlimitedtocaseswherethe vectorstobecombinedarealongthesamestraightlineoratrightanglestooneanother.Thefollowingexampleillustratesthis. Step2: Afterthecollision:
WorkedExample10 Furtherexampleofvectoradditionbycalculation Question:AmanwalksfrompointAtopointBwhichis12kmawayonabearingof45o.FrompointBthemanwalksafurther8km easttopointC.Calculatetheman'sresultantdisplacement. Answer: Step1:Letusbeginbydrawingaroughsketchofthesituation RIAANNOTE:Imageonpage56ismissingFile:Fhsstvectors46.png sincethemanwalksinitiallyonabearingof45o.Then, lines).Bothoftheseanglesareincludedintheroughsketch. Step2: Nowletuscalculatethelengthoftheresultant(AC).Sinceweknowboththelengthsof ,wecanusethecosinerule: and andtheincludedangle (alternateanglesparallel
Weareaskedhowmuchenergyw conservativefashionandhowmuc ofbothpieces.Thekineticenergy Step3:
Thesumofthekineticenergyfort
Step4:
Thetotalenergythatwastransform makesnostatementsaboutother energylostinnonconservativewo
Step3: Nextweusethesineruletodeterminetheangle :
WorkedExample52E
Question:Anobjectatrest,withm thenegative xdirection.Iftheexpl 1. Whatisthevelocityof
2. Howmuchenergydoesitca 3. Andhowmuchenergywas Answer: Thus, Step1:
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Step4: Ourfinalansweristhen: ResultantDisplacement:18.5kmonabearingof62.8o

Drawthepicture.Before
ComponentsofVectors
Inthediscussionofvectoradditionwesawthatanumberofvectorsactingtogethercanbecombinedtogiveasinglevector(the resultant).Inmuchthesamewayasinglevectorcanbebrokendownintoanumberofvectorswhichwhenaddedgivethatoriginal vector.Thesevectorswhichsumtotheoriginalarecalled componentsoftheoriginalvector.Theprocessofbreakingavectorintoits componentsiscalled resolvingintocomponents. Whilesummingagivensetofvectorsgivesjustoneanswer(theresultant),asinglevectorcanberesolvedintoinfinitelymanysetsof components.Inthediagramsbelowthesameblackvectorisresolvedintodifferentpairsofcomponents.Thesecomponentsare showninred.Whenaddedtogethertheredvectorsgivetheoriginalblackvector(i.e.theoriginalvectoristheresultantofits components). Step2: Afterthecollision:
Step3: Inpracticeitismostusefultoresolveavectorintocomponentswhichareatrightanglestooneanother. Nowweknowthat m
WorkedExample11
Resolvingavectorintocomponents Question:Amotoristundergoesadisplacementof250kminadirection30onorthofeast.Resolvethisdisplacementinto componentsinthedirectionsnorth( andeast( ). Answer: Step1: Firstlyletusdrawaroughsketchoftheoriginalvector Step4:
Step5:
Nowweneedtocalculatetheener
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Step2:
Nextweresolvethedisplacementintoitscomponentsnorthandeast.Sincethesedirectionsareorthogonaltooneanother,the componentsformarightangledtrianglewiththeoriginaldisplacementasitshypotenuse:
Thekineticenergyofthese Step6:
Nowtheamountofenergyusedin explosionandthetotalkineticener
Weknowthat:
Noticehowthetwocomponentsactingtogethergivetheoriginalvectorastheirresultant. Step3: Nowwecanusetrigonometrytocalculatethemagnitudesofthecomponentsoftheoriginaldisplacement:
Step7: Sogoingbackto:
and
18Jofenergywasusedin
ImportantEquat
Remember sNand sEarethemagnitudesofthecomponentstheyareinthedirectionsnorthandeastrespectively.
Blockonanincline
Asafurtherexampleofcomponentsletusconsiderablockofmass mplacedonafrictionlesssurfaceinclinedatsomeangle to thehorizontal.Theblockwillobviouslyslidedowntheincline,butwhatcausesthismotion? Theforcesactingontheblockareitsweight mgandthenormalforce Nexertedbythesurfaceontheobject.Thesetwoforcesare showninthediagrambelow.
Momentum:
(8.13) Kineticenergy:
(8.14)
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Nowtheobject'sweightcanberesolvedintocomponentsparallelandperpendiculartotheinclinedsurface.Thesecomponentsare shownasredarrowsinthediagramaboveandareatrightanglestoeachother.Thecomponentshavebeendrawnactingfromthe samepoint.Applyingtheparallelogrammethod,thetwocomponentsoftheblock'sweightsumtotheweightvector. Tofindthecomponentsintermsoftheweightwecanusetrigonometry:
NewtonianGrav NewtonianGrav
Thecomponentoftheweightperpendiculartotheslope W component,however,
exactlybalancesthenormalforce Nexertedbythesurface.Theparallel
isunbalancedandcausestheblocktoslidedowntheslope.
AllobjectsonEartharepulleddow gravity.Everyobjectfallsjustasf feather,orpushesituplikeaballo (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_ instead,thereisgravityeverywhere cometsmoveinorbitsbecauseof
Vectoradditionusingcomponents
InFigure3.3twovectorsareaddedinaslightlydifferentwaytothemethodsdiscussedsofar.Itmightlookalittlelikewearemaking moreworkforourselves,butinthelongrunthingswillbeeasierandwewillbelesslikelytogowrong. InFigure3.3theprimaryvectorsweareaddingarerepresentedbysolidlinesandarethesamevectorsasthoseaddedinFigure3.2 usingthelesscomplicatedlookingmethod. Figure3.2:Anexampleoftwovectorsbeingaddedtogivearesultant
Properties
Gravitationalattractionisaforcea magnitudeanddirection.Theforce determinethemagnitudeofthefo (9.1)
Thisequationdescribestheforceb (bothhaveunitsofkilograms,orkg (6.6731011Nm2kg
Thismeansthebiggerthemasses youmayprefertosay thegravitationalforcebetweenthe cangettoit,butifwewereinoute Rememberthat (9.2)
Eachvectorcanbebrokendownintoacomponentinthe xdirectionandoneinthe ydirection.Thesecomponentsaretwovectors whichwhenaddedgiveyoutheoriginalvectorastheresultant.Lookattheredvectorinfigure3.3.Ifyouaddupthetworeddotted onesinthe xdirectionand ydirectionyougetthesamevector.Forallthreevectorswehaveshowntheirrespectivecomponentsas dottedlinesinthesamecolour. Butifwelookcarefully,additionofthe xcomponentsofthetwooriginalvectorsgivesthe xcomponentoftheresultant.Thesame appliestothe ycomponents.Soifwejustaddedallthecomponentstogetherwewouldgetthesameanswer!Thisisanother importantpropertyofvectors.
whichmeansthateveryobjectont thesameheight),theywillbothtak dropthematthesametime.Wec hasthemass me)andanobjectof (9.3)
andtheaccelerationofanobjecto (9.4)
WorkedExample12
AddingVectorsUsingComponents Question:LetsworkthroughtheexampleshowninFigure3.3todeterminetheresultant. Answer: Step1: Thefirstthingwemustrealiseisthattheorderthatweaddthevectorsdoesnotmatter.Therefore,wecanworkthroughthevectors tobeaddedinanyorder. Step2: Letusstartwiththebottomvector.Ifyouaretoldthatthisvectorhasalengthof5.385unitsandanangleof21.8otothehorizontal thenwecanfinditscomponents.Wedothisbyusingknowntrigonometricratios.Firstwefindtheverticalor ycomponent:
Sowesubstituteequation(9.3)int (9.5)
Sinceitdoesn'tmatterwhat thebody.Thusallobjectsfeelthe bethesame.Duetothefactthatt use gwhichwecallthegravitation
MassandWeigh
Weightisaforcewhichismeasure yourweight?"whenaphysicistmig
Massismeasuredinkilograms(kg object(ifyoucontinuetostudyphy changewhenyoutravelasfastas
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tonne.
Tochangemassintoweightweus rewrittenas: (9.2)
Wistheweight,measuredinnewt persecondsquareditisequaltoa
Examples
1.Abagofsugarhasamassof1
Step1:Alwayswriteouttheequat
(9.7) Secondlywefindthehorizontalor xcomponent:
Step2:Fillinallthevaluesyoukn
(9.8)
Step3:Writeouttheanswerreme Wenowknowthelengthsofthesidesofthetriangleforwhichourvectoristhehypotenuse.Ifyoulookatthesesideswecanassign themdirectionsgivenbythedottedarrows.Thenouroriginalredvectorisjustthesumofthetwodottedvectors(itscomponents). Whenwetrytofindthefinalanswerwecanjustaddallthedottedvectorsbecausetheywouldadduptothetwovectorswewantto add. Step3: Nowwemoveontoconsideringthesecondvector.Thegreenvectorhasalengthof5unitsandadirectionof53.13degreestothe horizontalsowecanfinditscomponents.
2.Aspacemanhasamassof90 gravityontheearthis10 1:
2:
3:Weightlessinouterspacebecau
Sonowwhensomebodyasksyou
NormalForces
Ifyouputabookonatable,itdoe
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Step4:

(9.12)
Nowwehaveallthecomponents.Ifweaddallthe xcomponentsthenwewillhavethe xcomponentoftheresultantvector.Similarly ifweaddallthe ycomponentsthenwewillhavethe ycomponentoftheresultantvector. The xcomponentsofthetwovectorsare5unitsrightandthen3unitsright.Thisgivesusafinal xcomponentof8unitsright. The ycomponentsofthetwovectorsare2unitsupandthen4unitsup.Thisgivesusafinal ycomponentof6unitsup. Step5: Nowthatwehavethecomponentsoftheresultant,wecanusePythagoras'theoremtodeterminethelengthoftheresultant.Letus callthelengthofthehypotenuse landwecancalculateitsvalue
butifthereisanetforcethereMU anotherforce[Newton'sthirdlaw!].
Thisforcewecallthenormalforce Thisisalsotheforcewemeasure
Themostinterestingandillustrativ cansolvetheseproblemsquiteeas
Whenyoustandonascaletomea reactionforcewecallthenormalfo werelessthanthereadingonthes
WorkedExample53N
Question:Amanweighing100 Answer: Step1:
Wearegiventhemassoftheman Step2:
Thescalemeasuresthenormalfor Step3: Firstlywedeterminethenetforce
Step4:
Wenowknowthegravitationalforc magnitudeofthisweusenewton's mass.Theoverallresultantacceler
Theresultanthaslengthof10unitssoallwehavetodoiscalculateitsdirection.Wecanspecifythedirectionastheanglethe vectorsmakeswithaknowndirection.Todothisyouonlyneedtovisualizethevectorasstartingattheoriginofacoordinatesystem. Wehavedrawnthisexplicitlybelowandtheanglewewillcalculateislabeled . Thenormalforceisthen980 ontheman.
Nowwearegoingtoaddthingsto constantvelocity.Rememberifvel
WorkedExample55N
Question:Amanweighing100 readingonthescale? Answer:
Step1:Wearegiventhemassof Step2:
Thescalemeasuresthenormalfor Step3:
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Firstlywedeterminethenetforce
Step4:
Wenowknowthegravitationalforc magnitudeofthisweusenewton's
mass.Theoverallresultantacceler
Thenormalforceisthen780 downwardsat Usingourknowntrigonometricratioswecancalculatethevalueof .
WorkedExample56N
Question:Amanweighing100 onthescale? Step6: Ourfinalanswerisaresultantof10unitsat36.8otothepositive xaxis. Answer:
Step1:Wearegiventhemassof Step2:
DoIreallyneedtolearnaboutvectors?Aretheyreallyuseful?
Vectorsareessentialtodophysics.Absolutelyessential.Thisisanimportantwarning.Ifsomethingisessentialwehadbetterstop foramomentandmakesureweunderstanditproperly.
Thescalemeasuresthenormalfor Step3: Firstlywedeterminethenetforce
SummaryofImportantQuantities,EquationsandConcepts
Table3.1:SummaryofthesymbolsandunitsofthequantitiesusedinVectors Quantity Displacement Velocity Distance Speed Acceleration d v Symbol S.I.Units Direction m m. s1 m m. s1 m. s2 yes yes yes Step4:
Wenowknowthegravitationalforc magnitudeofthisweusenewton's
mass.Theoverallresultantacceler
Vector:Avectorisameasurementwhichhasbothmagnitudeanddirection. Displacement:Displacementisavectorwithdirectionpointingfromsomeinitial(starting)pointtosomefinal(end)pointandwhose magnitudeisthestraightlinedistancefromthestartingpointtothefinalpoint. Distance:Thedistancetraveledisthelengthofyouractualpath.
Thenormalforceisthen1380Nu
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Velocity:Velocityistherateofchangeofdisplacementwithrespecttotime. Acceleration:Accelerationistherateofchangeofvelocitywithrespecttotime.
Thenormalforceisthen1380Nu manupwardsat
Resultant:Theresultantofanumberofvectorsisthesinglevectorwhoseeffectisthesameastheindividualvectorsactingtogether
Forces Whatisaforce?
Thesimplestwaytodescribeforceistosaythatitisa`push'ora`pull'.Thepushorpullonanobjectmaycauseeitherdeformation ormaychangethestateofmotionoftheobjectunderconsideration.Theharderyou'push'or'pull',themoreforceyouareapplying. Ifweleaveasidethedeformationaspects,thenforcecanbeconsideredtoproducechangeinthestateofthemotionoftheobject i.e.velocity.Wehave,though,experiencedinreallifethata'push'or'pull'doesnotalwaysmanifestinthechangeofmotion.The reasonissimple.Achangeinthestateofmotionrequiresanetforce.Forexample,iftheforceisgreatenoughtoovercomefriction theobjectbeingpushedorpulledwillmove.Solongastheforcesonanobjectarebalanced(i.e.netforceiszero),thestateof motiondescribedby"velocity"willremainsame. Infact,theaccelerationofabodyisdirectlyproportionaltothe net forceactingonit.Theword net isimportantforcesarevectors andwhatmattersinanysituationisthevectorsumofalltheforcesactingonanobject. Theunitofforceisthenewton(symbolN)
Comparativepro
Herealwaysworkwithmultiplicativ
WorkedExample57C
Question:OnEarthamanweighs sizeastheEarthbuttwicethema Answer: Step1:
Westartwiththesituationonearth
Step2: Nowweconsidertheprovje
butweknowthat Step3:
Step4:
(9.17) Step5:
(9.18)
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soonZirgonheweighs1400N.
Principles
Writeoutfirstcase Writeoutallrelationshipsb Writeoutsecondcase Substituteallfirstcasevaria Writesecondcaseinterms
WorkedExample58C
Question:OnEarthamanweighs radiusonequarterthatoftheearth Answer: Step1:
Westartwiththesituationonearth
Step2: Nowweconsidertheprovje
butweknowthat in:
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Step3:
Step4:
(9.23) Step5:
Butalthoughthemanexerts8tim
Fallingbodies
Itfallsbecauseofanacceleration
Objectsontheearthfallbecauset above.Soifyouholdsomethingin
Thesebodiesmoveinastraightlin learntinrectilinearmotion.theonl
Weneedtochooseeitherupordo thisisthehardestpart.Ifyoucan constantandbecauseofgravityb allyouhaveisarectilinearmotio
Whatistheweightofafreefalling
Weightismeasuredusingaspring whichitisattached(thespringbala itwouldexertaforceonthespring
TerminalVelocit
Physicsisallaboutbeingsimple qualifiedtodowespendmostof
Takeabookwaveitintheairch greaterthefasterthebookmoves force.
Soweknowthatairresistanceexis normallycalled.Thereisanapprox
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Theimportantthingtorealiseisth onitwhichmeansnonetacceler Itfallsataconstantvelocity!This
Dragforce
Theactualforceofairresistanceis sideofthebookforward,youwilla bookatthesamespeedinbothca
Getaplasticcontainerlid(oranyth waterismuchlargerthantheair,m slowerthanaeroplanes!
Soweknowthatdensity,areaand
(9.25)
where Cisaconstantwhichdepen
ImportantEquat
Pressure
Essay3:PressureandForces Author:AsoganMoodaly
AsoganMoodalyreceivedhisBac inSouthAfrica.Forhisfinalyear inthiscase)piping.Heworkedin designengineeroncehegraduate mechanicalengineer,ensuringthe
PressureandFo
Intheminingindustry,theroof(ha
Asonecanimagine,arooffalling
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Theroofisnotonebiguniformch theroofhasamassoflessthan2 ofthematerial(eitherwoodorste thicknessofthepartstowithstand
Sometimesthedesignofthesupp
Thereforehydraulicsupports(hydr waterpressureincreases.Apressu verylarge,modifieddoctor'ssyring
Inthepetrochemicalindustry,ther potwithouthandles,thathasthel chemicals,amongstotheruses.
Theendproductchemicalsareso fertilizer,etc.Anyway,someofthe inforcesbeingappliedtotheinsid
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determinedusingcalculations,tow plasticorcomposite),thediamete
ImportantEquat
Table10.1:
Quantity Symbol Pressure P
NonSiUnitsforpress
PSI:PSIstandsforpoundspersq
Atm:AtmstandsforAtmosphere.
Hydrostaticpressure(head
Hydrostaticpressure
where:
( r h o )i st h ed e n s i t yo ft h ef l u i d gi st h ea c c e l e r a t i o nd u et og r a v i t y hi st h eh e i g h to ft h ef l u i dc o l u m n
Itisimportanttorealizethatairis tryingtofindthepressureofaliqu findthetotalpressure.
Notes
1
Pressureisforcedividedbyarea, usedforsuchquantities.
Electrostatics WhatisElectros
Electrostaticsisthestudyofelectr
Charge
Allobjectssurroundingus(includin measuredinunitscalledcoulombs noticeableandtheobjectiscalled chargethantheotherontheobjec
Someratheramusingexampleso combingitwithaplasticcomband metaldoorknobandgiveyourself
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Chargehas3furtherimportantpro
Chargeisalwaysconserved Chargecomesindiscretep byconvention,ithasaneg
Chargedobjectsexertelect
Youcaneasilytestthefactthatlik itwithapieceofsilk,thenhangit youhavealsochargedinthesame If,however,youtakeaplasticrod stringturntowardstherodinyour
Whatactuallyhappensisthatwhe silk,whichcausestheglasstohav rodwiththefur,youtransfertinya makingit negativelycharged
ConductorsandInsu
Somematerialsallowchargecarri materialsarecalledconductors.O callednonconductorsorinsulators
Aside:Asmentionedabo conductingmaterial(e.g. electronsbecomedetach theseelectronscanmov chargecannotmovearou
Ifanexcessofchargeisputonto object.However,ifanexcessofch
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surfaceoftheobject.Whentwoco areidentical,theneachconductor
ElectrostaticFo
Aswenowknow,chargedobjects electrostaticforce.Aninterestingc gravitationalforcewhichisonlyev chargedobjectsisattractiveorrep theyrepeleachother(e.g.twome negativelychargedballwillattract
Itisthisforcethatdeterminesthe therepulsiveforcesbetweenthein conductorswithnonregularshape
Thiscollectionofchargecanactua oftenhavealightningrodonther struckbylightning. This spreadingout ofchargewoul
Coulomb'sLaw
Thebehaviouroftheelectrostatic showthattheelectrostaticforceb tothesquareofthedistancebetw thelawissummarizedas

F = Q 1 Q 2 R 2
where Q1isthechargeontheone herFisthemutualforcethatacts
Themagnitudeoftheelectrostatic
(12.1) andtheproportionalityconstant
Thevalueoftheelectrostaticcons highadegreeofaccuracyas
Aside:Noticehowsimila likeparticles:
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where m1and constant.Itisveryintere howlargethecharge:fo
Let'srunthroughasimpleexampl
WorkedExample59Coulom
Question:Twopointlikecharges betweenthemandstatewhetheri Answer: Step1: Firstdrawthesituation:
Step2: Iseverythinginthecorrectunits? Step3:
Determinethemagnitudeofthefo
Thusthe magnitude Step4:
Istheforceattractiveorrepulsive? fromthefactthatCoulomb'sLaw
Nextisanotherexamplethatdem
Question:Determinetheelectros Answer:Step1: Firstdrawthesituation:
RiaanNote:thisimageisfaulty Step2:
GeteverythingintoS.I.units:The 1=
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Step3:
Calculatetheelectrostaticforceus
Hencethe magnitude fromthisweknowtheforcemust Step4: Calculatethegravitationalforce:
Themagnitudeofthegravitationa
Noticethatthegravitationalforce forceisusuallyneglectedwhende
Wementionedabovethatcharge thechargedsphere,electrostatica pointlikecharges,withallthecha
Question:Inthepicturebelow,X insulatingropewhichmakesanan chargeasX.Yisfixedtothewall chargeonX?
Answer:Howarewegoingtodet determinetheirchargesaswekno betweenXandY. Step1:
IseverythinginS.I.units?Thedis Step2:
DrawtheforcesonX(withdirectio Step3:
Determinethemagnitudeofthee componentsoftheforcesmustca
Theonlyforceweknowisthegrav
Whichmeansthat F
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Step4:
Nowthatweknowthemagnitude forgetthatthemagnitudesofthe
ThusthechargeonXis
ElectricFields
Wehavelearntthatobjectsthatc chargewouldbeateverypointsur
Weknowthattheforcethatonec weonlyhaveonecharge?Thesol onitifweplaceditatacertainloc chargeatanylocation.
Thismapofwhatwouldhappena forceonatestchargewouldbean Ourmapconsistsofthelinesthat
TestCharge
Thisisthekeytomappingoutan
(12.2)
Ifwewanttomapthefieldfor obviouslydependsonthevalueof map?Byconventionwechoose
Thismeansthatifwewanttowor magnitudeofthenewcharge.
Theelectricfieldstrengthisthenj chargebuthasdifferentunits:
(12.3)
Theelectricfieldistheforceperu
Sotogettheforcetheelectricfiel
(12.4)
Noticewearejustmultiplyingthe
Whatdofieldmapslo
Themapsdependverymuchonth
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Themapsdependverymuchonth Takeasinglepositivechargewith numberofpoints.
PositiveChargeActingonT
Ateachpointwecalculatetheforc
Wecanseethatateverypointthe bothchargesarepositiveandsot smallerifyouarefurtheraway.
Ifthechargewerenegativewewo
NegativeChargeActingon
Noticethatitisalmostidenticalto thechargeisthesameandsoist oppositedirectionbecausethecha
Now,tomakethingssimpler,wed workoutthemagnitudeoftheforc
ElectricFieldMapduetoaP
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Someimportantpointstorememb
Thereisanelectricfieldat Fieldlinesaremerelyarep inspace.
Fieldlinesalwaysstartata Fieldlinesnevercross!
CombinedChargeDis
Welookatthefieldofapositivec thefieldsfromeachofthecharge
ElectricFieldofNegativean
Noticethatatestchargestartingo negativechargeinastraightline.
Nowlet'sconsideratestchargest forceitfeelsfromthepositivecha withatinyforceattractingittowar positivechargeschangeandthey toexertastrongerforceonthetes awayfromthepositivecharge.
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Nowwecanfillintheotherlinesq
TwoLikeChargesI:ThePo
Forthecaseoftwopositivecharg thetestchargeisrepelledbyboth bothchargeswillbeequalinmagn
Thefielddirectlybetweenthecha happenwhenwelookattestcharg
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Weknowthatachargethesame symmetric(i.e.ifweflippedvertica drawinthenextfourlines.
Workingthroughanumberofposs
TwoLikeChargesII:TheNe
Wecanusethefactthatthedirec wechangetothecasewhereboth
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Parallelplates
Oneveryimportantexampleofele situationtheelectricfieldisconsta thechargeontheelectron.
FieldMapforOppositelyCh
Thismeansthattheforcethataw theedgesexhibitfringeeffects,i.e ononeside(eitherleftorrightdep onbothsidessotheybalancethe
TheForceonaTestCharge
WhatabouttheStren
Whenwestartedmakingfieldmap mighthaveasked"Didweforgeta
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Noticethatasyoumovefurtheraw aretogetherthestrongerthefield. irregularshape.
ElectricalPoten
WorkDoneandEnerg
Whenachargedparticlemovesin whenamassmovesinagravitatio
Workdonebyafield
GravitationalCase
Amassheldataheight gravitationalfield.Oncereleased, directionoftheforce(towardsthe
Inthisway,workisdonebythefie
Infalling,themasslosesgravitatio Energyisconserved!
Theworkdonebythefieldisequa
ElectricalCase
Achargeinanelectricfieldhas released,intheabsenceoffriction positivechargestheforceandacc
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accelerationintheoppositedirecti oppositelychargedparallelplates.
Thepositivechargewillberepelle fieldlines).Inthisway,workisdo
Intheprocessofmoving,thechar energytransferred,
Workdonebyus
GravitationalCase
Inordertoreturnthemass tobalancetheforceofgravity.An
ElectricalCase
InordertoreturnthechargeinFig balancetheforceexertedonitby potentialenergy,
Insummary, whenanobjectmo kineticenergy.Potentialenergyis theobjectgainspotentialenergy.
WorkedExample62Workdoneandene
Question:Achargeof+5nCism
(a)Calculatetheworkdoneinmo energyofthechargeatA. Answer:(a)Step1:
Wearegiventhevaluesofthecha Step2:
Sincethechargeispositiveweha
(b) Step3:
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Whenreleasedthechargemoves doneisequaltothekineticenergy
Sincethechargestartedatrest,th
ElectricalPotentialDi
Considerapositivetestcharge+
ThetestchargemovestowardsB electricalpotentialenergyandgain higherelectricalpotentialthanB thatchargefrominfinitytothat
The potentialdifferencebetwee fromthepointoflowerpotentia another,thenthepotentialdifferen
Fromthisequationitfollowsthato movingonecoulombofchargefro
WorkedExample63Potenti
Question:Apositivelychargedob
(a)Calculatethechangeinelectric higherelectricalpotential?Explain beaffected?
Answer:(a)Theelectricalpotenti theelectricfieldproducedbytheo
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(b)PointAisatthehigherelectric replacedbyoneofnegativecharg wouldhavetodoworkonthechar
Asanexampleconsidertheelectr difference V .
Thiselectricfieldisuniformsotha charge QplacedatpointOjustof force QE .Theworkdoneinmovin
butfromthedefinitionofelectrica
Equatingthesetwoexpressionsfo
andso,rearranging,
WorkedExample64Parallel
Question:Twochargedparallelp asshowninthediagra
(a)Ifasmalloildropofnegligible magnitudeanddirectionoftheele
(b)Ifthedropletisnowmovedto Answer:(a)
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Step1:
Firstfindtheelectricfieldstrength
Step2:
Nowtheforceexertedonthechar
(b)
Figure12.3:Anoildropsuspende File:Fhsstelectrost29.png Step3:
Thesame.Sincetheelectricfield
Millikan'sOildropEx
RobertMillikanmeasuredthechar plates.
Consideronesuchnegativedropb onthedrop.Inadditiontothisupw betweentheplatesbyvaryingthe *EDIT*Millikan'sexperimentwas andtheforceofthefieldonthedr
Since
and,therefore,
Millikanfoundthatalldropshadc electrons,thechargeonanelectro
WorkedExample65Charge
Question:Ametalspherecarries
Answer:Sincethesphereisposit Infact,itlost,
WorkedExample66Millikan
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Question:InaMillikantypeexpe
Thepotentialdifferenceacrossthe electricfieldpatternbetweenthet
1. theelectricfieldintensityb 2. themagnitudeofthegravit 3. themagnitudeoftheCoulo
(c)Thedropisobservedthrougha methodsthatcouldbeusedtoma Answer:(a)
(b)1.
2.
3.
(c)Since
(d)TheCoulombforcecanbedec eitherbyincreasing
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ImportantEquat
Quantity charge force mass acceleration radialdistance electricfield work potentialdifference
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FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Tip:Manyphysicsproblemsaskyoutodetermineaspecificnumericquantity.Whenyousolvetheproblem, donotforgettospecifythe unitsofyouranswer:evenifyouhavetherightnumber,youranswerisnotcorrectunlessyou includethecorrectunits.

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Force Frequency Work&Energy ElectricalPotential

Combination N(newton) Hz(hertz) J(joule) V(volt) .Groupingthe103and

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Thisistheconversionratiofrommillimetrestometres.Youcanderiveanyconversionratiointhiswayfromaknownrelationshipbetweentwounits.Let'susetheconversionratiowehavejustderivedinanexample: Question:Express3800 mminmetres. Answer:

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

ConvertingFahrenheittoCelsius: 1)TakeyournumberinFahrenheitandsubtract32 2)Multiplytheresultofstep1by5. 3)Dividetheresultofstep2by9.

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

MostEnglishspeakingpeopleusethecomma[ , ]toseparatethousandsandthedot(fulstop,orpoint)[ . ]forthedecimalindicator.Europeansoftenusethesetheotherwayaround.Manyspreadsheetsallowboth,butitisjustonemorecomplexityyouneedtoknow

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

WorkedExample1 Question:(NOTETOSELF:Makethisamoreexcitingquestion)Theheightofthewavefromthemediumis2m.Whatisthedistancefromthepeaktothetrough.What Answer: Theamplitudeis2m.(Readaboveparagraphtoknowwhy).Thedistancefromthepeaktotroughis4m.

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

f :frequency(Hzor s1) T :period(s) generally,thefrequencyofawaveisthenumberofcreststhatpassbyperunittime.

v :speed(m. s1) :wavelength(m) T :period(s)

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Newton'sfirstlawbasicallysaysthat definitelymakessense.Theonlyway mightnotbequiteaseasytojusttak theonlywaytostopanobject'smoti forcethatwedon'tseeistheforceo

Frictionistheforcethatresistsmotio youtrytorub2piecesofsandpaper degree.Thisfrictionalforceiswhats

Forceisequalto mass changewithtime,andassuch,does beappliedtothemotionofarocket,

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Question:A12Nforceisappliedin resultingaccelerationoftheblock? Answer: Step1: Wearegiven theblock'smass theappliedforce

Weknowthatnetforceresultsinacc earlierexampleoftheblockpushedo Newton'sSecondLaw. Step4:

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Youmusthaveheardpeoplesaying becauseitismassthatismeasured istheforceofgravityexertedbythe

Question:Ablock(mass20kg)ona appliedinthenegative Answer: Step1: Wearegiven

theblock'smass Force F1=45Ninthepositiv Force F2=25Ninthenegati allinthecorrectunits. Step2:

Weareaskedtodeterminewhathap actingontheblock. Step3:

Since F1and F2actalongthesame determinetheresultantforce.Choos

wherewerememberedinthelastste accelerateinthedirectionofthisresu Step4:

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

1. Drawaforcediagramindicatin 2. Identifythereactionforcefor Answer:

Thereisanimportantthingtorealise exertsaforceonit(seeChapter??? reactionaryforcetotheweightofthe example.

3. Whatistheaccelerationofth Answer: 1. Step1:Wearegiven

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

1. ByNewton'sThirdLawthesto stoneontheearth. 2. Wehave

theforceactingonthe theEarth'smass File:Fhsstforces13.png

Gasexplodesinsidetherocke Thisexplodinggasexertsafo File:Fhsstforces17.png

Duetothesymmetryofthesi forceoppositetheopenside. Thisisthereforetheresultant

Theconceptsofasystemandanext boxaroundsuchasystemthenanex pullingatrailer.

(i)Boxpressesthepersondown(ii)T pulledupbythebox(v)Personpress bytheperson.

Quiteamess.Whichonesareintern theboxorthepersonasasystemfo watchwhileselectingasystemistha eachofthemshouldbetreatedasa

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Newtonrealizedthataforcemustbe reasonedthatthisforce,whichhete betweenthetwobodies.

Newtonalsorealizedthatthissame ground.Inthiscase,thetwomasses thecenteroftheEarth.Whilewecan twofacts:

TheEarthsmass, Thedistancebetweentheapp dominatingterm.

Atfirstglance,thenumberofdiffere physicistshavefoundthatallthesef nuclearforceandweaknuclearforce Doesn'tthatmakelifeeasy?

Gravityistheattractiveforcebetwee massattracteachother,whichleads ball.ThemovementoftheEarthtow

Almostalloftheforcesthatweexpe peoplethoughtthatelectricforcesan theyareactuallydifferentmanifestat

Ifwehaveobjectscarryingelectrical actuallymuchstrongerthangravity.T bethemostimpressivethingelectros nearby.Butaballoonrubbedinsom chargesintheballoonandthewall!

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Newton'sFirstLawstatesthatanob Theanswerisfriction.Frictionarises interactioniselectromagneticinorigi thatmostofthetimewearetoldton

Thisistheforceanobjectexperience travelsandbecauseofthistheairex takentotryandreducetheamounto

Thedragforceisveryusefulforpara acceleratingallthewaytotheground sloweryouhittheground.

Equilibrium:Objectsatrestormov Equilibrant:The equilibrant TriangleLawforForcesinEquili triangletakeninorder.

Rectilinearmotionmeansmotionalo astraightroadoroftrainsalongstra motion,and(2)oppositetothedirec

FHSST Physics/Print version - Wikibooks, open books for an open world

Question:AcyclistmovesfromAth Answer: Step1:

thedistancebetweenAandB thedistancebetweenBandC thetotaltimeforthecyclistto allinthecorrectunits! Step2: