Elementary Latin Grammar (1865) PDF

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ELEMENTARY
LATIN GRAMMAR.
BY
ARCHIBALD
ONE OF THE CLASSICAL MASTERS
H.
IN
BRYCE,
LL.D.,
F.PINBURGIT.
TRIN. COLL., DUftT.TN;
THE HIGH SCHOOL OF
*!
T.
LONDON: NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW;

EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK.
MP (TCI. XV.
NELSON'S CLASSICAL SERIES.
FIRST LATIN READER. By

Edition.
Archibald H. Bryce, LL.D. Fourth

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21G pages 12mo.
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SECOND LATIN READER.

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By Archibald
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GRAMMAR
OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE. By

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Archibald H.
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ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR.

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HORACE.
Latin Lexicon," &c, Edited hy Dr. Freund, author of and John Carmichael, M.A., one of the Classical Masters of the
Higli School, Edinburgh. of Proper
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Edited by Dr. Freund. and Vocabulary of Proper Names. 12mo, cloth.
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xzfntt.
This Work
is
an abridgment of the Larger Latin Grammar

It is designed for the use
forming part of the same Series.

of beginners, and of those
studies only to
who
intend to prosecute classical

It
limited
extent.
therefore contains
merely the
amount and kind of information considered

students.
in smaller
necessary for the age and requirements of such
Some
type
tion,
matter, however, has been inserted
usually
which may be omitted in the

and which
will
earlier stages of instruc-
with more prufit be presented to the
pupil
when he
is
farther advanced.
The Syntax has been less abridged than the other portions
of the work, because the natural connection of
parts rendered
is
its several
it
curtailment more
all
difficult;
and because
right that
be,
students, whatever their ultimate object
may
should have a systematic view of the principles
which regulate the construction of Latin sentences, and of

the peculiar idioms of the language.
In compliance with the wish of many teachers in Scotland,

the author has appended to Part II. Ruddiman's Rules of
IV
PREFACE.
serious defects, have Syntax; which, though not free from the great merit of brevity, and of being easily committed to
memory.
To
illustrate satisfactorily the
many changes which
appear
of
in the declension of Nouns, an unusually large
number
the entire book Paradigms has been given ; and throughout care has been taken, by simplicity of statement the
greatest
and clearness of arrangement,

typography,
to
assisted
by the resources
of
of Latin present the facts and principles
Grammar
to
the young in
a manner at
once interesting
and impressive.
aniinte,
PART l.-ACCIDENCE.
Chapter
I.
Pago
Letters and Stllabi.es, I. The Letters, Sect.

II.
9
...
9
11
11
Syllables Quantity
...
II.
Classification op Words,
III.
Inflexion:
Gbnder Number Case,
12
IV. Substantives,
Sect.
I.
14
14
General Remarks,
First Declension,
II.
16
17
III.
Second Declension,
IV. Third Declension,
20
31
V. Fourth Declension,
VL
V. Adjectives,
Sect.
I.
Fifth Declension,
33
34
Inflexion of Adjectives,
...
34 42 46
50
II.
Comparison of Adjectives,
...
VI.
The Numerals,
VII. Pronouns,
Sect.
I.
Personal Pronouns,
Reflexive Pronouns,
50
51
51
II.
III. Possessive
Pronouns,
IV. Demonstrative Pronouns,
52
V. The Relative Pronoun,
...
54 55
VI. The Interrogative Pronouns,

VII.
The
Indefinite Pronouns,
65
VI
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
Chapter
Vll
VIII.
The Genitive,
...
27
The Ablative, ... X. The Infinitive, ... XI. The Supines,

IX.
129 132
133
133 134
XII. Participles,
XIII.
The Gerund, XIV. The Imperative Mood, ... XV. Compound Sentences Principal Clauses,
XVI. Subordinate Clauses,
135 136
137
XVII. Final Clauses, ... XVIII. Conditional Clauses,
138 139 140
XIX. Concessive Clauses, XX. Temporal Clauses,

XXI. Causal Clauses,
XXII. Relative Clauses, XXIII. Interrogative Clauses,
140
141
141
...
143
143
XXIV. Sequence of Tenses,
XXV. Ruddiman's
Rules,
146
APPENDIX.
Gender of Nouns,
Irregular Verbs,
157
161
Greek Nouns, The Calendar,
169 170
JIkasures,
172 174
Roman Monet and Roman Names,

Abbreviations,
175
PART
I.
ACCIDENCE.
CHAPTEE
I LETTERS AND
SYLLABLES.
SECTION l.-THE LETTERS.

Letters are signs for sounds. 2. The Latin letters are the same wanting. Thus :
1.
as the English, except that
is
Capitals: -A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
II, I, J, K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z.
Small:a,
Obs.
i
b, c, d, e,
f,
g, h,
i,
j,
k,
z.
1,
m,
n, o, p, q,
r, s, t,
u, v, x, y,
The Romans had originally only one form, i, for the vowel 1. and the consonant j; and one form, v, for the vowel u and the
consonant
Obs. 2.
Thus is not properly a letter, but only a breathing. the twenty-five letters of the Alphabet may be reduced to twentytwo.
letters are divided into
v.
3.
The
two
classes
Voivels
and Conso-
nants.
4.
The Vowels
u, y.
(Vocales,
i.e.,
"sound-producing") are six, a,
e,
o,
10
5

The Consonants (Con-sonantes), which cannot be sounded
without the help of a vowel, are either,

(1.)
Semi-vowels* , m,
n, r,
and the
sibilant s; or,
t,
(2.)
Mutesj},
b,f, v;
c, k,
qu, g, h, (j);
:
d.
fi.
Tlie
Mutes admit
of a double classification
viz.,
(1.)
According to
the organ by which they are pronounced,

Palatals, or throat-letters
;
Labials, or lip-letters ; Lingual Dentals, those uttered by apply-
ing the tongue to the teeth.
And
:
(2.)
breathing employed in their utterance,

diate,
and rough
or
flat.
Thus
viz., light
According to the degree of or sharp, interme-
LAIUALS.
PALATALS.
c, h,
LINGUAL DENTALS.
t
p
b /,
7.
or
qu
g, (J)
d
(th)
light or sharp. intermediate.
v,{ph)
z are
h,(ch)
rough or
flat.
x and
(1.)
double consonants, being equal,
(2.) z to
to cs, or gs, sd or ds.
and sometimes
to hs or qus.
8.
The Alphabet,
Six Vowels,
|"
then,
may be arranged
as follows
:
e, i, o,
(1.)
a,
u, y.
Five Semi-vowels,
(
I,
m, n,
r, s.
(2.)
Nineteen
|
Four Labials,
Six Palatals,
p,b,f,v.
c, k,
Consonants, divided into
-l
Mutes
qu; g, h, (j).
(Two
Two Double
Lingual Dentals,., t,
x,
d.
z.
Consonants,
A diphthong is 9. The word Diphthong means "double sound." composed of two vowels combined together in pronunciation. Those of most common occurrence are ae, oe (both sounded e), and au; as, coenae, audio, ei, eu, oi, and ui are rare.
Obs.
When two vowels meet in a word, but are not to be taken as a diphthong, a mark of diaeresis (") is placed over the second: as, poeta, pronounced po-e-ta.
and, secondly, when it is once formed, this second property, and hence their n, r, are also called liquids.
vowel sound has two characteristics: First, it comes freely in pronunciation ; The semi-vowels possess it can be prolonged. name of half-vowels. The semi-vowels /, m,
SYLLABLES
WORDS.
11
SECTION M.-SYLLABLES-QUANTITY.
1.
2.
A A
Syllable
syllable
is
one distinct articulate sound.

consist of one letter,
if
may
that letter be a vowel
two or more letters sounded at a breath. Every syllable must contain one vowel sound; as, i, "go;" et, "and;" te, "thee;" " " of punishment ;" urbs, a city." poenae, 3. The quantity of a syllable is the time taken up in pronouncing it. Hence, as regards quantity, there are two kinds of syllables A syllable which is sometimes pronounced short, short and long.
or of
and sometimes long, 4. When we wish

with a curve,
is
called variable.
is
to indicate that a syllable
short,
we mark
it
thussedeo;
that
it is
thus sedes;
long, with a horizontal stroke, tenebrae (i.e., either variable, with both, thus
that
it is
tenebrae or tenebrae). short syllable 5.
is
said to have one " time" (mdra),
" times." syllable two

ones
hence, too, sounds, are long.
;
Hence a long
all
and a long two short diphthongs, being composed of two vowel

syllable is equal to
6. The quantity of a syllable generally depends on the vowel of that syllable. A vowel may be long either (1) by nature i.e., when it has absorbed, or is supposed to have absorbed, another vowel or a
consonant, as in diphthongs and contracted syllables or (2) when it stands before two consonants or a double consonant as, mellis. In the latter case it is said to be long by position.
CHAPTER
The
II. CLASSIFICATION
OF WORDS.
words which form the Latin language may be grouped in 1. eight classes, commonly called the Eight Parts of Speech. 2. Four of these suffer changes, or inflexion, on the final syllables,
and hence are called Declinable.

DECLINABLE.
The
other four remain unchanged. INDECLINABLE.
Substantive (Noun).
Adverb.
Preposition.
Interjection.
Adjective (Noun).
Pronoun.
Verb.
Obs.
The inflexion of substantive?, adjectives, and pronouns is called Declension (decliiiatio) that of verbs, Conjugation (conjugatio).
;
Conjunction.
ll>
ELEMENTABY LATIN GRAMMAR.

(I.)
Substantive (Noun) is a word which is used as the name wc speak about: as, servios, slave; eyuus, horse; helium, war. duiniis, house \jilMUui, justice 4. (II). An Adjective (Noun) is a word which is used with a sub3.
of anything that
some quality or attribute, or to announce some bonus piier, a good boy tres equl, three horses. 5. (III). A Pronoun is a word which is used to supply the place of a substantive, or to point to some substantive going before or following as, ego, I tu, thou ; qui, who Me, that person. 6. (IV.) A Verb is that part of speech which is used to make an assertion about something as, mdgister laudat puerum, the master
stantive, to indicate
:
fact
as,
praises the boy.

7. (V.) An Adverb is a word which is used with verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, to modify their meaning in regard to time, place, manner, &c. as, turn praeerat exercltui, he at that time commanded the army acriter pugnant, they fight keenly. 8. (VI.) A Preposition is a word which is placed before substantives, to show in what relation a thing, an action, or an attribute stands to some other tiling as, fiscos cum pecunia, bags with money venit in wrbem, he came into the city. 9. (VII.) A Conjunction* is a word which serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences to one another each to one of its own kind as, pater et mater, the father and mother diu et acriter, long and keenly proxlmus aetate, et ejusdem clvitatis, most nearly coeval, and a fellow -citizen lego et disco, I read and learn ;
: ;
: ;
lego ut discam, I read that I

10. (VIII.)
may
is
learn.
An
Interjection
a word which
!
is
used to express
!
some emotion
of the
mind
as, heu, alas
euge, bravo
heus, holla
CHAPTEE
1.
III.INFLEXION, ETC.
made on the terminations
of certain
Inflexion
is
the change
parts of speech, by means of which we are able to show how the words of a sentence are related to one another, how they are com-
bined, and what
is
the nature of each proposition.
* It must be borne in mind that there are other words which connect clauses and sentences together, such as Relative rionounsar.d Relative Adverbs.
GENDER
2.
NUMBER.
13
In the declinable parts of speech the inflexions are regulated " accidents " of the Gender, Number, and Case ; and in verbs, by by those of Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.
GENDER.*
Animals are divided into two classes or sexes, the male and the female. Things without life have no distinction of sex. And thus we have three classes of things viz., things of the male sex, things of the female sex, and things of neither sex. there is a corre4. In the names of things i.e., substantives sponding classification into Masculine Gender, Feminine Gender, and Neuter Gender. The word neuter means " neither." 5. The name of an individual of the male sex is called a mascu3.
line substantive
of one of the female sex, a feminine substantive
and of one of neither sex, a neuter substantive. 6. When a word can be applied eitber to the male or the female animal of a class, it is said to be of the Common Gender as, parens, a parent, (either father or mother ;) civis, a citizen, (either male or Such words are called female;) vates, a prophet, or prophetess. masculine when applied to males, and feminine when applied to
:
females.
7. An Epicene Noun is one which, while indicating an object that has sex, yet leaves the sex unspecified: as, aquila, an eagle; passer, a sparrow, t 8. Words are said to be of Doubtful Gender which are used some-
times in one gender and sometimes in another

(masc. or fern.)
as,
dies,
a day,
NUMBER.
that change in the form of a declinable word by means of which we are able to indicate whether we are speaking of
9.
is
Number
one object, or of more than one. 10. There are two Numbers ; the Singular, used of one the Floral, of more than one. Singular comes from the Latin word
;
singuli, one by one
Plural, from plus, (gen. plur-is,) more.
* For the Rules of Gender, see Appendix. names of animals, we find that some are always, or almost always, fern., as, vulpes, a fox; aquila, an eagle, <fec. ; while others are as regularly masc., as, passer, a sparrow; pitas, a fish; the Romans having, from some cause or other, associated with one class the male sex, and with another the female.
t In the
14

CASE.
the form in which substantives, adjectives, and pronouns are used, for the purpose of expressing the relation in which
11.
Case
is
they stand to other words in the sentence. 12. There are six Cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative,
Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative.
CHAPTER
IV. SUBSTANTIVES.
SECTION
I.
GENERAL REMARKS.
1. A Substantive (Noun) is a word which is used as the name of anything that we speak about as, servus, a slave ; domus, a house
:
helium, war ; justitia, justice. 2. Substantives are of two kinds,

3.
Common and Proper.

of a class
:
A Common
Substantive
is
a word which can be used as the
name
to
of each individual of the
members
as, miles, solcity,
dier, applicable to
any
soldier; Squus, horse, to
any horse; urbs,

is
any
4.
city.
Proper Substantive
special individual
;
is
a word which
used as the
name
:
of
some
(person, animal, place, or thing)

;
as,
Romulus, Romulus
Roma, Rome
Bucephalus, (the horse) Bu-
cephalus. 5. Substantives are divided into five classes, called Declensions, according to the system of inflexions adopted in forming their cases.
The
declension to which a substantive belongs
is
known by the
in-
flexion* of the genitive singular.
flexion.
Every declinable word may be divided into two parts the stem and the inThe stem is that part which remains unaltered throughout all the cases The inflexion is that part which suffers change; as, mens- in mens-a. The stem of a noun may be ascertained by as, -ae, -am, -a, -arum, -is, -as, <fcc. taking away the inflexion of the gen. sing.; e.g., from mens-ae take away -a*, and mens- remains as the stem. In the paradigms of inflected words the stem is separated from the inflexion by a dash thus, mens ae. Stem is here used in a popular sense: the stem of me nsa is, strictly speaking, mensa-.
and numbers;
GENF^AL REMARKS.
6.
15
The Genitive Singular

...
of the First Declension ends in -ae.
16
SECTION
II.
FIRST DECLENSION.
1.
The nouns
of this declension
the gen. in -ae* (See p. 14, note
end in the nom. sing, and p. ] 5, N.B.)

;
in -a,
and
in
Singular.
Flural.
Nom.
Gen.
Mens-a., fem., a tabled
Mens-ae,
tables.
Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
Mens-ae, a table's, or of a table. Mens-arum, tables', or of tables. Mens-ae, to or for a table. Mens-Is, to or for tables. Mens-am, a table. Mens-as, tables. tablet tables/ Mens-a, Mens-ae, Mens-a, from, with, in, or by a Mens-Is, from, with, in, or by
table.
tables.
2.
-as.
few nouns have -dbus in the dat. and
abl. plur., as well as
They
are such as have a masculine of the

:
same stem
in the
Second Declension as, fili-a, f., a daughter but fili-us, a son, of the Second. So the adjectives, duo, two, and ambo, both, have in their fem. cludhus and ambubus.
;
Singular.
Plural.
Fili-ae, daughters.
Nom.
Gen.
Fili-a., fem.,
a daughter.
Fili-ae,
a daughter's, or of a
Fili-arum,
daughters',
or
of
daughter.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Fili-ae, to or for a daughter. Fili-am, a daughter.
daughters. Fili-abus, or filiis, to or for

Fili-as, daughters, [daughters.
Abl.
daughter! Fili-a, from, with, or ly a

Fili-a,
Fili-ae,
daughters/
daughter.
3.
Fili-abus, or fllils, from, with, or by daughters.

:
Gender.
table
The
;
nouns of the First Declension are fem.

:
as,
mensa,
sailor.
but words denoting males are masc. as, nauta, a Also names of rivers in -a, as Sequana, the Seine. But
Allia, Albula,
4.
and 3fat ran a
are fem.
Adjectives of this declension are declined exactly like substantives. Thus, Buna, fem. of Bonus, p. 35.
* Greek nouns, of all declensions, liave been omitted. They will be found in the Appendix, and more fully in the Larger Orammar of this Series. t As there is no Article in Latin, mensa may mean either a table or the. tabic,
according to the sense required.
SECOND DECLENSION.
Singular.
Plural.
17
Worn. B6n-a, fern., good (woman, &c.) Bon-ae, good (women, &c.) Bon-arum. Gen. Bon-ae.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Bon-ae.
Bon-is.
Bon-am.
Bon-a. Bon-a.
LIST OF
Bon-as
Bon-ae.
Bon-is.
Abl.
WORDS TO BE DECLINED.
FEMININE.
like frjua, a mare. Serv-a, a slave.
Jqufl-a, an eagle.
The three following

Filia: Da, a goddess.
Fund-a, a sling. Port-a, a gate.
MASCULINE.
Agricffl-a,
a farmer.
Co!leg-a, a colleague.
Poet-a, a poet.
Scrib-a,
Belg-a, a Belgian.
Naut-a, a sailor.
a scribe.
ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE TOGETHER.

Ancilla sldula,
a diligent
Mula parva, a small
she-
Puella pulchra, a beautiful

girl.
Luna
maid-servant. plena, the full moon.
mule. Porta aperta, an open gate.
SECTION
III.
SECOND DECLENSION".
1.
Nouns
of the Second Declension end in the nom. sing, in -us,
-er, -ir, -ur,
and
-mot.
The
gen. sing, ends in
-i.
Singular.
Plural.
Serv-I, slaves.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
masc, a slave. a slave. Serv-6, to or for a slave. Serv-fim, a slave.

Serv-iis,
Serv-i, of
Serv-5rum, of slaves.
Serv-Is, to or for slaves.
Serv-6s, slaves.
Serv-I,
slaves
!
Serv-e,
slave
Abl.
Serv-6, from,
tic.,
slave.
Serv-Is. from, tic, slaves.
LIST OF
Mai us,
Magnus, m. adj., great. {., an apple tree. Parvus, m. adj., small.
m., a branch.
J gnus,
m., a lamb.
Campus, m., a
Amicus, m., a friend. Annus, m a year.

,
plain. Certus, m., a stag.
Hortus, m., a garden.

Liipus, m.,
Acinus, m.,
an
ass.
a wolt
Ramus,
ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE.

Amicus fidus, a
friend.
faithful
Hortus amplus, a spacious garden.
Mains parva, a small applo

tree.
18
2. Words ending in -r are declined like servits. They seem to have ended originally in -us, but the inflexion of the nom. and of the Thus voe. has been lost.
:
Singular.
Plural.
boy.
Piier-I, boys.
Nom.
Gen.
Piier, uiasc,
Puer-I, of
boy.
Puer-orum, of
Puer-os, boys.
Puer-I,
boys
/
boys.
Dat.
Ace.
Voe.
Puer-6,
to
or for a boy.
Puer-Is, to or for boys.
Puer-urn, a boy.
Puer,
boy/
Abl.
Puer-6, from, dc.,a boy.
Puer-Is, from, &c., boys.
LIST OF
Asper, m.
adj.,
m.
adj., free.
rough.
Liber,
Miser,
m.
adj.,
wretched.
Liber, m., the
Bacchus.
god Liber or (No plur.)
Liber-i,
-drum,
m.,
(no
Tener, m. adj., tender.
sing.,) children.

Gener cuius, a dear son-in-law.
Sdcer beatus, a happy father-in-law.
3.
In most nouns ending in
-r,
the
of the
is lost
nom.
is
not part of
the stem, but is merely euphonic, and as, (see note *, p. 20)
:
in the oblique cases
Singular.
master.
Plural.
Magistr-I, masters.
Nom. Magister, masc, a

Gen.
Magistr-I, of a master.
Dat.
Ace.
Voe.
Abl.
Magistr-orum, of masters. a master. Magistr-Is, to ox for masters. Magistr-iim, a master. Magistr-6s, masters. master.' masters/ Magister, Magistr-I, Magistr-6, from, dc, a Magistr-Is, from, <ic,
Magistr-6,
to or for
master.
masters.
LIST OF
Ager, m., a field. Alexander, m., Alexander.
I
Capir, m., a he-goat. Niger, m. adj., black.
Sacer, Pujer, m. adj., slothful. m. adj., sacred.
ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVK.

Aper fSrus, a savage
boar.
IJiber
parvus, a small book.
4.
vir, he.
Similarly are declined vir, and its compounds, triumvir, decemLevir, a husband's brother, brother-in-law, is the only
-ir.
other word of this declension ending in
SECOND DECLENSION.
Singula r.
Plural.
Vir-I, men.
19
Nom.
Gen. Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
a man. Vir-i, of a man. Vir-6, to or for a man. Vir-um, a man.

Vir,
Vir-orum, of men.
Vir-Is, to or for men.
Vir-6 s, men.
Vir-i,
Vir,
man !
tic.,
men I
dc, men.
All.
Vir-6, from,
a man.
Vir-is, from,
5.
All words in
-um
are neuter.
:
served in their declension
The
following rule
must be ob-
Neuter nouns have the nom., ace, and and in the plural these cases end in -a.
Singular.
voc. alike in
each number
Plural.
Nom. Mal-um,
Gen.
neut.,
an
apple.
Mal-a, apples.
Bat.
Mal-I, of an apple. Mal-6, to or for an apple.
Mal-orum, of
Mal-a, apples.
Mal-a,
apples.
Mal-is, to or for apples.
A cc.
Voc.
Mal-um, an
Mal-iim,
apple.
apple!
apples/
All.
Mal-6, from, dc., an apple.

LIST OF
Mal-is, from, d-c, apples.
WORDS TO BE D1XLINED
n., n.,
Collum,
n.,
the neck.
Ovum,
Donum,
FOlium,
n.,
n.,
a
a
gift.
I'Oculum,
an egg. a cup, bowl.
Sigmim, n., a statue, sign. Templum, n., a temple.
leaf.

Helium longum, a tedious war.
Arvum
latum, a wide
field.
Ovum magnum,
6.
a large egg.
Oppidum parvum, a small town.
Gender.
Substantives in -us,
-er,
and -ur are generally masc.;

the nom.
;
those in
7.
-um
are neut.
sing, like
Deus, god, has the voc.
in the
voc. plur. it has dii (contracted into di) as well as dei; dat. and abl., diis (contracted into dis) as well as deis.
nom. and and in the Thus

:
Singular.
Plural.
De-i, Di-i, or Di, gods.
Nom.
Gen.
Le-us, m.
De-i, of
a god.
a god.
or for a god.
De-orum, of gods.
De-is, Di-is, or Dis, to or for gods.
Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
De-6,
to
De-iim, a god.
De-6s, gods.
Abl.
De-iis, god I gods! De-i, Di-i, or DI, He-Q,from, <bc, a god. De-Is, Di-is, or Dis, ./Vera, &c, gods. In poetry, and in solemn religious forms (as treaties, kc), Obs. the voc. sing, of other words in -u-s in often made like the nom.
20
8.

Adjectives which have the masc. in -us or
like
-er,
and the neut. in
-um, are declined
nouns of this declension.
The masc.
in -us
has the same inflexions as servus; in -er, the same as puer or magister; and the neut. in -um, the same as malum. The fern, form
in
-S,
menace
tenera
belongs to the First Declension, and follows the inflexions of Thus, bonus (m.), bona (f.), and bonum (n.), good ; tener (m),
(f.),
and tenerum
(n.),
tender.
(See p. 35.)
SECTION
IV.
THIRD DECLENSION.
1.
In the First and Second Declensions the stem of a noun

;
may
be easily distinguished, even in the nom. but in the Third Declension it is so disguised, by the omission of consonants or the modification of vowels, that
it
cannot be known without reference to one of
the oblique* cases. The following arrangement groups the nouns of this declension in Seven Classes, according to the change which
takes place on the stem in the nom.
It will be ob2. The gen. sing, ends in -is, and the dat. in -i. served that the nom., ace, and voc. plur. are the same in form.
CLASS
3.
I.
The First Class
contains those nouns which have the pure
THIRD DECLENSION.
LIST OF
Anser, anseY-is, m. or f., a goose. Arbor, arbffr-is, f., a tree.
Caesar, Caesar-is. m., Caesar. (No plur.) Consul,consul-is,m.,& consul
21
f.,
Exul, exUlis, m. or
exile.
an
MuHer,
Pastor,
Sol,
mutter-is,
{.,
a
a
woman.
pastor- is,
m., m.,
Fur, furis, m., a thief. (Gen. plur. -um or -ium.) Gravior, gravior-is, m. and f. adj., heavier. (Abl. sing.
-e or -i; gen. plur. -um.)
shepherd.
Soils,
the
sun.
(Wants gen.
plur.)
in., fear.
Dilor, dolor-is, m., grief.
Timor, timor-is,

Fur malus, a wicked
thief.
Pastor fidus, a faithful shepherd.
Sol cldrus, a bright snn. Sdror blanda, a kind sister.
4.
To
this class belong
nouns
like pate)is
and mater, which omit
in the oblique cases, so that the gen.

Obs.
patris, and not pateris.
Iter,
n.,
a journey, has Utner-is, from the old form of the
nora, itiner.
Singular.
(3.)
Plural.
Fratr-es, brothers.
Nom.
Gen.
Frater, m., a brother.

Fratr-is, of a brother. Fratr-I, to or for a brother.
Fratr-um, of
brothers.
Dai.
Ace.
Voc.
Fratr-Ibus, to or for brothers.

Fratr-es, brothers. brothers/ Fratr-es,
Fratr-Sm, a brother.
Frater, Fratr-e,
brother.
brother/
Abl.
from,
dc, a
Fratr-Ibus, from, <c,

l/rolhers.
LIST OF
Aeciplter,
accipitris,
f,
m., a
rain.
Mater, matris,
Pater, patris,
a mother. a father.
L'ter, utris,
m., a bag.
hawk.
Imber,* imbris,
va.,
iu.,
Venter,vcntrit, m.,the belly.
5.
See rule for the inflexion of neuters,

Singular.
p. 19, art. 5.
(4.)
Nom. Animal,
Qen.
an animal. Animal-is, of an animal.

n.,
Plural. Animal-ia, animals.
Animal-ium, of animals.
Animal-ibus,
to
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Animal-i,
to
an animal.
animals.
Abl.
Animal, an animal. animal/ Animal, Animal-i, t from, dc, an

animal.
Animal-ia, animals. animals/ Animal-ia, Animal-ibus, from, dc., animals.
*
t
Imber, uter, and venter have -ium in the gen. plur. Imber has the abl. sing, in Neuters In -, -t, -al, and -ar, have -i in the abl. sing.
or
-i.
22
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR,

LIST OF
n.,
Acquor,* acquOr-is,
sea.
n., tlie
Fulgur, fulgHr-ti, ning.
light-
Yds, vas-is, n., a vessel. (PI-
vas-a, -orum,
n.,
2nd Decl.)
Cadaver, cadaver-is,
corpse.
Calcar,
spur.
calcar-is.
n.,
a
a
Pa paver,
poppy.
Uber,
papaver-is,
n.,
Yectigal, vectigul-is, n., re-
venue.
n.,
tibPr-is,
an
Ver, ver-is, n., spring.
(No
udder.
plur.)
6.
The
like honor,
adjective par, equal to, is declined in its ruasc. and in its neut. like animal. (See p. 39.)
and
fern,
CLASS
7.
II.
To the Second Class belong

Singular. TTrb-s, f., a city.
TJrb-Is, of
those nouns which, in the nom.,
add a
letter (usually s or e) to the pure
stem
as,
Plural.
Urb-es,
cities.
(1.)
Nom.
Gen.
city.
Urb-ium, of
city.
cities.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
TJrb-I, to or for
TJrb-ibus,
to
or for
cities.
Urb-em, a
TJrb-s,
city.
TJrb-es, cities. TJrb-es,

,
city I
cities.'
A bl.
Obs.
Monosyllabic nouns whose stem ends in two consonants havp

in the gen. plur.
TJrb-e,
from,
<Lx.
city.
TJrb-ibus, from,
<L-c, cities.
-ium
LIST OF
Orus,\ grit-is, m, or crane.
litems, hie*m-is,
f.,
WORDS TO HE DECLINED.
fnSp-is, m.,
f.,
Inops,
and
f.
|
Sus, X su-is,
pig.
m. or
is, i,
f.,
adj., poor.f
'
winter.
ab. pi.)
(Wants g.,
d.,
and
Stirps, stirp-is, {., a root, or race.
(or m.,)
'
Trabs, trdb
beam.
(2.)
Nom.
Gen.
Ret-e,
Singular. n., a net.
Plural.
Ret-ia, nets.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Ret-is, of a net. Ret-I, to or for a net.
Ret-ium, of nets.
Ret-ibus,
Ret-ia,
Ret-ia,
to or
for
nets.
Ret-e, a net. Ret-e,

net
I
nets.
nets!
Abl.
Ret-I, from,
fcc,
net.
Ret-ibus, from,
dc,
nets.
LIST OF
Orav-?, grav-ls,
n.
adj.,
WORDS TO BE DECLINED,
I
Mite, mit-is, n. adj., mild.
Ovil-e~,
dvil-is,
n.,
a sheepa
seat.
heavy.
Mari, mar-is,
n.,
the
sea.
MOn'd-e, monil-is, necklace.
n.,
a
[ ]
fold,
Sedii-e*, s?dil-is, n.,

Mare
*
f I
altum, the deep sea.
Bete rarum, a wide. meshed net.

plur. in tan.
Aequor, cadaver, fulgur, papavcr, and fiber have the gen. Grits and inops have -urn in gen. plur. Gen. plur. -um; dat. and abl. subus, contracted for suibus
See
p. 21,
note f.
THIRD DECLENSION.
23
8. As x is equal to cs or gs (see p. 10, 7), all nouns ending in dues; lex belong to this class as, dux legs.
:
Singular.
(3.)
Plural.
Leg-es, laws.
Nora. Lex, f., a law. Gea. Leg-is, of a law.

Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
Leg-urn, of laws.
to ox for laws. Leg-es, laws. laws 1 Leg-es,
Leg-i, to or for a law. Leg-em, a law.
Leg-ibus,
Lex,
law
All.
(4.)
Leg-e, from, die, a law.

or
f.,
Leg-ibus, from,
<Lr.,
hues.
Nom. Dux, m.
Gen.
&c.
a leader.
Duc-es, leaders.
Due-is, of a leader.
Duc-um, of
&c.
leaders.
LIST OV
Arx, arc
is
f.,
*
f.,
a citadel.
Cotyux, conjug-is, m. or
f.
Atrox, atroc-is, m. adj., savage.

adj.,
and
a consort.
Felix,
felic-is,
,
Pax, pdc-is, (Wants gen.
f.,
peace.
plur.)
m. and
f.
Aurlax, aujac-is, m. and

daring.
f.
adj
happy.
Radix, rudic-is, f., Rex, rPg-is, m., a king.
a root.
Grex, grey-is, m., a flock.
Conjux felix, a happy consort.

II rex
formOsus, a
ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE. Pax longa, a long peace. Hex saevus, a ciuel king. beautiful flock.
is
9.
The adjective/dfe, happy,
similarly declined.
(See p. 39.)
CLASS
10.
III.
In the Third Class are included those nouns which have a

:
vowel inserted in the nom., between the stem and the inflexion
caed-es, for caeds, gen. in -ium.
caed-is.f
as,
The
gen. plur. usually ends
Singular.
(1.)
Plural.
Clad-es, defeats.
Nom.
Gen.
Clad-es,
f.,
a defeat.
Clad-is, of
defeat.
Clad-ium, of defeats.
Clad-ibus, to or for defeats.
Clad-es, defeats.
Clad-es,
defeats/
Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
Clad-I, to or for
defeat.
Clad-em, a defeat.
Clad-es,
defeat!
All.
Clad-e, from, dr., a defca'. Clad-ibus, /row, <tc, defeats.
" Arx, ittrt'.r. audax, and felix have the gen. plur. ill -ium. The last three cf these have the abl sing, in -e or -!, though -i is more common.If the vowel were not inserted, the dental would either be rejected before s, or t
assimilated to
it.
24
ELEMENTARY LATJN GRAMMAR.

LIST OF
FObls, nCb-O, , a clond. Rupes, rup-is, , a rock.
Vulpes, vulp-is,
Tales*
tat-ls,
{,, a m. or
fox.
,
a prophet
Singular.
(2.)
Plural.
Xom.
Gen.
Host-Is, m. or
f.,
an enemy. Host-is,
enemies.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Host-is, of an enemy. Host-i, to or for an enemy.
Host-ium, of enemies. Host-ibus, to or for enemies.
Host-is,
All.
Host-em, an enemy. Host-es, enemies. enemies I enemy/ Host-es, Host-e, from, dc. , an enemy. Host-ibus, from, dec., enemies,
LIST OF
WORDS TO EE DECLINED.
Collis, eoll-is,
Amnis, amn-is,\ m., a

Auris, aur-is,
L,
river.
m., a
hill.
an
ear.
Atis, av-is, , a bird.

Brevis, brev-it, ra.
Civis, civ-is, ra.
and
adj., short.
or , a citizen.
m. and f. adj., heavy. Litis, lev-is, m. and adj., light Mentis, ment-is, m., a month. Mitis, mil-is, m. aDd adj., mild.
Gravis, gr&v-is,
-i
Obs.
Some words
abl.
;
in -is have -im in the ace. sing., and and some have -em or -im, and -e or -i.
in the
] 1
Many adjectives
are declined in the masc. and fern, like hostis,
and
in the neut. like rete.
(See grams, p. 38.)
CLASS
12.
IV.
The Fourth Class
includes thyose nouns which drop the last

:
stem in the nom. as, sermo (for sermon), gen. sermonis; lac (for lacij, gen. lact-is; cor (for cord), gen. cord-is; po'ew.a (for poemat), gen. poemdt-is; rnel (for melt), gen. mell-is; 6s (for
letter of the
oss),
gen. oss-is.
Singular.
(1.)
Plural.
Sermon-es, conversations.
Nom. Sermo,
Gen.
rn.,
conversation.
Sermon-Is, of conversation.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Sermon-I,
to conversation.
Sermon-urn, of conversations. Sermon-Ibus, to conversations.

Sermon-es, conversations.
8ermon-em,
conversation.
All.
conversation/ Sermo, Sermon-e, from, dec, con-
Sermon-es,
versations.
conversations/
Sermon-Ibus, from, dec, con-
venation.
Valts has
t
-um
in
the gen. plur.
-t
Amnis, avis, citis, and collis have either sing.; but gratis, levis, mitis, and brlvii have the gen. plur.
or
-'
only.
(though usually -) in the ubL Mentis has sometimes -um in
THIRD DECLENSION.
LIST OF
Latro, m., a robber. Ltgio, f, a legion.
Leo, m., a lion.
25
WORDS TO BE DECLINED
f.,
Lfgo, m., a mattock.
Oratio,
IWvo,
ai.,
a speech. a peacock.
Praeco, m., a public ci Pracdo, m., a robber.

Ratio,
f
,
icr.
reason.
Singular.
(2.)
Plural.
Cord-a, hearts.
Nom.
Gen.
Cor, neut., the heart.

Cord-is, of the heart. Cord-i, to or for the heart.
(Cord-ium, or-um, of hearts.)

to or for hearts. Cord-a, hearts. hearts/ Cord-a,
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Cord-ibus,
Cor, the heart. heart I Cor,
Abl.
Cord-e, from, dr., the heart.
Cord-ibus, from, dr., hearts.
LIST OF
Dogma, dogmat-is,
opinion.
Fil, fell-is,
n., bilen.,
lact-is, n.,
an
(No
Imc,
milk. (No
n.,
pi.)
5s, oss-is, n.,
a bone, (Gen.
n.,
Hit,
honey. (Wants sen., dat, and

mell-is,
plur. in -turn.)
gen. plur.)
abl. plur.)
Poema, poimat-is, poem.
06s.
Words
-is,
plur. in
in -ma, like poema, usually make the dat. and abl. instead of -ibus ; as poematis, for poematlbus.
CLASS
13.
V.
To the Fifth Class belong

nom., before the
;
those nouns which omit
or
in the
final
s: as, laus
(for lauds), gen. laud-is,
f.,
praise
word n
frons (for fronts), gen. front-is, f., the forehead. In one is dropped; viz., sanguis (for sanguins), gen. sanguln-is,
Singular.
m., blood.
Plural.
Laud-es,
praise,':.
(1.)
Xom. Laus,
Gen.
f.,
praise.
Laud-is, of praise.
Laud-um, of praises.
Laud-ibus, to or for praises. Laud-es, praises.
Laud-es,
praises/
Dat.
Aec.
Voc.
Laud-I,
to or for praise.
Laud-Sm, praise.
Laus,
praise/
Abl.
Laud-e, from, dr., praise.

f., the forehead. Front-Is, of the forehc a d.
Laud-ibus, from, dr., praises.

Front-es, foreheads.
(2.)
Nom, Frons,
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Front-I,
to the forehead.
Front-ium, of foreheads. Front-ibus, to foreheads.

Front-es, foreheads. Front-es,
heads.
Front-Sm,
Frons,
the forehead.
forehead.'
dkc., the fore-
foreheads/
Abl.
Front-e, from, head. *
Front-ibus, from, dr., fore-
2G

Singular.
Plural.
Lapid-es, stones.
(3.)
A 'om.
Gen.
Lapis, m., a alone.

Lapid-is, of a stone. Lapid-i, to or for a stone.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Lapid-um, of stones. Lapid-ibus, to or for

Lapid-es, stones.
stones.
Lapid-em, a
lapis,
stone.
stone!
All.
Lapid-e, from,
&c, a
stone.
stones! Lapid-es, Lapid-ibus, from, <c, stones.
LIST OF
Adas,* aetat-is, f., age. Amans, amant-is, in. and
adj., loving.
f., a dowry. /on I- is, m., a foun-
Dos, dot-is,
f.
Forts,
Pars, part-is, f, a part. Pes, ped-is, m., a toot.

Saltts,
sii/ut-is,
f.,
tain.
art.
!.,
safety.
Ars, art-is, or city.
{.,
Frons, frond-is,
f.,
a leaf.
f.,
(No
an
plur.)
CivXlas, cwitdt-is,
a state a
gland Glans, acorn.

Mens, ment-is, Mors, ntort-is,
is
Sapiens, sapient-is, m. and f. adj., wise.

Virtus, virtttl-is,
f.,
Gustos, cusldd-is,
m. or
f.,
{., f.,
the mind.
death.
virtue.
keeper.
14.
Obs.
All participles ending in -ns, as amans, loving; monens, advising, &c. ; and all adjectives of similar termination, are declined like nouns of this class. (See p. 40.)
CLASS
15.
VI.
in which the final
The Sixth Class embraces those nouns

is
vowel of the stem
nom. nomen;
stein
changed in the nom. capit-, but nom. caput.

n.,
as,
stem nomhi-, but
Singular.
(1.)
Nom. Nomen,
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
a name. N6rnln-is, of a name. Nomin-i, to or for a name. Nomen, a name.
Plural. names. Nomin-um, of names.
Nomm-a,
Noniin-ibus, to or for names. Nomin-a, names.
Nomen,
name!
<L-c,
All.
(2.)
Nomin-e, from,
n.,
names! Nomin-a, a name. Nomin-ibus, .fi'uni, <i-c., names.

Capit-a, heads. Capit-um, of heads. Capit-ibus, to or for heads. Capit-a, heads.
Capit-a,
a head.
Nom. Caput,
Gen.
a head.
Capit-is, of a Itcad.
Capit-i, to or for
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
a head.
Caput, a head. head! Caput,

Capit-e, from,
civitas
heads!
<fr.,
All.
*
<i-c,
Capit-ibus, from,
heads.
Adas and
-iuin.
sapiens have -inm oftener than -um.
have
have -nut oftener than -inm in the gen. plur. Amans and Cuslos, pes, and virtus have -um only; the reat Pars has -e, and sometimes -i, in the ubl. sing.
THIRD DECLENSION.
LIST OF
firmrii,
carmtn-it,
n..
27
fluinXn-is,
n.,
Flumcn,
river.
a
n.,
NUmen,
mimln-is,
n.,
a
a
poem.
Sbilr,
ibOr-ts,
n.,
ivory.
Ordmeii,
grass.
yriimin-is,
deity. J I eclen, pectln-Ts,
m.
(Plur. rare.)
comb.

Carmen gratum, a pleasing
poem.
I
Peclen Zburncus, an ivory
Grd men
[
rfrens, fresh grass,
comb.
CLASS
VII.
16. In the Seventh Class are ranged those nouns in which the final letter of the stem is changed, in the nom., into s: as, mos (for mor), gen. mor-is ; fios (for flor), gen. flor-is :
Singular.
(1.)
Plural.
Flor-es, /ewers.
Nom.
Gen.
Flos,
in.,
a,flower.
F16r-Is, of
Dat.
Ace.
Vuc.
Flor-I, to or for
a flower. a flower.
Flor-um, of flowers.
Flor-ibus,
Flor-es,
to
or for flowers.
Flor-em, a flower.
Flos,
Flor-es, flowers.
flower I
flowers!
dr., flowers.
All.
Flor-e, from, &c.,
a flower. Flor-ibus, from,

Crur-a,
legs.
legs.
(2.)
Nam.
Gen.
Crus,
h.,
leg.
Dat.
Crur-is, of a leg. Crur-i, to or for a
Crur-um, of
leg.
Crur-ibus,
Crur-a, Crur-a,
to
or for
legs.
A cc.
Vnc.
Crus, a
leg.
legs.
Crus,
leg I
legs 1
legs.
All.
Crur-e, from, &c., a kg.
Crur-ibus, from, &c,
LIST OF
Aes,
aer-is,
n.,
Os, or-is, n.,thc face,
brass.
(Wants gen.
Jus, fur-is,
*
.!/<<.,
plur.)
Mvs, mor-is, m., custom. Mas, in a /- it, m. or f, a
mouth.
(Wants gen.
Iiiis,
law, light. mar-is, m., a male.

n.,
mouse.
plur.) rur-is, n., the country.

(.,
Tellus, tcllUr-iS,
the earth.
COMPOUND VARIETIES.
17.
The Seven
Classes thus set forth
comprehend
;
all
the impor-
tant simple varieties of this declension

*
but there are
many nouns
-i
Mm, and mus have -rum

it
in
the gen. plur.

abl. plur.
Rus has both
-e
and
in the abl
sing.;
wants the gen.,
dat.,
and
28
not yet exemplified, which exhibit the peculiarities of more than one Thus (1.) Judex, which makes the gen. judlc-is, adds s to the class. stem, like the nouns of Class II.; and also changes the last vowel of
the stem, like those of Class VI.
princeps, gen. princXp-is
;
So and many
also vertex, gen. vert'ic-is ;
others.
(2.)
Homo,
cardo,
imago, and such like, drop the final n of the stem, like sermo, and change the last vowel of the stem, like Class VI. Class IV. and many others, omit t before s, like Class (3.) Miles, equSs, dives,
;
final vowel of the stem, like Class VI. vvlnus, funus, &c, change the last vowel of tempus, (4.) Corpus, the stem, as the nouns of Class VI.; and substitute s for r, like those Thus: of Class VII.
V.;
and change the
THIRD DECLENSION.
LIST OF WORDS TO BE DECLINED.
Arunilo, reed.
arundln-is,
eardin-is,
t,
29
a
a
Imago, (mcigln-is, Image.
{.,
an
Ordo, ordtn-is, m., order.

Virgo,
virgin-it,
t,
Cardo,
m.,
hinge. Grando, grandin-is,
Nemo, ?>eml!}-is, no one. (Wants voc. sing, and all

the plur.;
abl. sing, rare.)
maiden.
f.,
hall.
Obs.
Caro,
f.,
flesh, stern carin-,
drops the
ia the oblique cases;
as, gen. curnis, dat. carni, &c.
Singular.
(3.)
Plural.
Milit-es, soldiers.
Norm. MI15s, m., a soldier.
Gen.
Dal.
Milit-is, of a soldier. Milit-i, to or for a soldier.
Milit-um, of
Milit-ibus,
soldiers.
to or
for
soldiers.
A cc.
Voc.
Milit-em, a soldier.
Miles,
soldier
I
Milit-es, soldiers.
Milit-es,
soldiers!
Abl.
Milit-e, from, <c, a soldier. Milit-ibus, from, dec, soldiers.
LIST OF
Cesp&, cespU-is, m., turf. COmfs, cOmU-is, m. or f., a
Obsis, obsid-is,
qus, (quit-is, m., a horse-
m. or
f.,
man.
hostage.
companion
18
80
]f).

The
adjective
like
gravior,
niaso.
p. 38.)
and fem.
heavier, is similarly declined; the honor, and the neut. like corjms. (See
20. A few nouns are quite irregular, and cannot, be placed under any one of the above classes. Their forms are therefore given
separately
FOURTH DECLENSION.
31
ABSTRACT VIEW OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

CLASS.
I.
ci.as
in the
Pure stem
Nominative.
IV. Last
letter
of stem dropped.
Consul.
Consul-is.
Honor.
Honor-is.
Serino.
Lac, .
Lact-is.
s.
Sermon-is.
V. Letter thrown out be/ore
Aetas.
II.
Z,e/ter
added
Laus.
Laud-is.
to stem.
Urb-s.
Dux
Aetat-i*.
o
p 4
Urb-is.
(=duc-s). Due-is.
VI. Last vowel of stem changed.
Nomen,
III.
n.
Caput,
n.
Nomin-is.
Vowel
inserted.
Capit-is.
VII. Last consonant of stem changed.
Nav-i-s.
Clad-e-s.
Clad-is.
Flos.
Arbos
{or Arbor).
Nav-is.
Flor-is. Arbor-is.
NOUNS WITH PECULIARITIES OF MORE TUAN ONE CLASS.

CLASSES.
(1.)
(2.)
NOM.
STEM.
GEN.
(8.)
(4.)
and IV. and V. and VI. and

II.
VI. VI. VI.
Judex
(Judic-)
Judic-is.
Homo
Miles
(Homin-)
(Milit-)
Homin-is.
Milit-is.
VI
f.
Corpus
(Corpor-)
Corpor-is.
SECTION
V.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
1.
The nouns
Those
of the
or -a.
in -us are
Fourth Declension end, in the nom., in masc. or fem., and those in -a neut.
Plural.
Fruct-us, fruits.
-its,
Singular.
Nom. Fruct-us,
Gen.
m., fruit.
to or for fruit.
Fruct-us, of fruit.
Fruct-ui,
Dat
Ace.
Voc,
Fruct-uum, of fruits. Fruct-Ibus, to or for fruits.

Yru.ct-us, fruits.
Fruct-iis,
Fruct-um,
Fruct-us,
fruit.
fruit I
disc,
fruits!
All.
Fruct-u, from,
n.,
fruit.
Fruct-Ibus, from, &c., fruits.
Nom. Gen-u,
Gen.
knee.
Gen-ua,
knees. knees.
Dat
Ace.
Gen-us, of a knee. Gen-u, to or for a knee.
Gen-uum, of
Gen-ibus,
to or for knees.
Voc
All.
Gen-u, a knee. knee: Gen-u,

Gen-u, from, dr., a knee.
Gen-ua, knees.
Gen-ua,
km
Gen-ibus, from, dr.,
km
32
2.

Several nouns of this declension have also forms belonging to Domus is declined as, senatus, gen. senatus or senati.
the Second;
as follows
:
Singular.
JVom. Dom-us, f,, a house. Gen. Dom-us,*

Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Plural. Dom-us.
Dom-uum,
Dom-ibus.
or
domorum.
Dom-ui
Dom-iis.
{rarely domo).
Dom-fim.
Dom-ds
Dom-iis.
{or
domus).
Abl.
06s.
Dom-5
{rarely domu).
in -cus (and -cu),
Dom-ibus.
1. Words
and
also tribus, a tribe; artus,
a joint; partus, a birth; portus, a harbour; vZru, a spit; and one or two others, make the dat. and abl. plur. in -ubus, instead of -ibus. Portus and veru have also -ibus.
Obs. 2.
The
following couplet contains those nouns which have

abl. plur.
:
always or usually -ubus in the dat. and
Arcus, acus, portus, quercus, ficus, add, and artus, Tribus, lacus, specus, too ; with vSm, pecu, partus.
LIST OF
a needle, Arcus, m., a bow. Cantus, m., a song. Cornu, n., a horn.
Acus,
{.,
ifaniis,
Currus, m., a carriage. Exercitus, m., an army. Fluctus, m., a billow.
NSrus,
V?ru,
a hand. a daughter-in-law. Vullus, m., the face.

f.,
f.,
Qrddus, m., a step.
n.,
spit.
3.
Gender.
The
nouns of
this declension
:-
which end in -us are
generally masc.
(a)
(b)
But the
following are feni

;
Names of trees The words
as, quercus,
an oak.
Acus, a needle. Anus, an old woman. Coins, a distaff (also masc.) Domus, a house.
Idus, (plur.), the Ides {lZth, or, in some cases, the 1 5th
Niirus, a daughter-in-laxo.
PSnus, gen. -us, or

m.,) provisions.
-i
(f.
or
Portlcus, a porch. Socrus, a mother-in-law.
SpScus, a cave (usually masc,

rarely neut.)
of the month. )
Manus, a hand.
4.
Tribus, a
;
tribe.
Words
in -u are neut.
as, ge~nu,
a knee.
Domi
is
used in the sense of "at homo.'
FIFTII DECLENSION.
33
SECTION
VI.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
1. The nouns of the Fifth Declension have the nom. and the gen. in -ei.
sing, in -es
SlNOULAR.
Plural.
Nom.
Gen.
Di-es, m. or
Di-ei, of
f.,
a day. a day.
Di-es, m., days.
da;/.
Di-erum, of days.
Di-ebus,
Di-es,
to or for days.
Bat.
Ace.
Voc.
Di-ei, to or for
Di-em, a day.
Di-es,
Di-es, days.
All.
Di-e, from,
f.
,
day I &c, a day.
days I
Di-ebus, from,
R-es, things.
Ac,
days.
Nom. R-es,
Gen.
a thing.
hat.
Ace.
Voc.
R-ei, of a thing. R-ei, to or for a thing.
R-erum, of
R-ebus,
R-es,
to
things.
or for things.
R-em, a
R-es,
thing.
R-es, things. things/

dec., things.
thing/
etc.,
All
2.
R-e,/roro,
a thing.
R-ebus, from,
Dies and res are the only words of this declension which have
the plur. complete.
The seven
and
spes,
glacies, sSries, species,
The
other substantives of this

Ols. 1.
substantives, acies, effigies, fades, have the nom., ace., and voc. plnr. declension want the plur. altogether.
is long when a vowel goes before as, di-e-i; but
:
In the gen. and dat. sing, the letter e

it,
precedes
Obs.
2.
short
when a consonant
r-?-i, fid-S-i.
three,
All the substantives of this declension end in except a thing; spes, hope; and fides, faith, Plebes (another
-ies,
res,
form of
plebs), the
common
people, also ends in
-es.
3.
Gender.
dies, a day,
fern.,
The words of the Fifth Declension are all fern., except which in the sing, is sometimes masc. and sometimes The compound merldies
is
but in the plur. masc. only.

LIST OF
masc.
WORDS TO BE DECLINED.*
Fades, a
face.
Jeies,
an army. Caesaries, a head of hair.

*
Fides, faith
Glides, ice. Mdieriet, material.
See No.
2 of this Section.
34
GENERAL VIEW OF ALL THE DECLENSIONS.

bINGULAR.
1 Decl.
2 Decl.
3 Decl.
4 Decl.
5 Decl.
Nom. Mens-a.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Serv-us.
Serv-I.
Honor.
Honor-is.
Fruct-iis. Fruct-iis.
Fruct-iii.
Di-es.
Di-ei. Di-ei.
Mens-ae. Mens-ae.
Serv-6.
Honor-I.
Mens-am.
Mens-a. Mens-a.
Serv-iim.
Serv-8. Serv-o.
Honor-em. Honor.
Honor-e.
Fruct-um.
Fruct-us.
Fruct-ii.
Di-eni.
Di-es.
Di-e.
All.
Plural.
Nom. Mens-ae.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Serv-I.
H6nor-es.
Fruct-iis.
Di-es.
Mens-arum. Serv-orum. Honor-um. Fruct-uum. Di-erum.

Mens-Is.
Serv-Is.
Honor-ibiis. Fruct-Ibus. Di-ebus.
Mens-as.
Serv-5s.
Serv-I.
Honor-es.
Honor-es.
Fruct-iis.
Fruct-iis.
Di-es. Di-es.
Mens-ae.
Mens-Is.
All.
Serv-Is.
Honor-Ibus. Fruct-ibus. Di-ebus.
CHAPTEE V. ADJECTIVES.
SECTION
I.
INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES.
1. An adjective is a word \ised with a noun to denote some quality or attribute, or to indicate some fact as, bonus puer, a good boy ; tres equi, three horses.
:
2.
Adjectives
may
be divided into three classes
(1.)
Those which have three forms one

Idnus, masc, good
tener,
;
for each gender:

;
as,
bdna, fem., good
bdnum,
fem.,
neut., good:
tender
masc, tender; tenera, celer, masc, swift

:
fem., tender; tenerum, neut.,

cSleris,
swift
celere,
neut., swift.
(2.)
Those which have two forms one common, and one for the neut.
for the
as,
masc. and fem. in

;
gravis, masc, heavy
gravis, fem., heavy; grave, neut., heavy: grdvior, masc, heavier grdvior, fem., heavier ; gravius, neut., heavier.
;
(3.)
35
:
Those which have only one form in the nora. for all genders as, filix, masc., happy; felix, fern., happy ftlix, neut., happy par, masc, equal par, fern., equal ; far, neut., equal sapiens, masc, wise ; sapiens, fern., wise ; sapiens,
;
:
neut., wise.
CLASS
3.
I.
masc is malum.
is
-us, -a, -urn (as bonus), the declined like servus, the fern, like mensa, and the neut. like Hence these are called adjectives of the First and Second In those of the Third Declension (as celer), the masc Declensions.
In adjectives of three forms, in
declined like anser
(p. 20),
the
fern, like hostis (p. 24),
and the neut.
like rete (p. 22).
When the nom. neut. ends in -e, the abl. sing, ends in -i.
Obs. Celer,
or ceteris.
deer, and such adjectives, have the masc. occasionally in -is: as, deer or dcris, masc; dcris, fern.; acre, neut.: so celer
BONUS,
m.,
BONA,
f.,
BONUM,
n.,
good.
36
LIST OF
(1.) AmaniJ-iis,
-a,
37
(3.)
-urn,
(deserving) to
be loved.
Amatilr-us, -a, -urn, about to love.
Liber, liber-a, liher-um, free. Niger, nigra, nigrum, black. Nostcr, nostra, nostrum, our.
Amat-us,
-a, -urn, loved.

(4.)
Gravissim-us, -a, -urn, heaviest. Lat-us, -a, -um, broad.

life-us, -u,
Pulc/ier,pukhra, pulchrum, beautiful. Acer, or acris, acris, acre, sharp. CelS-ber, or -bris, Celebris, celebre, fa-
um, my.*
mous.
Piter, or pulris, puiris, putre, rotten. Vuliicer, or rolucris, volucris, volucre,
swift.
Mull-us, -a, -um, much (many) Parv-us, -a, -um, small.

{2.)
Asper, asper-a, asptr-um, rough.
4.
The
in -ius,
sing,
and the dat. in and plur. they are
following adjectives of this declension have the gen. sing. in the other cases of the -i, for all genders
like
bdnus;
whole.
viz.
Ullus, any. Nullus, none.

Solus, alone.
Totus,
all,
Alter, one (of two.)

titer, which (of two.) Neuter, neither (of two.)
Onus,
one.
Alius, one (of many.)
NULLUS, NULLA, NULLUM,

SlNQULAR.
Fern.
none.
Kent.
Null-a.
Null-Ius.
Null-I.
Null-um.
Null-ius.
Null-i.
Null-am. Null-a
Plural.
Niill-ae.
Null-iim.
Null-6.
Null-a.
Null-arum.
Null-is.
Null-orum.
Null-is.
Null-as.
Null-is.
5.
Null-a.
Null-is.
Alius
is
voc. sing. neut.
similarly declined, except that end in -ud instead of -um.
the nora., ace, and
ALIUS, ALIA, ALIUD,

Singular.
Masc.
Fern.
another.
Neut.
Nom.
Gen.
Alius.
Alius.
Alii.
Alia.
Aliiid.
Alius.
Alii.
Alius.
Alii.
Dat.
Ace.
All.
Alium.
Alio
Aliam.
Alia.
Aliud.
Alio.
38
LIST OF
(1.)
39
WOUDS TO BE DECLINED.
(2.)
Bvlv-is,
-is, -e,
short.
ISrevi or, -or, -11% shorter.
Dulc-is,
Fort-is,
-is, -e,
-is, -e, -is, -e,
sweet.
Docti-or, -or, -us,
more
learned.
brave.
every,
all
Dulci-or, -or, -us, sweeter.
Omn-is,
Maj-or, -or, -us, greater.
CLASS
7.
III.
Third Declension. Thus, Adjectives of one form belong to the like honor (p. 20), and sapiens feliv is declined like lex (p. 23), par In the neut. of all these, the rule for the like (p. 25). frons
declension of neut. nouns
(p. 19, 5)
of course applies.
40

LEGENS, LEGENS, LEGENS,
choosing.
41
SIMPLEX, SIMPLEX, SIMPLEX,
simple.
42
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
43
5. The Superlative degree is used to indicate that one individual (person or thing), or set of individuals, possesses a certain quality or attribute in a greater measure than any other individual or set of
individuals of the class spoken of;
omnium, the master

Obs. 1.
is
as, magister est doctissimus the most learned of all.
It must be noted that the Latins often use the comparative " rather " or " too " in degree as equal to English as, callidior, rather cunning, too cunning; i.e., more cunning than one ought
:
to be.
Ols.
2.
In like manner the superlative

very cunning.
is
used as equal to " very;"
as, callidissimus,
G.
The comparative degree
-ius, n., to the
is formed by adding stem of the positive as,

;
-ior, m., -tor,
f.,
FOSITIVE.
44
8.

Exceptions
:
-r,
(1.)
When
as,
the positive ends in
the superlative takes -rlmus;
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
45
IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
9.
Some
entirely different
of comparison from adjectives form the degrees from those of the positives as,
;
stems
Positive.
Comparative.
Melior,
better.
Superlative.
Bonus, good. Malus, bad.
Pejor, worse.
Optimus, best. Pessimus, worst.
Magnus,
great.
Parvus, little. Multus, much.

Friigi (imlecl.), discreet
Major, greater. Minor, less.

Plus, more.
Maximus, Minimus,
greatest.
least.
Frugalior.
Senior.
Plurimus, most. Frugalissimus.
Senex, old. Juvenis, young.

Obs. Obs.
Junior.
,
Natu maximus. Natu minimus.
substantive in the nom., but in the ace, and gen. sing., and only in the neut. gender ; plur. it is a regular adjective, plures, plures, plura (or 2)luria),
gen. plur-ium, &c.
\.Nequam, worthless, is regular 2. Plus is used most commonly as a
nequ-ior, nequ-issimus.
10.
A few
the superlative adjectives have two forms in
as,-
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
Exter-us,
outside
-a, -urn, being
\ VTtMnr mU our. | exterior,
fExtremus, (sometimes
-^
extimus,) the
last.
(Poster-us), -a, -um, being behind.
Posterior, further
back, later.
fPostremus, the last; and Postumus, one )

~S
born after his father's

death.
(in the
\
(Super-us), -a, -um, being
above.
1
'
Sup g rior)
higher.
(Supremus, the last < time) summus,

;
highest.
11.
stem appears
Positive.
few adjectives have no proper positive, but the positive in adverbs or other indeclinable words as,
;
Comparative.
Anterior.
Citerior.
Superlative.
Citimus. Deterrimus. Intimus. Ocissimus. Primus.
(Ante, before.) (Citra, on this side.)

(De, down.)
(Intra, within.)
(ilKVi, swift.) (Pris, or prae, before.)
Deterior. Interior. Ocior. Prior.
(Prope, near.) (Secus, otherwise.) (Ultra, beyond.)
Propior. Sequior,
Ulterior,
Proximus.
(n.
sequius
[orsecius. Ultimus.
4G
ELEMENT AKY LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAPTER VI. THE NUMERALS.

1.
An
important class of adjectives consists of those indicating
number or amount. They are called Numerals. 2. The four principal classes of numerals are
(1.)
number
order in which
first (in
The Cardinal,
or chief Numerals, which express the of tilings absolutely: as, unus, one; duo, two, &c.
(2.)
The Ordinal Numerals, which express the

some object stands
secundus, second
in a series
:
as,
primus,
order)
(in order), &c.
(3.)
The Distributive Numerals,

or to each individual
:
as, hint,
indicating how many each time, two at a time, or two each ;
(4.)
deni, ten at a time, or ten each, or by tens. Multiplicative, or Adverbial Numerals, which indicate how
often a thing
i.e.,
is repeated as, ter mille, thrice a thousand, three thousand sexies, six times.
:
3.
Of the
Cardinals, the first three are declinable
but
all
those
from four up to one hundred are indeclinable. The hundreds, from two hundred up to one thousand, are regularly declined like the plur.
of bonus: as, ducent-i, -ae, -a; ducent-orum, -arum, -orum, &c. The Ordinals are regular adjectives, like bonus : as, terti-us, -a, -um;
terti-i, -ae, -i, 4.
&c.
is
Unus, one,
thus declined (see
p. 37, 4)
43

CAnniNAi.s.
'
ORDINALS.
Trieesimus, gesimus.
DISTKIBUTIVRS.
tri1
MIir.TIPLICATIV1C3 (ADV.)
or
30. Triginta.
TricBni.
Tricies.
40. Qu.ldraRlnta. Quadruge'simus. 50. QnlnqaSgtnta. Qulnquagesiimis. 60. Sexaginta. Sexagesimus. 70. SeptuiiRinta. Septuageslmus. 80. Octoglnta. Octogesimus. 90. Nontiginta. Nonagesimus. Centeslmus. 100. Centum. 101. Centum etun-"} or cent\ Centeslmus primus. us, urn unus. j 102. Centum et duo. Centesimus secundus. 200. Ducentl, ae, a. Ducentesimus. 300. Trgcenti, ae, a. Treeentesimus.
QuadragEnl. Quinquageni. Sexageni.

Septuageul. Octogeni.
Quadragles. Qulnquagies.
Sexagies.
Septuagles. Octogies.
Nonageni. CentenL
[
Nonagies.
Centles.
Centeni
sin-
Centies semel.
Centeni Ducenl.
Trecenl.
bini.
Centles bis. Ducenties.

Trecenties.
400. Quadringenti,
ae, a.
Quadringentesimus.
)
Quadringeni.
Quingeni.
Sexceni.
Quadringenties.
Quingenties. Sexcenties.
Septingentiea.
500. Quingenti, 600. Sexcenti, ae, 700. Septlngenti,

ae, a.
ae, a.
a.
Quingenteslmus. Sexcenteslmus.
Septingentesimus.
SeptingenL
Octingeni.
800. OctinRenti,
ae, a.
Octingentesimus.
Octingenties.
900. Nongenti,
1,000. Mille.
2,000.
ae, a.
Nongentesimus.
Millesimus.
Nongeni. Singula millia.
Nongenties.
Millies.
Duo
millia, or
Bis millesimus.
Blna
millia. millia.
Bis mi Hies.
bis mille,
}
Dena
Centena
millia.
10,000. Decern millia. Decies millesimus. 100,000. Centum millia. Centies millesimus.
Decies millies. Centies millies.
7.
Mille, one thousand,

;
is
indeclinable in the sing.,
and
is
used
as
an adjective
e.g.,
times, however, it is thousand soldiers. But in the
mille milites, one thousand soldiers ; someused as a substantive, mille militum, one
plur. it is declined regularly, millia,

;
millium, &c, and is almost always used as a substantive millia militum, two thousand soldiers.
06s.
e.g.,
duo
not found
a smaller number follows the thousands, the gen. is as, duo wAllia quingenti homines, two thousand five hundred men.
;
When
8.
first,
Between twenty and one hundred,

no conjunction
the smaller
is
if
if
the larger number
is
put
;
required; &s,vigi)iti quinque, twenty-five
number come first, we must say, quinque et viginti, Above one hundred the larger just as in English, five and twenty. number precedes as, centum quadraginta quatuor, or centum et
but
;
quadraginta quatuor. 9. The two numbers preceding any of the tens,
e.g.,
eighteen,
NUMERALS.
49
are best expressed by nineteen, twenty-eight, twenty-nine, subtraction as, duodeviqinti, two from twenty, i.e., eighteen ;
:
&c
undetriginta, one from thirty, i.e., twenty-nine. 10. In expressing the year in which an event happened, the ordinals are used e.g., 1865 will be, anno millesimo octingentesimo
;
sexagesimo quinto.
11.
The Roman symbols

ROMAN
to indicate
numbers are :
50
CHAPTER VII PRONOUNS.

1.
A Pronoun
is
a word which
is
used to supply the place of a

fol-
substantive, or to point to
lowing.
2.
some substantive going before or

Pronouns
:
There are seven

I.
classes of
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
The Personal or Substantive Pronouns. The Reflexive Pronouns. The Possessive Pronouns. The Demonstrative Pronouns. The Relative Pronoun. The Indefinite Pronouns. The Interrogative Pronouns.
SECTION
I.
TEE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

1.
The Personal Pronouns

Ego,
I, nos,
first
are three
spoken to
(a)
we, indicating the person or persons speaking-
person.
vos, you, indicating the person or persons
(b)
Tu, thou,
second person.
(c)
Se, him, her, it, them, indicating the person or persons, thing or things, spoken about third person.
2.
N.B.Se
since
it
is more frequently a reflexive pronoun than a personal, doe3 not introduce a person independently, but refers to the subject of its own clause (though sometimes to the subject of the principal clause). When a person or thing different from that represented by the subject is referred to, him, his, &c, must be expressed by the proper case of is, ea, id; ille, ilia, illud; or, The demonstrative, is, ea, id, is often used as the hie, haec, hoc.
substantive pronoun of the third person.
PRONOUNS.
Singular.
1 Pcrs.
51
l'urs.
3 Pel's.
Norn.
Gen.
1 go,
/.
Tu, thou.
Tui, of
thee.
Mei, of me.
Sui, o/ himself, &c.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Mini,
to or for
me.
Tibi, to or for thee.
Sibi/o or for himself, d-c.

Se, himself, herself, itself. Se, wii/i himself, dc.
Me, me. Me,

with, by,
Te,
thee.
Tu, Mow.
All.
from Te,
with, d-c,
tlice.
or in me.
Plural.
Nom. Nos,
Gen.
we.
Vos, ye or you.
<;/
Nostr-i, or -ura,o/M, Vestr-i,or -um,ofyou. Sui,
themselves.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Nobis,
to
or for us.
Vobis,
to or
for you. Sibi,
or/or themselves.
Nos, us.
Nobis, with, from,
d-c, us.
Vos, you. Vos, ye or you.

Vobis, with, from,
d-c, you.
Se, themselves.
All.
Se,
wWi, from, &c,
themselves.
SECTION
II.
THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

as Reflexives of the first ifyo and tu serve in the oblique cases and second persons. Sometimes they are strengthened by the addi1.
tion of the syllable -met,

2.
self.
substantive pronoun se is more frequently used as a reflexive than as a personal pronoun, and refers (or is reflected lack) to the subject of its own clause (seep. 50, N.B.); thus, stultus sibi
The
inimicus
used
est,
the fool
is
an enemy to himself.
The form
sese is often
for the
sake of emphasis.
SECTION
III.
THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

The
Possessive
Pronouns are formed from the personals, and
are regular adjectives like bonus or piger; as, Me-us, -a, -urn, my or mine; gen. me-i,-ae,
-i.
Tu-us,
-um, thy or thine,; gen. tu-i, -ae, -i. Su-us, -a, -um, his, hers, its, theirs; gen. su-i, -ae, -i. Noster, nostr-a, nostr-um, ours; gen. nostr-i, -ae, -i. Vester, vestr-a, vestr-um, yours; gen. vestr-i, -ae, -i.
-a,
52
SECTION
IV.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

1.
Demonstrative Pronoun
is
employed to draw special attention
The demonstratives object, or the description of an object. or that are, hie, haec, hoc, this ; iste, ista, istud, that of yours, near you ; Hie, ilia, illud, that ; is, ea, id, this ; ipse, ipsa, ipsum,
to
an
this very person, self; idem,
eadem, idem, this person here, the
same.
2. Hie, haec, hoc, this near me, refers to what is near the it speaker, or to what has been most recently mentioned. Hence It is declined as is called the demonstrative of the first person.
follows
54
7. is

Idem, e~adem, idem, this person here, the very man, the same,
:
compounded of is, ea, id, and the like is with -dem attached
suffix -dem.
It
is
declined
PRONOUNS.
55
SECTION
VI.
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

1.
The
Interrogative Pronouns are, (a) Quis, quae, quod, or quid, who, which, or what (b) Qui, quae, quod, who, which, or what ?
(c)
Uter, utra, utrum, which of two
(d)
2.
Some compounds
as,
quisnam, ecquis, &c.

little in its inflexion
Quis, who, which, or what, differs
relative
pronoun
Masc.
from
t'le
Singular.
Fem.
Plural.
Kent
Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
Nom.
Gen.
Quis.
Quae,
Cujus. Cui.
Quod or quid.
Cujus.
Cui.
Qui.
Quae.
Quibus, Quas.
Quae.
Quibus.
Cujus.
Cui.
Quorum. Quarum. Qudrum.

Quibus.
Quos.
Quibus.
Dat.
Ace.
Quem. Quam. Quod or quid.

Qu5.
Quae.
Quibus.
All.
3.
Qua.
Quo.
Quibus.
It interrogative qui is declined exactly as the relative. refers rather to the internal qualities and nature, while quis asks
The
merely for the name quis est, who what kind of a person is he ? what
:
is
he
what
is
his
name 1 qui est,

?
is
his nature, disposition, &c.
SECTION
VII.
THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

1.
The
are,
Indefinite
Pronouns are used to speak of an individual

is
(person or thing) of which nothing distinct
They
(1.)
known
or specified.
Quis, quae, quod, or quid, any one, any; declined like the
interrogative.
(2.) (H.)
Qui, quae, quod, any one

Aliquis,
stantive.
,
declined like the relative.
aliquid, any one,
some one
used as a sub-
(4.) (5.)
Aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, any, some

Siquis,
.
used as an adjective.
siquid,
if
if
any one.
(6.) tiiqui,
siqua, siquod,
any.
5G
(7.)
(8.)

quidquam, any one (no plur.). Quicunque, quaecvnque, quodcunque, whoever, whichever. Quisquis, quaequae, quidquid or quicquid, every one who,
Quisqvam,
(9.)
whoever.
(10.) (11.) (12.)
Quidam, quaedam, qzcoddam
or
quiddam, a certain
one.
Quisque, quaeque, quodque or quidque, every one.
(13.) (14.) (15.)
Quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam or quidjriam, any one. Qulvls, quaevis, quodvis or quidvis, any one you please.
Ncquis, nequa, nequid,
Quilllet, quaelibet, quodlibet or quidlibet, lest any one.
any one you please.
0?w. 1.
In aliquis and aliqui, siquis and ncquis, those forms which in the simple pronoun qui or quis end in -ae are made in -a; as siqua, for siquae, &c.
2.
G&s.
the plur.
Obs. 3.
Quisquam not used in the sing, fem., nor in any part of It used for any one, in negative clauses. For the declension of ullus, nullus, uter, neuter,
is
is
alius,
&c,
2.
see pp. 37, 38.
Some words
in
Latin are mutually related, and hence are
called correlatives.
strictly speaking,
They
are often considered as pronouns, though,

as,
they are simple adjectives
Demonstrative.
Talis, of that (or such a) kind.
Indefinite.
Qualis or quis, of what kind.
Tantus, so great.
(
Quantus,
Quot, so
so great as,
how
great.
Tot, so many.
many as, how many;
with
\ Totidem, just so
06s.
many.
list
several others.
The indefinites in this
are also used as interrogatives.
CHAPTER VIII THE VERB.

SECTION
I.
INTRODUCTORY.
1.
tion
2.
A VeiIb is that part of speech which is used to make an asserabout something. Verbs are divided into two classes, according to their meaning
:
(1.)
which the action or feeling is represented as Transitive, directed towards, or "passing over" to some object: as, /
in
strike the
dog ; he prawes his friend.
VERBS.
(2.)
57
Intransitive,* in which (a) the action or feeling is repre" not sented as not directed towards, or passing over" to an
I
3.
4.
object, but as confined to the subject or in reflect, (active intransitive :)
as,
I run; I walk ;
(b)
which
a state or
condition
is
expressed;
as,
lam; I stand; I rejoice.
Verbs have two Voices, the Active and the Passive. t

X.B. Intransitive verbs have only those parts of the passive voice which are used impersonally. Thus, we cannot say, curror, I am run; but we can say, curritur, it is run that is, people
run
is
not yugnatur, he
is
fought; but pugnatur,
it
(the battle)
fought.
5.
DEroNEXT Verbs
passive voice, but the
part transitive
are those which have the inflexions of the meaning of the active. They are for the most verbs, though some of them are intransitive, and are those which have an active form
some
6.
reflexive.
Neuter Passive Verbs

;
but a passive meaning

7.
as, vCipulo, I
am
beaten.
of
in
Semi-deponents are those which have some of their tenses the active form and some of the passive, with an active meaning
all
:
as,
gaudeo, gdv'isus sum, gaudere, to rejoice; fldo, flsus sum,
fldere, to trust.
8. great many verbs of the passive voice are used in a reflexive sense: as, fallor, I deceive myself (i.e., I am deceived); vertor, I turn myself versor, I turn myself, I stay in, or frequent, a place
;
vehor, I ride
i.e.,
am
carried.
MOOD.
9.
The Latin Verb has
four
presenting a state or an action
Moods
viz.,
i.e.,
modes (modus) of
re-
the Indicative, Subjunctive,
Imperative, and Infinitive. 10. Besides these there are certain forms which partake of the
An
activs transitive veib does not
make complete
sense without a noun after
it
in the accusative case (or some other case, pen.. d:it., oi abl.), representing the object, whereas an intransitive verb does. Thus, he praises, does not make complete sense
till
addition.
is
the person or thing praised is mentioned; but, I run, I walk, require no such Many verbs are both transitive and intransitive: thus, exceilo, I go out,
beyond bounds, is transitive. derived from rcrburn, a word; VoiCB, from r-ox, a word, or saying; Activk, from the perf. part, of ago, to do; PASSIVE, from the perf. part, oi potior, to suffer; Tkaksitivk, from transeo, to pass over.
t
intransitive; but exceda, I exceed, or, go
Verb
is
58
nature of the noun as well as of that of the verb, such as the Supine, Participles, and Gerund.
TENSE.
Tense means time. All time is divided into three great periods-past, present, and future. Hence there are three
11.
tenses, to indicate past time, present time, and future time. 12. Thus, the leading or principal tenses are, the Present, Present-
leading
Perfect,
fect, Pluperfect,
13.
and Future the secondary or subordinate are, the Imperand Perfect-Aorist. The present, future, and present-perfect are sometimes called
;
Primary tenses; imperfect, perfect-aorist, and pluperfect, are called the Historical tenses, because most frequently employed in the narration of events*
past
the
while the
There are two Numbers, Singular and Plural Persons in each number.
14.
and three
15. Verbs are divided, according to their stems and inflexions, into four classes, called Conjugations, which are distinguished by the termination of the present infinitive thus :
;
The II. The III. The IV. The

I.
First Conjugation has -are, as Second ... -erg, as
amarg, to love. monere, to warn.

audire,
to hear.
Third
... ...
-gr g, as Iggerg, to choose.

-irg, as
Fourth
printed uniformly as if the stem of each ended in a consonant, i.e., as if am- were the stem of amare, mon- of monere, and aud- of audire,
as leg- is of
17.
lege~re. is the primary advantageous to
16. The stem of amare is, properly speaking, ama-; of monere, mone-; and of audire, audi-; but for convenience in conjugation, and for the purpose of avoiding confusion, the four classes are
While ama-, as seen in the present imperative, and proper stem of the whole verb, it will be found
make
the verb.
*
use of certain secondary stems appearing in different tenses of Thus, while ama- or am- is the stem of all presents and
But historians often ufe the present tense in narrating past events, to add vividlife to the story, by representing incidents as if passing before our eyes; "When this had been reported to Caesar, he loses no time in starting from us, Rome; he hastens into further Gaul, and reaches Geneva." Caes. Bell. Gall., Bk. /., 7.
ness and
VERBS.
imperfects,
59
(perfect) may be taken as a secondary stem runthe perfects and pluperfects and amat-, occurring in supines, future participle Act., and future subjunctives. 18. Thus there are four parts of the verb, which exhibit all the
amavall
ning through
and secondary), namely, the Present IndicaThese are Perfect Indicative, Supine, and Present Infinitive. called the Principal Parts, because when they are once known every other form of the verb may be readily ascertained.
possible stems (primary
tive,
19. The principal parts of the verbs which represent the fonr conjugations are as follows
:
CO
ELEMENTAKY LATIN
fiRAMMAl!.
SECTION IIREGULAR ACTIVE

Principal Parts
INDICATIVE.
S.
Arao, Amavi,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
(or -o), / am loving. Ani-cis, thou art loving. Am-&t, he is loving. P. Am-amiis, we are loving. Am-atis, ye or you arc loving. Am-ant, they ore loving.
Am-o
Am-ein, / may love. Am-es, thou mayst love. Am-et, he may love. Am-emus, we may love.
Am-etis, you
may
love. love.
Am-ent, they may
S.
Ani-abam, I was
loving.
Ani-abas, thou wast loving. Ain-abat, he was loving.

P.
Ain-arein, / might or should love. Am-ares, thou miejhtst love.
Am-abanius, we were loving. Aiu-abatis, you were lovirig. Am-iibant, they were loving.
Am-afco, / shall love. Am-abls, thou wilt love.
Arn-abit, he will love.
Am-ar5t, he might love. Am-aremfis, ire might love. Am-aretls, you might love. Am-arent, they might love.
S.
P.
Am-abimus, we
Am-abunt,
shall love.
love.
Am-abitis, you will
they will love.
Amaturus sim, / may Amaturus sis, thou mayst Amaturus sit, he may Amaturi simus, we may Amaturi sltis, you may Amaturi sint, they may
Amav-erim, I may have
Amav-eris, thou mayst have Amav-erit, he may have Amav-erimiis, wemeiyhave Amav-eritis, you may have
cZ
S.
Amav-I, I have
Amav-isti, thou hast Ainav-it, he has Amav-imus, we have Amav-istis, you have
-s
P.
j
1
g,
Amav-erunt
S.
(-ere),
they have
loved.
Amav-erlnt, they
may
have
Amav-eram, / had
Amav-8ras, thou hadst loved. Amav-er&t, he had loved. P. Arnav-Cramus, we had loved. Amav-Sratls, you had, loved. Amav-erant, they had loved.
Amav-fero,
I shall
Aruav-issem, / might or shd. Amav-isses, thou wouldst Amav-Isset, he would Araav-issemus, we should
Amav-Issetls, you would
Amav-Issent, they would
Amav-Sris, thou wilt Amav-Srlt, he will P. Amav-Srimiis, we shall Amav-Sritis, you will Amav-erlnt, they will
VKRllK.
CI
VERBS FIRST
VOICE.
CONJUGATION".
Amatum, Anmre,
IMPERATIVE.
to love.
62
REGULAR VERBS
Principal Parts
Amor, Amatus
PASSIVE
VERBS.
63
FIRST CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
sum, Amari,
to be loved.
IMPERATIVE.
Gl
SECTION
III. REGULAR
VERBS
ACTIVE
Principal Parts
MonSo, Monui,
VERBS.
G5
SECOND CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
Monitum, Monere,
IMPERATIVE.
to advise.
CG
l'Xr.MKNTAKY LATIN fJUAMMAR.
REGULAR VERBSPrincipal Parts
Moncor, Monitus
PASSIVE
VERBS.
67
SECOND CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
sum, Moneri,
to be
advised.
IMPERATIVE.
G8
SECTION IV.-REGULAR VERBS ACTIVE

Principal Parts
Lego, Legi,
VERBS.
C9
THIRD CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
Lecturn, Legere, to choose.
IHP8&ATIYB.
70
REGULAR VERBSPASSIVE
Principal Parts
Legor,
VEKBS.
71
THIRD CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
Lectus sum, LSgi.
IMPERATIVE.
72

Some Verbs
of the Third Conjugation have an
i in
ACTIVE
Capio,
the Present Indicative,
VERBS.
73
THIRD CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
Cepi,
Captum, Capere.
it
;
and the tenses derived from

IMPERATIVE.
such are capio, fodio, facio, &c.
74
passive
Capior,
P jg on E
VERBS.
75
THIKD CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
Captus sum, Capi.
IMPERATIVE.
7G
SECTION V.REGULAR VERBS

ACTIVE
VERBS.
FOUETH
VOICE.
CONJUGATION.
Audlvi, Auclitum, Aucllre.

IMPERATIVE.
78
l.l'.MENTARY LATIN
GRAMMAR.
PASSIVE
Audior,
VERBS.
79
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
VOICE.
Auditus sum, Audiri,
IMPERATIVE.
to be heard.
SO
SECTION VI.THE FOUR

ACTIVE
to
VERBS.
81
CONJUGATIONS AT ONE VIEW.

VOICE.
IMPERATIVE.
82
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS

PASSIVE
0)
VERBS.
83
AT ONE VIEW.
VOICE.
IMPERATIVE.
81
CHAPTER IX.
Deponent Verbs are those winch have the inflexions of the Passive Voice known, as in other Regular Verbs, by
SECTION I. FIRST CONJUGATION Hortor,

INDICATIVE.
DErONENT VERBS.
85
DEPONENT VERBS.
but the meaning of the Active.
the favourite vowel.
The conjugation
to
which each belongs
is
(See p. 58, 15, sqq.)
admonish.
Principal Paets, Hortor, Hortatus sum, Hortari.
IMPERATIVE.
SG
DEPONENT
SECTION
III. THIRD
CONJUGATION L8qu-or,
INDICATIVE.
DEPONENT VERBS.
87
VERBS.
/ speak.
Principal Parts
Luquor, Lucutus sum, Luqui.
IMPERATIVE.
88
CHAP.
Sum
is
X.,
SECT.
very irregular in those Tonses which are formed from tlie stem of the ends, not in -bam, but in -ram, like a pluperfect its future, not in -bo sum is for csum, sim for cairn, sunt for csunt, &c. In Latin s is often
;
Verb, because, being joined with perfect participles, it assists in com(from substantia, essence, or being), because it denotes existence.
SUM, I am.
INDICATIVE.
Principal
IRREGULAR VERBS.
89
IRREGULAR VERBS.
The imperfect indicative principal part; i.e., the present indicative. or -am, but in -ro, like a future perfect. The stern is properly es-, so that Sum is called an Auxiliary changed into r, so that from is for esam.
first
pleting the tenses of other verbs.
It is also called a Substantive
Verb
Parts
* Sura, Fui, Esse

1
IMPERATIVE.
90
SECTION II.
Possum
is
is
compounded ofpof-, the stem

;
of the adjective
s,
"
pott's,
able," and
:
retained
but when they begin with

tenses, the
the
is
t is
assimilated to s
;
as,
perfect
and derived used as an adjective.
of fui
omitted
as,
pot-ui for
Posse
is
for pot-csse.
POSSUM, I am
INDICATIVE.
able.
Principal
SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.
PRES.Cl am able, &c.) Possum,* Potes, Potest.
(I
may be
able, &c.)
Possim, Possis, Possit.

Possimus, Possltis, Possint.
might or should be
-es, -et.
-etis, -ent.
able, &c.)
P. Possiimus, Potestis, Possunt.
IMPERF.(\ was
S.
able,
<fec.)
(I
P6t-eram, -eras,
-erat.
Poss-em,
P. PSt-eriimus, -eratis, -erant.
Poss-emus,
FUT. (I
S.
shall
be
able, &c.)
Pot-ero, -eris, -erit.
P. Pot-erimus, -eritis, -erunt.
PERF.Q. have been

S.
able,
<fcc.)
Potu-i, -isti,
-it.
P. Potu-imus,
-ere.
-istis,
-erunt,
or
IRREGULAR VERBS.
91
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Whenever the parts of sum begin with an c, the t of potI am." In the potes, pot-cram; but possum for pot-sum, possim for pot-aim. is pot-fid. The imperative is wanting, and the present participle, poiens,
sum.,
"
Parts
Possum,
Potiii, Posse.
IJIPERATIYB.
SECTION
HL
PEOSOL I am u&pd to, I do good to.
::...:
::-
:
.
".
"j.i.-
;-: ---- ------.
-.
-i-
:i-t
':
---.'
z-.---
ht
he
::-.
'
-
v.
IEEZGULAZ 7
I
:
:
::.."!..:
nr-
04
SECTION IV.EO, J
Eo belongs
to ihe
go.
i-,
Principal
becomes
e-
Fourth Conjugation.
Its stem,
before
indicative eo for to; third plural present eunt for iunt.
The imperfect
INDICATIVE.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
95
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Parts
Eo,
Ivi,
Itum,
Ire.
the vowels a, o, u: thus, present subjunctive earn for iam; present is ibam, and not i-c-bam ; and the future euds in -bo, and not in -am.
IMPERATIVE.
9G
SECTION V.
Fero
is
of thi Third Conjugation, but
irregular in the Perfect and thus, fers for fer-i-s, fert for fer-i-t, ferre for fcr-e-re,
is
ACTIVE
FERO, I
INDICATIVE.
bring or bear.
Principal
IRREGULAR VERBS.
97
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Supine and derived tenses. In some parts it omits the connecting vowel: ferris (second singular present passive) for fer-6-ris.
VOICE.
Parts
Fero,
Ttili,
Latum, Ferre.
IMPERATIVE.
OS
KLEATF.NTARY f.ATTN GRAMMAR.
IRREGULAR
PASSIVE
Piunoipal Paets
INDICATIVE.
Feror, Latus
IRREGULAR VERBS.
99
VERBS.
VOICE.
sura, Ferri, to be boime.
IMPERATIVE.
100
SECTION VI.
VOLO, 7 am
This verb
willing.
Peincipal
is irregular in the present indicative and present infinitive, and rcKre, which was syncopated into vcl're; and this, by assimilation vult and vultis, older writers use volt and voltis.
INDICATIVE.
IRUEOUIAR VERBS.
101
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Parts
Volo, Volui, Velle.

The
velle.
the tenses derived from them.
full
of the liquids
and
r,
became
form of the infinitive would be So vellcm is for vclercm. Instead of
IMPERATIVE.
102
IRREGULAR
NOLO, / am
INDICATIVE.
IRREGULAR VERB8.
103
VERBS.
unwilling
(continued.)
IMPERATIVE.
104
SECTION IX.
FIO, I
am
made, or I become.
I
Principal
Fourth
Fio serves as the passive voice of facto,
make.
It is of the
fUbam, flam,
as,
&c.
But
it is
short in the third singular present
flercm, fieri, &c.
INDICATIVE.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
105
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Parts
Flo, Factus sum, Fieri.

The vowel
i
Conjugation.
indicative, fit,
in fio is long even before another vowel
as,
and in those parts of the verb which contain the
letter
IMPERATIVE.
10G
SECTION X.
EDO, I
Edo
is
eat.
Principal Parts
;
a regular verb of the Third Conjugation
but some of
its
INDICATIVE.
IREKGULAR VERBS.
107
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Edo, EdI, Esum, Edere, or Esse.
forms are syncopated so as to be identical with certain parts of sum.
IMPERATIVE.
108
KI.KMKNTARY LATIN GRAMMAR.
SECTION
XI.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
1.
Defective Verbs are those which want

volo,
st
me
of their parts.
Tims,
malo, &c, are not only Irregular, but also Defective
Verbs. The following, however, are more largely defective, since they either want the present and derived tenses, or have only a few isolated parts, principally of the present stem. Thus, coepi, I and novi, I know, memini, I remember odi, I hate begin
; ;
;
have only the perfect (preterite) tense and the forms derived from it: from which circumstance they are sometimes called Prcteritive
Verbs.
2.
The
fects indefinite or imperfects,
perfects are translated as presents, the pluperfects as perand the future perfects as futures.
The reason
of this change
is
evident
when we remember that 'memi.e.,
ini literally means, I have called to mind, I iiave conceived a hatred, i.e., I hate, &c.
remember;
odi,
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
109
PARTICIPLES.
PERFECT.
Coep-tua.
0-sus
{obsolete.)
(No-tus.)
FUTURE.
Coep-turus.
3.
0-6urus.
yes, has only the following parts
:
Ajo or aio I say, I say PRESENT INDICATIVE.

Aiunt.
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.
S. Ajo, Ais, Ait.
P.
P.
Aias, Aiat.
,
Aiant.
IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.
S.
PARTICIPLE PRESENT.
Aiens, affirming.
P.
Aiebam, Aiebas, Aiebat. Aiebamusj Aiebatis, Aiebant.

say, is
(1)
only used (like our, says I) in quotas the first ing the words of a person; and (2) that it never stands word of a clause that
it is
:
4. Inquam, I must be noticed,
likewise very defective.
Of inquam
it
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
P.
Inquam, Inquis, Inquit. Inquimus, Inquitis, Inquiunt.

PERFECT.
S.
IMPERFECT.
,
Inquiebat.
FUTURE.
S.
S.
Inquisti, Inquit.
Inquies, Inquiet.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. Sing. Inque.
5.
|
Put. Sing. Inquito,

:
Fari, to speak, has the fullowing parts
INDICATIVE
110
C.

Quacso, I entreat, and quaesumits, we entreat, are the only parts verb found. Quaeso is the old form for quaero.
of
tli is
7.
thus
8. 9.
Avere, to hail, is found only in the infinitive and imperative; ave (or have), aveto, avete; infinitive, avere. Apage, plur. apagete, begone, are the only parts met with.
Cido
plur. cMtte, or cette, give
me.
;
10. Salve, salveto, plur. salvete, hail
infinitive, solvere; future,
salvebis.
11.
Yale, plur. vdlete, farewell
12.
Ausim,
ausis, ausit,
infinitive, valere,
,
aitsint, for
audeam, &c,
may
;
dare.
13. Fax-im, -is, -it, -Imus, -itis, -int, for faciam, I may do or fecerim, I may have done. Also Fax-o, -is, -it, for fecero, I shall have done ; , -itis, -int,
or faciam, I shall do.
SECTION
XII.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
1. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the third person singular, and have no personal subject i.e., have no substantive or substantive pronoun as their subject. They are like the English phrases,
it
snows,
2.
it
The
rains, it happens, &c. third singular of regular verbs
is
sometimes used imper-
sonally ; as, accidit, it happens, from accido, I fall in with, happen on.
3. The mena
:
following refer to the weather and certain natural pheno-
Pluit,
it
rains.
it
Ningit,
snows.
it
Lucescit and illucescit, Fulgurat and fulminat,
it
it
dawns.
lightens.
Grandinat,
hails.
Tonat,
it
thunders.*
it
Lapidat, or lapidatum est, stones

fall from heaven.
4.
Vesperascit and advesperascit,
grows dark.
The
Some
following six, referring to feelings of the mind, take the
of these are occasionally used as personal.

tonat.
Thus we
find Jupiter tonal;
and
in
a figurative sense, orator
IMPERSONAL VEKBS.
accusative of the person experiencing the feeling; as, Miseret me of you) :
Ill
me
tui, I pity you, (literally, It pities
Miseret (me),
uit.
I pity; perf. miserit-
uin est, misertum est, or miser-
Piidet (me), puduit, or
am
ashamed;
est.
perf.
puditum
Piget (me), J regret
perf. piguit,
Taedet (me), I am disgusted; perf. pertaesum est, and rarely taeduit.
or pigitum est. Poemtet (me), I repent ;perf. poenituit.
Oportet (me), it is necessary for me, I must; perf. oportuit.
5. Some have a substantive as their subject, and are used in the third plural, with a neuter plural as subject ; as, Parvum parva decent:
Decet (me),
decuit.
it
becomes
me;
perf.
Libet,
est.
or lnbet (mihi), I Uke, choose; perf. libuit, or libitum
Ledecet (me),
perf.
it
docs not become me;

perf. licuit.
dedecuit.
it is
Liquet,
6.
obvious
Licet (mihi), T am permitted: perf. licuit, or licitum est.
Some
singular,
and with a meaning more or

:
personal verbs are used impersonally in the third person less different from that of the
personal forms
Interest and refert, tance to.
it is
of impor-
Delectat and juvat (me), me.

Fallit, fug-it,
it
it
delights
Accidit, evenit, contingit, or

it
fit,
and praeterit (me),
happens.
it is
escapes me.
it
Accedit,
tion
to.
added
to,
or in addi-
Placet,
placitum
(ad), it con-
pleases; perf. placuit, or est.

it is better.
Attinet and pertinet
Praestat,
cerns or pertains to. Conducit, it is conducive.
Restat,
it
remains.
Vacat,
Est,
in
it is
wanting.
it
Convenit,
Constat,
it suits.
the sense of licet,
is per-
it is
it is
known
or established.
m itted.
ExpSdit,
expedient.
7. Most verbs may be used impersonally in the passive voice. This usually happens in the case of intransitive verbs, which otherwise have no passive as, curritur, they run literally, it is run,
:
i.e.,
is
Thus, pugnatur, they fight, (the battle carried on;) pugnabatur, they were fighting; pugnatum est, they
running
is
taking place.
112
fought, &c.
est,
:
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMA R.
vivitttr, people live, (i.e.. life is maintained:) ventum they came, &c. 8. Impersonal verbs of the active form have no passive voice.
Most
of
them have the tenses
of the indicative, subjunctive, and

;
infinitive complete,
but no other parts
thus,
OPORTET,
Indicative.
Present.
it
behoves.
Subjunctive.
Oporteat,
Oporteret,
it it
Oportet,
it behoves.
it
may
<
behove.
Imperf. Future.
Perfect.
Oportebat,
Oportebit,
behoved.
will behove.
might, behove.
it
Oportuit,
hoved,
it
behoved.
it
Oportuerit,
be-
it
may
it
IHupcrf. Oportuerat,
had
will
Oportuisset,
hoved.
might
have behoved. have be-
[behove* I.
it
F. Per/. Oportuerit,
have
Infinitive.
Oportere,
to
behove; oportuisse, to have behoved.

is it
06s. When the person

sative: as, oportet me, him, he ought, &c.
to be expressed,
it is
put
in the accuit
behoves me; oportet eum,
behoves
CHAPTER XLADVERBS.
1.
An Adverb
is
a word which
is
used with verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs, to modify their meaning in regard to time, place, manner, degree, &c: as, Turn praeerat exercitui; he at that time commanded
the army: Acriter pntgnant ; they fight keenly. 2. As to form, adverbs are of three classes Simple, Derivative,
:
and Compound.
3.
root
4.
Simple or primitive adverbs are such as cannot be traced to any as, saepe, often non, not nunc, now ; mox, presently. Derivative adverbs contain the stem of some adjective, substan; ;
tive, or other part of speech.

5.
Compound adverbs
are
made up
of two or
more words
as,
hddie for hoc die; tantummodo for tantum

ob
6.
quam rem ; magnopere for magno opere; Many adverbs, especially those derived from
modo ; quamobrem for quamvis for quam vis.

adjectives, are sub-
ADYERKS.
ject to comparison.
113
The comparative of the adverb is generally the nominative singular neuter of the adjectival comparative thus, this neuter, doctius, being used as the doctior, doctior, doctius,
comparative of the adverb docte. is formed the adverb doctissime.
From
the superlative, dociissimus,
ADJECTIVES.
Ill
KI.F.MENTARY LATIN
GRAMMAR.
CHArTER XIL PREPOSITIONS.

Preposition is a word which is placed before substantives to 1. show in what relation a thing, an action, or an attribute, stands to some other thing: as, Fiscos cum pecunia, hags with money; Venil in urbem, he came into the city. 2. Some prepositions govern the accusative case, some the ablative,
and a few both the accusative and the

3.
ablative.
:
The
following govern the accusative only
to,
Ad, to, up to, near, or nearly. Adversus, or adversum, opposite,

Ante, before.
[against.
with.
Juxta., near
or beside.
of.
Ob, against, or on account
Pines, in the power

Per, through. Pone, behind.
Post, after.
of.
Apud, near,
Circa or circum, around, about. Circiter, about (in regard to time

or number). Cis or citra, on this side
of.
Contra, against. Erga, towards.
Praeter, besides, excepting. Propter, on account of, close by. Secundum, next after, in accord-
ance with.
Extra, without (opposite of within).

Infra, below, beneath. Inter, between, among. Intra, within.
4.
Supra, above. Trans, on the other side

Ultra, beyond.
of,
beyond.
Versus, towards {a place).

:-
The
following govern the ablative only
A, ah, or abs, from.
Prae, before, in consequence

Pro, before, instead of. Palam, with the knowledge
Sine, without
(i.e.,
of.
Absque, without (wanting). Coram, in the presence of.
of.
Cum, loith. De, down from,
not with).
concerning.
Tenus, up
to,
as far as.
or ex, out of, of.

5.
These
five
govern both the accusative and the ablative

:
the
rest
accusative
or
when motion towards position in is meant as,
is signified
the ablative
when
With the Accusative.

In,
into, against.
With the
in.
Ablntivc.
Sub, Super,
,
under, about, towards.

above, over.
under.
upon, concerning. (under, beneath; generally with the accusative in either "l sense, rarely with the ablative.
without the knowledge
of.
Clam,
CONJUNCTIONS
INTERJECTIONS.
15
CHAPTER XIII CONJUNCTIONS.

1. A Conjunction is that part of speech which serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences to one another, eacli to one of its own kind as, Pater et mater, father and mother; Lego ut dis:
cam,
2.
et,
I read that I
may
learn.
as,
As
to
form, conjunctions are of two kinds: (1.) Simple:
ac, ut, aut.

3.
As
to use,
Compound as, conjunctions may be

(2.)
:
at que, quamvis, attamen. divided into two classes :
(1.)
Co-ordinative, which are employed to connect clauses that are on an equality with one another i.e., either
;
(a)
primary clauses, or
(b)
secondary clauses standing
in the
et,
same
relation to the governing clause.
Such
are,
vel,
ac, -que (always attached to
a word), atque, sed,
aut, nee, neque, &c.

(2.)
Subordinative
which
connect
a secondary clause to a
are, ut, si,
primary or leading clause.

quo, uli, dura, &c.
These
quum,
ne,
CHAPTER XIV. INTERJECTIONS.

1.
An
Interjection
is
a word which
is
mind, such as joy, grief, astonishment, contempt, &c. or euge, bravo begone eheu, alas ecce, h apage, away
of the
!
used to express some emotion as, eu

: ! !
heus,
holla
2.
Interjections are thrown in between the parts of a sentence
without influencing the syntax. Some of them, however, when used in connection with a noun, prefer a special case thus, 0, keu, proh, take a vocative of address, but an accusative of exclamation as,
;
:
formosepuer,
:
beautiful boy Heu me infelicem ! all, luckless me Ileus tu, holla, you there Vae, woe, prefers the dative (rarely the accusative) as, Vae mild, woe's me Hei mihi, ah me
!
Other parts of speech are frecpiently used as interjections as, hush miserum, infandum, monstrous! shame! pax, peace wretched \cito, quick Mehercule, by Hercules
3.
:
! !
116
PART
1.
II.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER
and
2.
3.
I SENTENCES.
Syntax treats of the use of words in the formation of sentences, of the relation of sentences or clauses to one another. The word
literally
Syntax
means arrangement.
A thought expressed in words is called a Proposition or Sentence.

Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. Simple Sentence consists of a single proposition: as, Puer legit; the boy reads. A Compound Sentence is one made up of two or more proposi-
4.
5.
tions
as,
6.
Puer legit, et scribit ; the boy reads and writes. Puer legit, ut discat; the boy reads that he may learn. The sentences which go to make up a compound sentence
are
also called Clauses.
SUBJECT.
the definition of a sentence given above, it follows that every sentence must consist of two parts ; (1.) That which represents the person or thing spoken about ; That which is said about and,
7. (2.)
From
such person or thing.

8.
The Subject
and
is
is
the
name
of that about which something
is
generally a substantive, a pronoun, used substantively, or a phrase.

asserted,
9.
an adjective
10.
A
A
Subjects are of three kinds, Simple, Compound, and Complex. subject is called Simple when it consists of only one sub:
stantive
as,
flies.
Aquila volat; the eagle

11.
more
subject is called Compound when it consists of two or substantives connected by conjunctions, or supposed to be con-
nected; as,
Aquila et vultur volant; the eagle and the vulture fly. Pater, mater, films in horto ambulant; the father, mother, (and) son are walking in the garden.
SENTENCES.
12. subject is called Complex quotation, or clause as,
:
117
it
when
consists of a phrase, or
Quodlibrum
leg isti
read the book
(subj.)^ra'turn
gratifying to
est
mihi; that you have
is
mc
13. The subject is often enlarged by the addition of an adjective, substantive, or phrase, which serves to define it more closely, and
limit
its
signification:
as,
all
Gallia oMNia divisa est;
Gaul
is
divided.
Miltiades, Atiiexiexsis, filius Cmoxia,jlorebat; Miltiades, the Athenian, son of Cimon, was in good repute.
14.
The
perative mood,
subject to a verb in the indicative, subjunctive, or imis always in the nominative case; to a verb in the
infinitive, it is in the accusative.
(See Art. 7 of following chapter.)
Puer
15.
U'jit; the boy reads.
Equi currunt; the horses run. The Predicate is that which is asserted
(b)
of the subject;
and
is
a substantive, adjective, or participle connected with the subject by part of one of the verbs to be, exist, become, be named, be elected, and such like as, Aquila (subj.) vdlat (pred.) the eagle flies.
either (a) a verb, or
:
Miltiades erat filius Cimonis; Miltiades was the son of Cimon.

Ols.
ln
Bobject and predicate

1G.
the second example, the verb erat which connect3 the is called the Copula, or connecting link.
is
The
predicate
often enlarged by the addition of

;
tive, substantive, or
Cicero (snbj.)
erat
phrase
as,
an adjec-
suamus orator
(pred.)
Cicero was a very
great orator.
Miles
(subj.)
hostem gladio
occidit (pred.)
the soldier slew
his foe with a sword.
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
17.
The
clauses of a
Compound Sentence
are either
(1.)
Principal
Subordinate or dependent. 18. A Principal Clause is one which makes a leading assertion its construction docs not depend on any other clause.
(2.) 19.
or independent; or,
Subordinate Clause
of,
is
one which makes a statement ex;
planatory
or contingent on, the principal clause
as,
The
priestess of Apollo advised
them (principal) that they
should choose Miltiades as their leader (subordinate).
118
20. Obs.
Hence
Uy
self, but, to
it follows that a sabonliiiateclau.se cannot stand l>y itbe understood, must be accompanied by a principal clause.
:
21.
The
(a)
(b)
(c)
compound sentence are connected together conjunctions as, et, atque, ac, sed, aut, nam, &c. ]>y relative adverbs as, quare, unde, &c. By the forms of the relative pronoun, qui, quae, quod.
;
;
clauses of a
22. Clauses
et, ac,
which are connected by a co-ordinativc* conjunction,
atque, &e., are called co-okdinate.
23.
Obs. Hence
it
follows that co-ordinate clauses
may
be either prin-
cipal or subordinate.
24. Subordinate or secondary clauses arc connected with the prin-
on which they depend by the forms of the relative pronoun, or by conjunctions and relative adverbs as, qui, quae, quod ;
cipal clauses
;
ut, quo, quirt,
quominus, quare, quum, quando, &c.
25. Subordinate clauses are generally introduced to express such circumstances as time, cause, result, purpose, condition, &c. 26. When the subject or the verb of a clause is suppressed, the
clause
is
called a contracted one
as,
Miltiades direxit cursum, pervenitque, &c. (i.e., et Miltiades Miltiades steered his course, and (Miltiades) pervenit)
;
reached, &c.
CHAPTER
1.
II. AGREEMENT
OF SUBJECT AND
subject in
PREDICATE.
Rule I. A verb
agrees
with
its
number and
person: t as,
Ego$ sum pastor ; I am a shepherd. Tu es latro; thou art a robber.

Puer
currit; the boy runs. Saltant ; + they dance.
Curreham;
was running.
* See p. 115, chap. Xiii. U. t See Art. 14 of preceding chapter. X The person-endings of the Latin verb (see p. 59, Art. 20) are so distinctly
marked
that the personal pronouns are expressed only when particularly emphatic, as when cue individual is to be put in strong contrast to another. The subject is very often omitted in the third person also, when it is easily supplied by the contest.
AiillEEMENT OF SUBJECT
2.
AND PREDICATE.
has
a verb
in
119
the
plu-
Rule II. A
as,
ral
compound
subject*
Pater
et
/dirts in horto
in
ambulant; the
father
and son are
walking
3.
the garden.
of a
If the
is
members
put the second rather than in the third
the verb
in the first person
compound subject be of different persons, t rather than in the second, and in

:
as,
Ego
Si
tit
et
tit
et
Me sumus amid;
et
you and he
if
and
are
friends.
et
Tv.Uia valetis, ego

well, Cicero
Cicero valemus;
Tnllia
and
you are
4.
and
I are well.
Exc. The verb often agrees with that member of a compound subject which is nearest to it as,
:
Amat
5.
te
pater,
et
mater, et/ratres
your father loves you, and
your mother
(too),
and your brothers.
collective
:
in the plural
as,
noun, or a distributive pronoun,
may
have a verb
Pars cedunt; a part (i.e., some) give way. Decimus quisque ad supplicium lecti sunt ; every tenth man
was selected
6.
for
punishment.
subject
Eule III. A complex
lar: as,
has
verb
in
the
singu-
Humanum
graceful.
est
errare
it is
natural for
man
to err.
is
Inerrdrepers&oerareturpeest;
to persevere in error
dis-
7. Rule IV. The subject as, put in the accusative

:
to a verb in
the infinitive
mood
is
Nuntiatum
them
*
t
est Caesari, eos conari iter /acere ; it was reported to Caesar that they are attempting to march, &c, literally,
to be
attempting
to
march.
That
2nd
See Art. 11 of preceding chapter. is, the verb is 1st pers. if one of the members of the subject be pers. if there are only -2nd and 3rd persons in the subject
1st pers.;
and
120
CHAPTER III AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVE
AND SUBSTANTIVE.
1. Rule I. An adjective* agrees with gender, number, and case as,
:
its
own
substantive t in
Puer
Ver
est sed/llus;
est
the boy
is
diligent,
Puella
est
sedula ; the
girl is diligent.
is
longum; the spring

sisters.
long.
Sorores tuas; your

2.
If
an adjective
it
refers to a substantive in a different clause, it

:
agrees with
in
gender and number only

sed
as,
Amicus
eldest,
I do not see him.
eum non video; my And thus,
friend
is
present, but
3. Rule II. The relative pronoun X agrees with its antecedent substantive in gender and number, and also in person as,
:
Cares, qui turn incolehant Lemnum that time inhabited Lemnos.

4.
the Carians,
who
at
Obs.
The
clause to which
case of the relative depends on the construction of the it belongs, according as the relative is subject or
object to the verb, or depends on a substantive or adjective.

5.
Rule
stantives, ber: as,
III. When an adjective applies to two or more subwhether singular or plural, it is put in the plural num-
Pater
etfilius sunt clari ; the father
Tu
6.
et
frater
tmes, qui estis clari; your brother
and the son are famous. and you, who
are famous.
When
different genders,
*
an adjective applies to two or more substantives of it takes the gender of the masculine substantive
used in
its
Adjective
is
widest sense, including pronouns, numerals, and parti-
ciples.
t By the term "own substantive," is meant the substantive in the same clause as the adjective, and modified by it. X It will be seen that the relative pronoun is simply an adjective in a subsequent clause referring to a substantive in a preceding one, and is therefore an example of the principle laid down in Art. 5 Tlie term adjective in this and the following articles includes the relative pronoun. See Note * above.
'.'.
APPOSITION.
121
rather than that of the feminine, and of the feminine rather than
of the neuter
:
as,
Pater
et
mater puellae sunt mortui; the father and the mother

et
of the girl are dead.
Matres
little
7.
parvuli Uberi, quorum aetas, <c; the mother and
E.rc.
But
is
children,
whose age, &c.

it
:
an adjective* often agrees only with the substantive

nearest to
as,
which
e fillis captus est; the daughter of Orgetorix, and one of his sons, was taken captive. Eae fruges atque fructus, quos terra gignit ; those crops and fruits which the earth brings forth.
OrgetorigU filia,
et
unus
8. Rule IV. When an adjective must be neuter as,

:
refers to a phrase or a clause it
Humanum
Dulce
et
est
errare;
est
it is
natural to
man
it
to err.
is
decorum
pro pat'ria mori ;

if
sweet and be-
coming to die
9.
for one's fatherland.
Adjectives are often used as
they were substantives

;
those
referring to males being masc. neut.

:
as,
to females, fern.
and
to things,
Boni
et sapientes ex urbe pulsisunt; the good and wise (men) have been banished from the city.
CHAPTER IV. APPOSITION. t

1.
Rule I. Substantives that stand in apposition to one another

:
agree in case
as,
Miltiades, filius Cimonis; IMiltiad.es, the son of Cimon.

Tidlia, deliciae
2.
meae
Tullia,
Obs.
The same rule applies when the second substantive part cf the predicate as,
:
my
darling.
is
used as
Caesar erat summits impcrator; Caesar was a most distinguished commander, This kind of apposition occurs with X.Ji. (1.) Substantive verbs, (as, sum, exist o, fio, kc.) (2.) Passive verbs of naming and choosing, (as, nominor, crcor.) (3.) Verbs of seeming or being thought, (as, videor, existimor.) (4.) Verbs of gesture, (as, incedo.)
See Note
{, p.
120.
substantives are said to be in apposition, other to explain or limit it.
Two
when the one
Is
appended
to tlio
122
3.
ELEMENTABY LATIN GBAMMAR,

Rule II. A substantive in apposition
:
to
two
or
more substan-
tives is usually in the plural
as,
Publius Scipio
Cneius
(i.e.,
et Pullius Scipiones; Cneius and the Scipios, Cneius and Publius).
CHAPTER V.THE NOMINATIVE AND

VOCATIVE CASES.
1.
The
Nominative
is
or the substantival predicate. Art. 2.)

2.
used to express the subject of the sentence, and p. 121, iv., (Seep. 117, Art. 14
;
The nominative
vdlo, nolo,
is
used after the infinitive with such verbs as
possum,
mala, coepi, videor: as, Miltiades non vldebatur posse esse prlvatus ; Miltiades did not appear to be able to remain a private citizen.
;
3.
son
The Vocative is used in expressions of address But the nominative often takes the place of the
as,
Fill !
vocative, even
in address.
CHAPTER VI THE ACCUSATIVE.

1. The Accusative expresses the direct object of an action indicated by a transitive verb. It answers to the questions, Whom ? What? To what place? During what time? &c.
2.
Rule
I.
Transitive
verbs govern
the accusative of the ob-
ject:
as,
Fugat
3.
hostes; he routs the enemy.

colonists.
dative, or
Mittunt colonos; they send

Ohs.
But
many
transitive verbs govern the genitive,

vii., viii.,
ablative.
(See chaps,
and
ix.)
" * By the term govern," it is simply meant that the practice of the Latins was to put an accusative case after a transitive verb just as in English it is the practice to use that form of the substantive which we call the." objective" (accusative) case after
;
and prepositions: as, "He struck me," not, walked with him," not, " I walked with he."
transitive verbs
"He
struck I;" "J
THE ACCUSATIVE.
4. Any verb, whether it be transitive or intransitive, in the accusative, a substantive of kindred signification
123
may
:
as,
govern,
Vivere beatam vitam; to live a happy Pugnam pugnare ; to tight a battle.

Ilence,
5.
life.
Rule II. Many verbs* are followed by two accusatives, -the

Caesar fiagitat frumentum Aeduos; Caesar demands corn from the Aedui.
one expressing a person, the other a thing; f as,
Puer patrem
his father.
nihil celavit; the boy concealed nothing from
III. After verbs expressing or implying motion, the G. Rule names of towns and small islands, with domus, rus, and such terms, are put in the accusative, to indicate the " point to which :" as,
Pero&nit
Rediit
Lemnum;
he reaches Lemnus.
Delecti missi sunt Delphos; chosen
men were
sent to Delphi.
domwm;
he returned home.
Rus
7.
ibo ; I shall go to the country.
Obs. With
names of countries and large islands a preposition generally used (but the poets often omit the prep.): as, Revertitur in Asiam ; he returns to Asia.
is
8.
tion of time
Rule IV. The accusative expresses extent as,

:
of space
and dura-
Perduxit fossam sedecim pedes altam; he ran a ditch sixteen

feet deep.
Diem noctemque
9.
in salo
navem
night.
tenuit; he kept the ship out
at sea for a day
and a
Rule V. The Prepositions, ad, apud, ante, &c, govern the

:
accusative X as,
Ad eos ;
Apud
*
to them.
Jfelvetios;
among
the Ilelvetii.
But
Such are verbs
(if
asking, teaching, entreating, warning, concealing, Ac.
pcto, postulo, and quaero take the ablative with a prep., <tb, rfc, ex, &c. " is really an accusative ol t It will be observed that the "accusative of the thing
kindred signification, and therefore merely completes the meaning of the verb. t See p. 114, 8.
124
10.

Rule VI.
accusative
The prepositions,
in, sub, super,
and subter, take

is
an
pressed:* as,
when "motion towards

to go into the city.
or
throughout"
ex-
Ire in
urbcm;
Navigat super
over (above) his corn-fields. segetes; he sails
] I. Prepositions, when compounded with other words, often govern the same case as they do in the simple form as, Mil! Us ducem circumsteterunt; the soldiers surrounded their
:
general,
Exercitus
Rhenum
transducitur ; the army
is
carried over
the Rhine.
12. Many intransitive verbs of motion, when compounded with the prepositions trans, circum, per, super, praeter, ad, cum, in, and thus subter, (and sometimes prae and ob,) become transitive,
take an accusative
as,
Exercitus Jhimen transiit; the army crossed the

13.
river.
Urbem obsident ; they besiege the city. The accusative is used (along with the
genitive) after the
impersonal verbs miseret, poenitet, pudet, taedet, and piget. (See So dicet and ded&cet often take the accusative of the p. 128, 10.)
person.
14.
The
accusative
is
used in exclamations, either with or without

p. 12G, 1G)
:
an interjection (but see
as,
Me miserum !
(or,
lieu vie infelicem
me miserum /) wretched me ah, luckless me

!
CHAPTER VIITHE DATIVE.

1. The Dative indicates the person or thing to which, for which,f or in reference to which, something is done. Hence, 2. The dative denotes the individual (person or thing) to which
anything is given or communicated as, llonos Miltiadi tributus est; honour was awarded to Miltiades.
:
Legati nuntiant Caesari; the lieutenants report to Caesar.

*
t
See
"
p. 132, 25.
Prv pdtria mori
for," signifying "in defence of," is to be translated by to die for one's fatliei land. ;
pro with the
abl.
as,
Tin: dative.
125
3.
The
dative indicates the individual benefited or injured in any

lays snares for the
way: as, Pastor insidias lupo pared; the shepherd

wolf.
Obs.
In this example
insidias expresses the immediate object of the

;
action, the tiling prepared
or the individual in regard to

4.
while lupo denotes the remote object, whom the preparation is made.
the dative
Rule I.Verbs signifying advantage or disadvantage govern as,

:
Bonis
good,
5.
nocet, quisquis mails perpercerit ; who spares the bad.
he does harm to the
'Obs. 1.
The principle of "advantage or disadvantage" laid down in Arts. 3 and 4 is a very comprehensive one, and to it may be referred by far the greater number of instances in which the dative occurs. It is more especially manifest in the following classes of verbs:
(o)
help spare, indulge, &c. (b) To please; serve, obey threaten hurt, &c. (c) To trust, persuade, marry (of the (d) Most verbs compounded with one female); command,* &c. of the ten prepositions, ad, ante in, inter post, praesub, super con and ob ; and many verbs compounded with other
To consult
;
for,
;
prepositions
Obs.
2. The
;
sonally
G.
as, ab, circum, dc, ex, re- (inseparable). passives of verbs governing the dative are used imperas, Mild invtdetur; lam envied.
But the preposition is often repeated with its case, more particularly in verbs compounded with ad, con, in: as, Communicare aliquid cum aliquo; to make known to a person.
Inferre signa in hostes ; to advance against the enemy. Obs. Many of the verbs in the lists of Art. 5 are followed by an
accusative or ablative.
For the peculiarities of each, the student
must consult
his Dictionary.
7. Umlcr one or other of the heads in Art. 5 are included sum (when used as equal to habeo) and its compounds, except possum: as, Est mild liber; I have a book.
l'rodest amicis;
lie
benefits his friends.
8. Rule signifying advantage or disadvantage likeness or unlikeness, govern the dative as,
:
II. Adjectives,
Utilis reipublicae ; profitable to the state. Similis patri ; like his father (in features, &c.)
*
V-utjuro, sulleeo, laedo, deleclo, offenrfo, reijo.jubeo,

In Ait.fi
and some of the verbs noted
and guberno, govern the ace, take the ace. with the dat.
120
9.

Obs. Such adjectives
their oppositeB.
are,
{a)
Friendly, useful,
(6)
Like
(in externals),
fit,* necessary, and equal, near to, and their
opposites.
10.
Adverbs of a meaning similar

:
also take a dative
as,
to that of the
above adjectives
Convenienter naturae
11.
agreeably to nature.
datives are sometimes used after the verbs to be, give, come, send, impute, t &c. the one indicating the })erson benefited, and the other the object, end, or result of the action as,
;
:
Two
Miserunt equitatum auxilio Caesari ;+ they sent the cavalry

for a help to Caesar.
12.
The
dative
is
often used after passive verbs and passive ad-
jectives, to denote the principal agent, instead of the ablative with
a or ab :
as,
Mihi susceptum est ; it was undertaken by me. Minus probatus parentibus ; disapproved of by
Obs.
his parents.
est
;
So the dative
Moriendum
III.
est
is
regularly used after the gerundive with

;
as,
omnibus
all
must
die.
13.
Rule
Some
impersonal verbs govern the dative;
contingit, expedit, libet,
&c:
as,
e.g.,
Expedit reipublicae ; it is profitable for the Licet nemini peccare; no man is permitted
14.
is
state.
to sin.
est (there
is
The
as,
dative
is
used after the impersonal phrase Opus

for
need), to indicate the person

:
sary
whom
something
neces-
Dux
15.
nobis opus est;
we need a commander.
Obs. It
which are usually " Verbs of comparing, giving, deplaced under the common rule, claring, and taking away, govern the dative with the accusative," the dative is simply a dative of the remote object, as explained in one or other of the preceding articles ; and the accusative is an
will be seen that in those constructions
accusative of the direct object.

16.
The
dative
llei
is used with some interjections: mihi! ah, me Yae vobis ! woe to you
! !
as,
Hut tliose denoting fitness or unfitness more usually take the ace. with ad: as, Locus aplus ad insidias; a place fitted for an ambush. The verbs most commonly followed by a double dative are sum, do, duco, tnbuo, t verlo, aedpio, relinquo, deligo. 7itto, venio, habeo, J But Caesari may depend litre on auxilio.
THE GENITIVE.
127
CHAPTER VIIITHE GENITIVE.

Genitive Case partakes largely of the nature of an adjecin the genitive is generally conjoined with another substantive in such a way that the two make up one definite idea: as. Patris domus, the father's house i.e., the paternal
1.
The
tive;
and thus a substantive
house.
The
and adverbs. genitive also depends on verbs, adjectives,
It answers to the questions,

2.
Whose
Of whom
Of what
Rule I. A substantive which limits the meaning of another

is
substantive, denoting a different person or thing,
put in the
genitive: as,
Lex naturae; the law Amor parentum ; the

Obs.
of nature. love of parents.
Lex and amor are general terms, and
might apply
to
law and
But the genitives naturae and love in their widest acceptations. parentum limit the application of the others, and confine them to one kind of law and one kind of love.
3.
Hence the
genitive denotes the author or possessor
as,
Caesar is filiits ; Caesar's son

Libri Ciceronis; the books of Cicero
or his property).
4. Rule II. The genitive depending on part of the verb sum, expresses the person to whom belongs a duty, part, or characteris(i.e.,
either his writings
tic
as,
Regis
est leges
administrare ;
it
is
the king's duty to execute

is
the laws.
Stulti est consilium contemn&re ; despise advice.
5.
it
the mark of a fool to
Exc.
But the possessive pronouns are used

:
lar neuter
as,
est
in the
nominative singu-
Meum
6.
id procurarc ;
it is
my
duty to manage that.

is
Rule III. The word expressing the whole, a part of which * spoken of, is put in the genitive: as, Magna vis kominum; a great number of men.
Afultum pecuniae; much money. Quid novi?f what news

?
* *
ir
This
is
it'
But
railed the partitive genitive. the adjective were of the third declension this
would not he allowable, as

or illiquid ulilis; hut quid
would cause ambiguity.

utile.
We
could not say, quid
utilit,
wile, or aftquid
128

Satis pecuniae; enough of money.
Ubicunque terrarum; in whatever part of the earth. vestrum ? which of you Doctissimus Romanorum ; the most learned of the Romans.
(^in's
/
Ols.
The words which usually govern such genitives are, (a) The nominative or accusative singular neuter of quantitative adjectives
and pronouns
;
as,
verbs of quantity
postea, intcrca.
muJtum, minus, nihil, id, quid, satis, nimisj of place eo, ibi, ubi;
(c)
&c.
(b)
Ad-
of time
All partitive words, of whatever kind substantives, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives.
8.
are put in the genitive
Rule IV. Substantives indicating quality, nature, extent, &c, but in such cases they are accompanied by
:
an adjective
as,
Puer magni ingenii; a boy

9.
of great talent.
Rule V. The genitive
is
affections after certain adjectives
used to express the object of mental and verbs as,

:
Ignarus mali; ignorant of
evil.
.
Memor
10.
Avidus gloriae ; greedy

Obs.
lencficii; mindful of a favour of fame.
Such are, (a) Adjectives denoting knowledge, memory, certainty, inclination to, patience, and their opposites. (6) Verbs signifying to remember, pity, forget:* as, Miserere scrvorum; have
pity on the slaves, (c) Certain impersonal verbs, such as refert and interest, -^ as, Refert regis, it concerns the king and miseret, poenitet, pudct, laedet, and piget, to express the object which excites pity, shame, &c. as, Miscret me tui; I pity you.
11.
Rule
VI. The
genitive expresses the object, after verbs and
adjectives denoting plenty, J power, participation, likeness, their opposites: as,
and
Indigebat
opum ; he needed
full of
resources.
Plenus irae ;
anger. Similis patris ; like his father (in nature, disposition, &c.)
* Verbs signifying to remember or forget also take the ace. t But with these verbs the possessive pronouns are used in the forms mca, luu, Some scholars consua, nostra, vestra: as, Non mea refert, it does not concern me. sider these forms as the ablative singular feminine, agreeing with re; while others the as abbreviations for rem and inter rem est meam. (See regard phrases meamferl,
Key, Lat.
Gr., 910.)
J Adjectives of plenty or want also take the abl. 5 Adjectives of likeness or unlikeness also take the dat.
THE ABLATIVE.
12.
129
is
Price or value,
when
stated in an indefinite way,
put
in
the
as genitive, in the case of such adjectives
minor, &c
as,
magnus, plurimus,
the avaricious
i)lus,
Avarus
divitias
magni aestimat;
I
man
sets a
great value on wealth.
Pravum minimi haleo ;

small esteem.
13.
hold the worthless
man
in
very
N.B.
is used to indicate the price, it is usually the ablative; and even with the adjectives noted in Art. 12 the ablative is often used.
If a substantive
in
put
14. Rule VII. The crime or ground of accusation is expressed in the genitive after verhs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting as,
:
Miltiadem proditionis accusaverunt

of treason.
they accused Miltiades
occur
The name of a place where an event is said to put in the genitive, if the suhstantive be of the first or second declension, and the singular number:* as,
15.
Rule VIII.
is
Mortuus Habebat
16.
Magnesiae; he died at Magnesia. domum Corinthi; he had his home at Corinth.

est
following phrases are also in the genitive :Domi, at Belli or militiae, at war, (in the phrase, Domi bellique) ; JIumi, on the ground.
The
home
CHAPTER IX. THE ABLATIVE.

1.
The
Ablative
is
used in Latin to express those relations which
in English
we
indicate by
from, with,
in, by, at, &c.
Hence
it
denotes
2.
The cause
or reason
I
as,
{i.e.,
Ardeo studio ;
3.
hum
with
hy reason
:
The instrument, means,
or material
as,
of) zeal.
Interfecit hostem gladio ; he slew his enemy with a sword. Vivunt lacte et came; they live on milk and flesh.
4.
Articles
1, 2,
and
:
nian's familiar rule
9,
may
be expressed
in
the words of Rnddi-
See chap.
ix. 21, p.
:_;.'.
130
Rule I. The cause, manner, and instrument, are put in the

ablative.
OIik.
is
Otherwise,
done, the
it is
which
5.
the word which expresses the cause why a thing in which it is done, or the instrument by done, is put in the ablative.
manner
Under one
or
other of the two preceding heads comes the
ablative, after the adjectives contentus, natus, satus, ortus, edltus,
and the like; also fretus, praedltus ; as, Fretus itumero copiarum ; relying on the number Ortus regibus ; descended from kings.
G.
of his forces.
But
is
if
the agent
:
(or
instrument) be a person, the preposition a

est
or ah
used
as,
ah exploratorUnis ; Caesar
is
Caesar certior factus

by scouts.
7.
certified
potior,
Rule II. The deponent verbs, utor, abutor, fruor, and vescor, take the ablative of the object: as,
Potiri imperio; to take possession of the sovereignty.
fungor,
N.B. Exc.
Ablatives
after these verbs are simply
examples of the
"cause, manner, and instrument."

8.
But potior often takes the genitive Potiri Galliae ; to take possession of Gaul.
:
as,
is
9.
Rule III. The mode or manner in which a thing

Fecit more
cestors.
done
is
expressed by the ablative: as,
majorum; he
did
it
after the
manner
of his an-
10. Allied to the foregoing construction is the ablative of limitation
expressed in English by as to, in regard to: Aeger pedibus ; diseased in the feet.
as,
Captus oculis ;
blind.
G alius
11.
natione; a Gaul by birth.

older.
Major natu;
Rule IV. The ablative denotes supply, with verbs and adjec:
tives signifying plenty, want,* filling, emptying, &c.
as,
Germania fiuminibus abundat; Germany abounds Carebat nomine ; he was without the name.
Plenus ira;
*
in rivers.
full of anger.
Egeo and
iitdigro also
take the genitive.
See chap.
viii. 11, p.
128.
THE ABLATIVE.
12.
131
Opus
Opus
est,
and usus
est,
one has need,

vii.
may
:
take the ablative of

as, est
the thing wanted (but see chap.

est
14, p. 126)
mihi adjutore;
or,
Adjutor opus
mihi;
I reed a
when
helper.
The ablative expresses quality or property, 13. Rule V. conjoined with an adjective:* as,
Erat regia dignitate; he was
of royal dignity.
Staturafuit humili; he was of low stature.

14. Rule VI. Price or amount is put in the ablative with verbs of buying, selling, valuing, hiring, fining, &c: f as,
Patriam auro vendidit ; he

Multatus
15.
sold his country for gold.
est
pecunia; he was fined in a sum of money.

ablatives of certain words are used to express the
:
Obs. 1.
But the
as, Minimo, for very little price in an indefinite way for much ; parvo, for little, &c.
maguo,
Obs. 2.
Under
this
head conies the ablative with diffnus, indigpraise.
iuis: as,
16.
Dignus laude, worthy of

is
used with comparatives and superlatives to express excess or deficiency of measure: as,
Rule VII. The ablative
Mvlto major ; greater by

17.
far.
Rule
VIIL The
to indicate the object
ablative is used with the comparative degree with which the comparison is instituted as,
:
Filia pulckrior matre ; a daughter more beautiful than her mother.

18.
is
When quain is used in comparisons, the second substantive as, coupled to the first by it, and takes the same case Filia pulchrior est quam mater; the daughter is more beauti:
ful
than her mother
(is).
19.
Rule IX.
The ablative denotes separation from, after verbs
of
as,
removing, freeing, delivering, depriving, abstaining, abandoning:
Caesar castra loco movit; Caesar shifted his camp from the place. Destiterunt hoc conatu; they abandoned this attempt.
20.
Rule
X. Place-from-which
est
viii
is
expressed in the ablative
as,
Profectus
*
Athenis
S, p. 128.
he started from Athens.

t
See chap,
See chap. viiL
12, p. 129.
132
21. Rule XI. Place-where is expressed by the ablative, more especially in the names of towns or small islands, if the noun be of the third declension, or the plural number:* as,
Mortuus
est
Videbat se
Carthagine he died at Carthage. non tutum (esse) Argis; he saw that he was not
;
safe at Argos.
22.
Obs.
Many words not proper names of places come under this prindomus, rus,
locus, dcxtra, lacva
:
ciple; e.g.,
as,
Proficiscens
Eo
Kule XII.
loco
domo; starting from home. manere; to remain in that place.
Dextra ; on the right hand.

23.
Time-when The
is
put in the ablative
as,
Quinto die; on the
fifth day.
Trecentesimo anno; in the three hundredth year.

24.
Rule XIII.
abs, &c.:f as,
ablative is used with the prepositions a, ab,
Aflumine; from
the river.
25. super, govern the ablative when rest or position in or at is indicated; and subter, though rarely: % as,
Rule XIV. In, sub, and
Sacerdotes in arce invenit

26.
he found
priests in the citadel.
The "
ablative absolute
"
:
Opere peracto, ludemus ;
as, our work being
finished,
we
will play.
CHAPTER X. THE INFINITIVE MOOD.

1.
The
Infinitive
Mood
is
cases, the nominative
and the accusative.
a verbal substantive having only two (The gerund supplies the
other cases.)
2.
Rule I.One verb governs another in the

Scio plerosque scripsisse; I
corded.
infinitive.
know
that most writers have re-
Vetuit id fieri; he forbade this to be done.

t See p. 114, 4. J See chap. vi. 10, p. 124. usually called the Ablative Absolute i.e., a phrase in a sentence, and yet not dependent on any part of that sentence; which is absurd. There is an inversion of the syntax, it is true, but all cases of the so called abl. absolute may be referred " time is " either to put in the abl.," or to cause, manner, and instrument."
See p. 129, 15.
This
is
THE SUPINES
PARTICIPLES.
133
3. Obs. After verbs signifying to hope, threaten, promise, the future
infinitive is generally used in Latin where our idiom requires a present: as, Pollicitus est sc negotiant confect arum esse; he promised to finish the business.
4.
Rule
:
tive
as,
II.
The
infinitive
mood has
its
subject in the accusa-
Pythia
dixit, inceptu, prospera fvtura esse; the priestess said
that their undertakings would he prosperous.

5.
Obs.
When the adjective or substantive is joined with the infinitive to complete the predicate, it is put in the same case as the
subject: as,
Petrus cupit esse rir doctus; Peter desires to be a learned man. Scio Pet rum esse virion doctum; I know Peter to be a learned man.
CHAPTER XL THE SUPINES.

1.
Rule I. The supine in -uni
is
implying motion,
to indicate the design of the
nsed after verbs expressing or motion as,

:
Delecti Delphos profecti sunt deliberation to Delphi to consult (the oracle).
chosen
men went
Misit legatos rogatum auxilium

for help.
2.
he sent ambassadors to ask
and
is
Rule II. The supine in -u is simply an ablative of limitation,* used with adjectives, such as turpis, facilis, utilis, &c. and
:
the substantives, fas, nefas, opus
as,
Mirabile dictu ! wonderful to
tell
CHAPTER XII. PARTICIPLES.

1. Participles are adjectives in form, and, like adjectives, agree with their own substantives in gender, number, and case. (See chap, iii.) Participles are very often used in the construction called
the ablative absolute
(p. 32, 26),
and
in cases
where the English lan-
guage prefers a clause with a

*
finite verb.
ix. 10, p. 130.
Stc chap.
134
2.

But
;
participles
(2.)
liave
two
peculiarities
; (1.)
Tliey
denote
as their
time
and,
When
transitive, they govern the
same case
verbs.
3.
The nominative
or accusative neuter of the gerundive
is
very
of
often used impersonally with the parts of the verb sum, the tlie person by whom the action must be done being
name
dative
as,
put in the
is
Moriendum
4.
est
omnibus ;
all
must die, i.e., dying
(a neces-
sity) to all.
is very often used in agreement with a noun (in except the nominative, and in all genders), instead of the gerund followed by the accusative as,
The gerundive
all cases
Ad eas
res
confciendas;
to complete these matters.
Gen. Scribendae epistolae, instead of scribendi epistolam; of writing a letter.

Dat. Scri bendae epistolae, instead of scribendo epistolam ; to or for writing a letter.
Ace.
Ad scribendam epistolam, instead of ad scribendum epistolam ; to write a

letter.
Abl. Scribendo, epistola, instead of scribendo epistolam; by writing a letter.
CHAPTER XIII THE GERUND.

1.
The Gerund
and
its
vocative,
is a regular noun, wanting the nominative and cases are treated accordingly. In use, the infinitive
:
and the gerund make up a perfect noun
thus,
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
.
Scribere est utile; writing
is
useful.
is useful.
Ars scribendi
est utilis;
the art of writing
Charta scribendo
(
est utilis;
paper
is
useful for writing.
"
(
Scribere disco; I learn writing. Inter scribendum disco; I learn during (or while) writing.
Abl.
*
\ve
Scribendo discimus; we learn by writing.

is
The dative of the person should practise brevity.
often omitted
as,
Utendum
est (scil. nobis) brevitale;
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

2.
135
But
(a)
observe,
That the genitive of the gerund is governed l>y substantives and adjectives, though rarely, if ever, by verbs.
That the dative and accusative are seldom used with an Thus we can say, Scribendo accusative case following.
by writing letters but rarely Charta scribendo (dative) epistolas, or, ad scribendum In such cases the gerundive should be emepistolas. ployed, and be made to agree with the substantive ; as,
(ablative) epistolas,
est utilis
;
(b)
Charta
est utilis scribe adis epistolis; or,
ad
scribendas
epistolas.
(c)
The
accusative gerund is only used with prepositions, and usually with ad, inter, and ob.
ablative gerund
is
((/)
The
of the instrument or manner, ab, de, ex, in; not with sine.
3.
most commonly used as the ablative and after the prepositions
The gerund governs the same case as its verb: as, Scribendi epistolas ; of writing letters.
Parcendo
victis; by sparing the contpuered.
CHAPTER XIV. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

1.
The
Obs.
Imperative
command, a
Mood is used in principal clauses to express a wish, an advice, or an exhortation.

is
The imperative of nolo
often used with the infinitive of a

:
verb, to give force to the command as, Noli imputare mihi; don't think of imputing to me.
2.
junctive
In counsels, commands, exhortations, or recpiests, the submood is very often used in the third person for the
;
imperative
indefinitely
and
:
also
in
the second person, especially
when used
as,
Aut
bibat aut abeat; let
him either drink
or be
off.
36
COMPOUND SENTENCES.*
CHAPTER XV. PRINCIPAL CLAUSES.
Moodf is employed to represent a state or an action simply as a fact, cither in an affirmative, or a negative, or an interrogative form, it is used, (a) In principal clauses stating what is a fact, or assumed to
1.
Since the Indicative
be a fact
as, Turn Thraces eas regiones tenebant; the Thracians at that time possessed those parts, (b) In direct
:
questions J as, Quid agis? what are you doing hora est? what o'clock is it?
:
Quota
2.
an
.action
Since the subjunctive mood is employed to represent a state or in a doubtful or contingent manner, it is found in those
These are, (1.) A principal clauses which partake of this character. wish, command, or exhortation as, Valeas; may you be in good
:
Utinam possim ! would that I were able Bum vivimus vivamus ; whilst we live, let us live. (2.) A possibility as, Aliquis dicat; some one may (possibly) say. (3.) A supposition:
health
:
(farewell.)
as,
(4.)
Bies
A
A
On
(5.)
deficiat, si; the time (I suppose) would fail me were I, &c. concession: as, Sint haec falsa; (I grant) this may be false. question expressed doubtfully as, Quid agamus ? what can
:
we do
*
the nature of the Compound Sentence and its clauses, see chap, i., p. 117. to the Tenses of the indicative mood observe, (1.) That the imperfect is sometimes used as a peifect (perf. Aorist); (2.) That the future is occasionally as an imperative; (3.) That the pluperfect is often found where we might employed expect the same tense of the subjunctive: as, Truncus illupsus cerebro suslulerat; the trunk of a tree falling on my cranium would have killed me, (had not, <fec.) J Direct questions (i.e., questions not dependent on any word or clause going before) are asked by interrogative particles (adverbs or conjunctions) ne, nonne, num, Vtrum, an; guare, cur, guando, guomodo, vbi, &c. Or, secondly, by pronouns; as,
t
With regard
quis, qui, qualis, quantus, ecquis, <fcc

1.
Interrogative particles: (a) Ne simply asks for information: Scribitne puer? is the boy writing? (b) Nonne expects the answer, Yes: Nonne putas? don't you think? (Yes.)
(c)
expects the answer, No: Num putas? do you think? (No.) Vtrum (titer, which of two) is used in double questions, followed by an; as, Utrum nosmet moenibm defendemus, an obviam hostibus ibimus? Whether shall we defend ourselves by our fortifications, or shall we go to meet the enemy? 2. Interrogative pronouns; as, Quis hoc fecit? who did this? Quid agis? what are you doing?
Num
(rf)
For indirect questions, see chap,
xxiii.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
137
3. The Imperative Mood is used in principal clauses to express a command, a wish, an advice, or an exhortation as, A equam memento servare mentem; remember to maintain an
:
even mind.
Pasce capellas,
et
potum
pastas aqe,
et
inter
agendum
occur-
sare capro caveto: feed the she-goats; and drive them, when fed, to water; and whilst driving them, beware of
4.
The
meeting the he-goat. infinitive is sometimes used

This
is
in principal clauses, instead of
the indicative.
called the Historical Infinitive.
CHAPTER XVI. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

1. The first step to be taken in analysing a Latin sentence, or in turning an English sentence into Latin, is to decide the character This is, in most cases, easily done of each clause of the sentence.
by examining the
tion, a relative adverb, or
whether it be a conjuncbut the learner must remember that the same conjunctive word may express different ideas, and therefore introduce different kinds of clauses: thus quitm
first
word*
of the clause,
a relative pronoun
may
introduce either a temporal or a causal clause.
Hence con;
junctive words play an important part in subordinate clauses but the student must carefully guard against the too common error of In all supposing that the conjunctive word governs the mood.
cases
it is
the nature of the statement

It
mood
is
to be used, but also
which decides not only what what conjunctive word must introduce
the clause.
may
be laid down, then, as a general rule that,
2. In all subordinate clauses, in which the statement is represented as dependent on another statement, either as purpose, aim, consequence, condition, or imaginary comparison, the verb will be in the subjunctive mood.
3. It often happens that a fact is stated in a subordinate clause by a verb in the subjunctive mood. In such cases the secondary
The characteristic word is, in Latin, sometimes projected into the clause, hut very seldom further than the third place: as, Jilt, ilesperatit rebus, quum soliissent
naves; for
quum
illi,
<tc.
138
nature of the clause, which is connected with the leading clause, so as to be necessary to its completeness, seems to throw a shade of indefiniteness over it as,
:
Accidit nt, Sc, quum Miltiadesjloreret; when Miltiades flourished.

4.
it
happened
that,
&c,
Subordinate clauses
may be
divided into final, conditional, con-
cessive, temporal, causal, relative, interrogative.
CHAPTER XVII FINAL CLAUSES.

1. Final Clauses, expressing the purpose or result, are introduced by the conjunctions ut, ne, quin, quo, quominus, and the relative qui; and have their verbs in the subjunctive mood.
2.
Ut or ne expresses a. purpose * as, Misit servum ad regem, ut ei nuntiaret; he sent a slave king, to tell him {i.e., for the purpose of telling).
:
to the
Themistocles
angustias quaerehat, ne mvltitudine circuiretur; Themistocles sought the straits, that he might not be surrounded by the large number (of ships).
Obs.
Hence
strive, wish,
verbs signifying to ask, persuade, command, advise, &c.,areusuaIlyfollowed by <iorweand thesubjunctive.
3.
Ut or ne expresses a consequence or a result: as, Adeo angusto mart confiixit, ut multitudo navium exphcari non potuerit; he engaged in so narrow a sea, that (as a consequence) his multitude of ships could not be drawn out.
Obs.
Hence verbs of fearing are followed by ut or ne with the subjunctive; ut, to express the fear that a thing will not happen; ne, that it will.
4. Quo is sometimes used for ut to express a purpose, when the sentence contains a comparative (quo ut eo)
;
especially
:
as,
Caesar castella communit, quo facilius Helvetios p-ohibere ]iossit; Caesar erects forts in order that he may the more
easily be able to
keep
off
the Helvetii.
* A purjwse is not expressed in Latin by the infinitive, but either (a) by qui, with the subjunctive; or (b) by ut, with the subjunctive; or (c) by the supine; or (d) by the future participle; or (e) by the gerund or (/) by the gerundive; or (g) by causa or gratia, with the genitive.
;
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.
5.
is
1 .>9
Qain ("in what manner not," "but that," "but," "without,") used after negative clauses :* as, Nemo est quinputet; there is no one but thinks.
Nemo
dubitabat, quia aliquid de pace esset scriplum; no one doubted but that some written proposal of peace had been
made.
Obs.
Quin
;
(2.)
&c.
(i.
is used, (1.) After verbs of hindering, as prohibeo ; After negative phrases, as non est dubium, nemo dubitat, (3.) After clauses expressing or implying a negative. is
Quominus f
used (rather Mian ne) after verbs of hindering,

:
preventing, opposing, &c.
as,
Nihil imped it quo minus hoc faciamus; nothing hinders from doing this.
Obs.
7.
tis
Quin
and quominus are sometimes interchangeable.

:
The relative pronoun expresses a purpose as, Servum misit ad regem, qui ei nuntiaret; he sent a the king to tell {i.e., who should tell) him.
slave to
S. Ut and ne are sometimes used in elliptical expressions, where in " English we might supply granting that," or some such phrase as, Nam, ut omittam Philippum; for, not to mention Philip.
:
CHAPTER XVIII. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

1. Conditional Clauses, expressing a condition or contingency, are introduced by si, nisi, dum, dummodo, inodo, &c. 2. Conditional clauses have the verb in the indicative if the con-
dition
is
represented as certain
vis,
as,
Si
3.
dabo
tibi testes; if (i.e., since)
you wish,
I will give
you
the
evidence.
condition
Conditional clauses have the verb in the subjunctive is represented as uncertain % or doubtful as,
:
if
Si epdd habeat, dabit

will give
it.
; if
he [chance
to)
have anything, he
* When quin asks a (direct) question, it is joined with the indicative: as, Quin conscendimus equos? why don't we mount our horses? " t Quominus, literally, "in what manner the less; i.e., "so that not," "from." X This will always be the case when dum, dummodo, and modo mean "provided
that"
140
CHAPTER
XIX. -CONCESSIVE CLAUSES.
1. Concessive Clauses, expressing a concession or admission, are introduced by such conjunctions as etsi, quanquam, tametsi, licet (which is properly a verb), quamvis, and sometimes quum.
2.
is
Concessive clauses have the verb in the indicative

;
when a
fact
stated
:
sense
as,
etsi,
quanquam, and tametsi
are
most common
in this
Eripuit telum, etsi gladius erat subductus ; he drew forth a weapon, though his sword had been abstracted. 3. Concessive clauses have the verb in the subjunctive when a mere possibility is expressed licet and quamvis almost always, and
;
etiamsi very often in this sense
as,
Quamvis
4.
si,
Me
felix
sit,
tamen, &c.
though
he be happy,
yet, &c.
The comparative conjunctions, velut, ac, si, quasi, tanquam &c, when used concessively (" as if," "as though,") take the
subjunctive, because necessarily implying a doubt: as, Quid testibus utor, quasi res dubia sit? why do I employ witnesses, as though the matter were doubtful.
CHAPTER XX. TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

1.
Temporal Clauses {i.e.,
clauses expressing time) are introduced
by such conjunctions as quum, postquam, simulac, quando, dum, donee, ubi; and when indicating time, and nothing else, generally take the indicative as, Eo postquam Caesar pervenit; when (after that) Caesar
:
arrived there.
Quum
Caesar in Galliam venit; when Caesar came into
Gaul.
Ipse quoad potuit, restitit; he himself resisted as long as he

could.
2.
Temporal clauses take the subjunctive when the idea of conis
cession
implied, or
Quum
when time is expressed in a general way haec ita sint; since these things are so.
as,
CAUSAL CLAUSES
3.
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
is
141
Temporal clauses
also take the subjunctive when, in historical
narrative, an event or circumstance
regarded as the cause or occatnulti peterent societatem,
sion of a subsequent one as, Delecti Delphos missi sunt,

:
quum
<c.
chosen
many
sent to Delphi, were seeking a share, &c.
men were
when
(i.e.,
because)
CHAPTER XXI.-CAUSAL CLAUSES.

1 Causal Clauses (assigning a cause, or reason, or ground) are introduced by such conjunctive words as quod, quia, quoniam,
.
quum, quippe, and

2.
occasionally qitando.
r
These conjunctions are joined with the indicative when the w riter states his own opinion, and represents it as the right one as,
:
Quoniam
Quippe
3.
Oiis.
7ion est genus
unum;
it is
since there
is
not one kind(only).

is
Quippe
leve est; since

is
a small matter.
given
used with the indicative when a reason
ironically
as,
Quijype vetor Fates.
Fat is :
since, forsooth, I
am
forbidden by the
4. The subjunctive is used when the writer repeats the opinion of another, or hints that the reason is not the right one as, Accusatus est proditionis, quod discessisset ; he was accused of
:
treason, because (they said) he

5.
had
retired.
:
Quum, when
Quum
Ols.
sit
expressing the cause, takes the subjunctive as, in nobis prudeniia; since (i.e., because) there
is
wisdom
But quum
7.)
in us.
may
-a
take the indicative when the reason

fact.
is
stated
very strongly as
6.
Causal clauses are also introduced by the relative pronoun.
(See chap. xxii.
CHAPTER XXII. RELATIVE CLAUSES.

1.
Relative Clauses
are introduced by the relative pronouns,
relative adverbs, or relative conjunctions.

2.
Relative clauses take the indicative

:
when a
fact
is
stated dis-
tinctly
as,
qui missus
est; the
JS'untius,
messenger who was sent.
142
3.

Relative clauses take the subjunctive
:
ments of another
Ilelvctii
as,
when
stating the senti-
nerent; the Helvetii prepared
comparaverunt ea quae ad proficiscendum pertithose things which were

followed by the subjunctive
:
necessary (as they thought) for their departure.

4.
The
relative
pronoun
is
clause expresses a purpose (see chap. xvii. 7)
as,
when the
tell
Misit servum, qui regi nuntiaret; he sent a slave to

king.
5.
the
The
relative
pronoun
is
clause expresses a residt, and

is,
followed by the subjunctive when the when qui is equal to ut ego, ut tu, ut
<&c, after
:
&c.
as,
is, talis,
tantus, digitus, indignus, idoneus, tain, ita,
Non
do
is
sum,
this,
qtii
(i.e.,
(=ut ego) hoc faciam; I am not I am not such [a one] who can do
the
man
to
this.)
6.
Dignus est, qui laudetur; he is worthy to be praised. The relative pronoun is followed by the subjunctive when the
:
clause expresses the ground, reason, or cause, qui being equal to as, cur, quod, or quum and a pronoun
Erras, qui censeas ; you err,
Male
Obs.
7.
fecit
in
(i.e., because you think.) Hannibal, qui Capuae hiemarit ; Hannibal did
who think
wrong
wintering (because he wintered) at Capua.

often strengthened by quippe, ut, utpote.
Qui
is
The
relative is also followed by the subjunctive

is
when an inde-
finite
statement
made, especially with such phrases as sunt qui,
nemo
est, nescio quis; as, Sunt qui putent; there are persons who think. Fuere qui crederent; there were persons who believed.
Obs. But the
indicative
is
often used after sunt qui, d-c.

:
(1.)
When
persons or things are spoken of in a very distinct way as, Fuere complurcs, qui profecti sunt; there were many persons who (2.) In all senses by the poets and later prose (actually) started. writers: as, Sunt quosjuvat (Hon.); there are persons whom it
delights.
8.
The
relative
pronoun
is est,
is
followed by the subjunctive

:
condition or supposition
implied
as,
when a
Nihil bonum
thing
is
good, unless
quod hominem non meliorem faciat; nowhich does not make) a it makes (i.e.,
man
better.
INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
143
CHAPTER
1.
XXIII. -INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.

to principal clauses.
Direct questions belong
(See
p.
136,
note %.)
2. Indirect questions are those which depend on some word or sentence going before ; they have the verb in the subjunctive as, Die, quid agas; tell me what you are doing.
:
Magna
fait contentio, utram moenibus se defenderent, an obniam irent hostibus ; there was an earnest discussion whether they should defend themselves by their walls, or whether they should go to meet the enemy.
1.
3.
Obs.
negative. When Obs. 2.
In
indirect questions
mini does not necessarily imply a
more than one alternative

:
questions, the forms are as follows

I
is
suggested in indirect
3
aa.
utrum
tie
an
n$ nS
nS nS
CHAPTER XXIV. SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN THE CLAUSES OF A COMPOUND SENTENCE.

1.
Wiiex
co-ordinate clauses are connected by any of the co-ordi-
native conjunctions (et, ac, atque, sed, aat, nee, c), the verbs are generally in the same tense but they often vary in tense when some peculiarity of time or of action is to be represented by one or more
;
of
them
as,
accessisset
Quum
Lcmnum,
et vellet
redigere incolas sub potes-
tatem, et postulasset ;
when he had approached Leranus,
and v:as wishing to reduce the inhabitants to submission, and had demanded, &c.
2.
When
subordinate clauses are added to principal clauses, the
general rule is, (a) That a primary tense in the principal clause is followed by a primary tense in the subordinate clause. In other words,
Present subjunctive, or Future > followed s Perfect subjunctive (for a l Present-perfect) action). by
are
i
"j
Present
completed
14-4

That a
a
historical tense in the principal clause is followed hy
(/;)
historical
words,
tense in
the subordinate clause.
In other
Imperfect
Perfect-aorist
") "J
are (Imperfect subjunctive, or ("1 > followed < <] Pluperfect subjunctive (for an action
Pluperfect
J )
Thus
(a)
by
I
(.
completed at a prior time).
PRINCIPAL.
SUBORDINATE.
Scio {Scio
{Cognoscam Cognoscam
{Cognovi Cognovi
(
(
(
Sciebam Sciebam
Cognovi Cognovi
I
( (
= I know what you are doing. what you have done. egeris = I know agas = I shall discover what you are doing. what you have done. egeris = I shall discover agas = I have discovered what you are doing. egeris = I have discovered what you have done. what you were doing. quid ageres = I knew what you had done. quid egisscs = I knew = I discovered what you were doing. quid ageres what you had done. quid egisses = I discovered
quid quid quid quid quid quid
agas
PRINCIPAL.
SUBORDINATE.
Cognoveram Cognoveram
quid ageres quid egisses
= =
I I
had discovered what you were doing. had discovered what you had done.
3.
When
its
tense of
a subordinate clause depends on an infinitive mood, the verb is regulated, not by the infinitive, but by the verb
infinitive
on which the
depends
as,
Dimicare
utile arbitratur,
priusquam Lacedaemonii subsidio
veniant; he thinks it advantageous to fight before the Lacedemonians come to help them.
Dimicare
utile arbitrabatur, sidio venirent; he thought
priusquam Lacedaemonii sub-
it advantageous to fight before the Lacedemonians should come to help them.
4. The above rules when some specialty
for the
of time or of action
:
sequence of tenses are often violated is to be indicated by the

as,
verb of the subordinate clause
Jienuntiat societatem nisi Alcibiadem tradidisset; he threatens to break off friendly relations unless he should have (at an
after time) delivered
5.
Historical Present.
A presert tense
;
up
Alcibiades.
is
often used by historians
and as such presents are virtually past tenses, they are often followed by a verb in the past tense of
the subjunctive
:
where we should expect a past

as,
Decern praetores creant, qui exercitui praeessent; they elect ten generals to command the army.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
145
6. The present subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause after a past tense when the action is represented as continuing: as, Jlujus vitia emendata sunt adeo virtutibus, ut nemo anie-
feratur; his vices were to such an extent counterbalanced by merits, that no one is up to this day preferred to him.
7.
The
perfect subjunctive
if
the imperfect),
tinctly: as,
is often used (where we might expect the subordinate clause states a historical fact dis-
Tanto plus valuerunt Athenienses, tit decemplicem numerum kostium profiigarint ; the Athenians excelled so much that
they put to flight ten times the the enemy.
(i.e.,
their
own) number of
[Nepos often uses the perfect subjunctive where the imperfect would be more regular.]
8.
When
nate clause
the action or state indicated by the verb of the subordiis represented as over before the action of the principal
verb begins, the verb of the subordinate clause must be in the plu-
perfect*: as,
Putavit
se
Graecos sub sua retenturum
esse potest'ate, si
amicis
would keep the Greeks in his power if he were to hand over {literally, should have handed over) the towns to their friends to guard them.
suis oppida ttienda tradidisset ; he thought that he
Quum
9.
venisset, dixit;
when he came
{i.e.,
had come), he
said.
future perfect (indicative) is often used in the subordinate clause to indicate that the action of the dependent verb must be over
before that of the principal verb begins
:
The
as,
Faciam,
si
mihifidem dederis;
have given)
I shall
do
it,
if
you give
{liter-
ally, shall
me
your promise.
In English we usually employ a present or a perfect in such

cases.
*
This must be carefully attended pluperfect in such cases.
to,
since in English
we do
not commonly use a
10
14G
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR,
CHAPTER XXV.
RU DDIMAN'S RU LES.
In addition to the foregoing summary of Syntax, it lias been judged advisable to append Ruddiman's excellent Rules, which for very many years have been deservedlypopular among Scottish teachers; and which, though defective in several points, have the very great merit of being easily committed to memory. The notes to the Rules have been given only in part, as the most important facts which they state have already been laid down in the Syntax.
PART
:
I. CONCORD.
its
I. An adjective agrees with number, and case as,
own
substantive
in
gender,
Femhw pulchra;
II.
Vir bonus ; a good man. a beautiful woman. Dulce pomuin; a sweet apple.
A verb
agrees with
its
subject in
number and person
as,
Ego lego; I read. Tu scribis; you write.

Praeceptor docet ; tbe master teaches. A collective noun, though singular, may have a verb Note. Mullitttdo convenerant; the multitude had assembled.
in the plural: as,
III. The infinitive mood has an accusative before Oaudco

te
it:
as,
valere;
am
glad that you are well.

it
IV.Esse has
Petrus cupit
Scio
the same case after

esse vir
that
it
has before
it: as,
Pctrum
doctus; Peter desires to be a learned man. esse virum doctum ; I know that Peter is a learned
man.
V. The
relative qui, quae, quod, agrees with its antecedent in

:
gender, number, and person as, Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur; the
man
is
wise
who speaks
little.
Ego qui
VI.
scribo
who
write.
Two
ct
or
junctions
et,
ac,
:
more substantives singular, connected by the conatque, &c, generally have a verb, adjective, or
as,
relative plural
Petrus
Joannes qui sunt docti; Peter and John who are learned.
RUDDIMAX'S RULES.
VII.
147
Substantives
signifying the same thing agree in case: as,
Cicero orator; Cicero the orator. Urbs Edinburgum ; the city Edinburgh.
N.B. The same occurs even when a substantive or passive verb is used: as. Ego sum discipulus: I am a scholar. Tu vocaris Joannes; you are called
John.
PART
(1.)
II. GOVERNMENT.
GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES.
sig-
VTII. One substantive governs, in the genitive, another nifying a different thing: as, A mor Dei ; the love of God. Lex natHrae; the law of nature.
IX.
But
if
the latter substantive have an adjective signifying
praise, dispraise, or any sort of distinction, joined be put in the genitive or ablative: as,
with
it,
it
may
Vir summae prudentiae, or summd prudentid ; a man of great wisdom. Puer probae indulis, or probd indole; a boy of a good disposition.
X. An adjective in the neuter gender, without a substantive, governs the genitive: as, Multum pecuniae ; much money. Quid rei est? what is the matter 1
XI. Opus and usus

the thing wanted: as,
signifying
is
"need," govern the ablative of

need of speedy help.
of strength.
Cekri opus
est
auxilio; there
AT unc
virlbus usus est (robis);
now you have need
(2.)
GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
XII.
Verbal
adjectives, or such as signify
mind, govern the genitive: as, Avidus gloriae ; desirous of glory. Igndrus fraudis ; ignorant of fraud.
an
affection of the
Memor
beneficiorum
mindful of favours.
XIII. Partitives, and words placed partitively, comparatives, superlatives, interrogatives, and some numerals, govern the genitive plural: as,
Aliquis phi/osophorum ; some one of the philosophers. Senior frat rum ; the elder of the brothers.
Quis nostrum ; which of us. Una Musarum; one of the Muses.
148

signifying *
:
XIV, Adjectives
Ut)lis bello
;
profit
or disprofit, likeness or un-
likeness, govern the dative
as,
SimUis patri ;
profitable for war. like his father.
XV. Verbal
Amandus,
adjectives in -bilis
or
and -dus govern the dative:

to be beloved
as,
amahUis omnibus ;
by
all
men.
XVI. Substantives denoting measure

tive:
are put in the accusa-
as, Columna scxaginta pedes

comparative
alta
a pillar sixty feet high.
XVII. The
object
degree
is
governs
the
with which comparison
instituted: as,
ablative
of
the
Dulcior melle; sweeter than honey. Pracstantior auro; better than gold.
XVIII. The adjectives, dignus, indignus, contentus, praeditus, captus, and fretus; also natus, satus, ortus, editus, and the like, govern the ablative: as,
Dignus honore
worthy of honour. Praeditus virlute ; endued with virtue. Contentus parvo ; content with little.
;
Captus oculis ; blind. Fretus viribus ; trusting
to his strength.
XIX. Adjectives
tive: as,
of plenty or
want govern the genitive
or abla-
Plenus irae, or ird full of anger. Jnops rationis, or ratione; void of reason.
(3.)
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS
it
(PERSONAL).
property, or
XX. Sum, when

governs the genitive:
Est regis punlre
signifies
as,
possession,
duty,
Militum
est
rebelles ; it belongs to the king to punish rebels. suo duci parere; it is the duty of soldiers to obey their
general.
XXI.
possessive adjective, as
vestrum, regium,
tive: as,
meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, humanum, &c, may be substituted for the genithat.
Tuum est id procurare ; it is your duty to manage Humanum est errare; it is natural to man to err.
* See Syntax, chap.
vii. 8., p.
125.
ruddiman's rules.
XXII, Misereor,
miseresco, and satago, govern the genitive
149
:
a3,
Miserere avium tuorum ; take pity on your countrymen. Satagit rerum sudruni; be is busy with bis own affairs.
XXIII. Est taken

person: as, Est mihi liber ; Sunt mihi libri
for
habeo
(to
have) governs the dative of a
I
;
have a book. have books.
XXIV. Sum taken for affero (to bring) governs two datives, the one of a person, and the other of a thing: as, Est mihi voluptdti ; it is {i.e., it brings) a pleasure to me.
XXV. Verbs
dative
:
as,
signifying advantage or disadvantage govern the
Fortuna favet fortlbus ; Fortune favours the brave. Nemmi nvceas; do hurt to no man.
Under this rule are comprehended verbs signifying, 1. To profit and hurt: as, commodo, placeo, noceo,
2.
officio,
&c.
But
To
laedo and offendo govern the accusative. favour or help, and the contrary: as, faveo, gratutor, ignosco, But juvo governs the accusative. auxilior, invideo, parco, &r.
serve,
S.
To command, obey,
and
resist: as,
impero, pareo, obedio,
4.
5.
To To
But jubeo governs the accusative. servio, resisto, dr. threaten or to be angry with : as, minor, indignor, irascor, <Lx.
trust: nsfido, confido, credo; also, diffido, despero.
satis, bene,
6.
Verbs compounded with

facio, maledlco,
d-c.
and male:
as, satisfacio, bene-
7.
Sum, and
8.
Many
its compounds, except possum: as, adsum, prosum, d-c. verbs compounded with these ten prepositions: ad, antecum (cun), and ob: as, adsto, in, inter post, praesub, super
anteccllo, consto, die.
XXVI. Transitive Ama Deum; love
verbs govern the accusative: as,

God,
Revcrere parentes ; reverence your parents.
XXVII. Recordor, memini,

the accusative, or genitive: as,
reminiscor,
and
oblivisoor,
govern
Recordor
lectionis, or lectionem; I
remember
I forget
my
lesson.
Obliviscor injuriae, or
injuriam;
an injury.
XXVIII, Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and admonishing, govern the accusative of a person, with the genitive of the crime or thing: as,
Arguit mefurti; he accuses me of theft. Monet me officii he puts me in mind of my duty.

;
150
XXIX. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring, and taking away, govern the accusative and dative: as, Comparo Virgilium Romero; I compare Virgil to Homer. Eripuit mcmurti; he rescued me from death.
XXX. Verbs
the
first of
of asking
and teaching govern two accusatives,
a person, and the second of a thing: as, Posce Deum veniam; beg pardon of God. Docuit me grammat'icam ; he taught me grammar.
of filling, loading, binding,
XXXI. Verbs
and some
depriving, clothing,
others, govern the accusative
and ablative: as,
Implet path-am mero; he fills the bowl with wine. Oaerat navem auro; he loads the ship with gold.
XXXII. The passives of such active verbs as govern two cases retain the latter case: as,
Accusor furti ;
am
accused of theft.
Doceor grammaticam ; I am taught grammar. Patera impletur mero; the bowl is filled with wine.
XXXIII. Substantives denoting price are put in the ablative: as, Emi librum duobus asslbus; I bought a book for two asses (i.e., coins). Vendldit hie auropatriam; this man sold his country for gold.
XXXIV. These
(adjectival)
genitives,
if?
tanti,
quanti,
pluris,
minoris, are excepted: as,
Quanti constltit? how much cost Asse et pluris; an as and more.
XXXV.Verbs
tives as these:
Aestlmo
te
of valuing govern the accusative with such genimagni, parvi, nihili, &c: as, magni; I value you much.
XXXVI.Verbs
ablative:
of plenty and scarceness generally govern the as, Abundat divitiis; he abounds in riches. Caret omni calpd; he is free from every fault.
XXXVII. TJ tor,
the ablative: as,
abutor,
fruor,
fungor,
potior,
vescor,
govern
Abutltur
Utltur fraude ; he uses deceit. libris; he abuses books.

Note 1. Also the verbs
nitor,
gaudeo,
muto, dono, muntro, communico,

laboro, (I
vidilo, beo, fldo, impertior, dignor, nascor, creor, officio, coneto,
proslqwr, Ac; but the ablative after most of these may be referred to Rule LV. Note 2. Potior, fungor, vescor, epiitor, and pascor, sometimes govern the
ill),
am
accusative:
as,
Potiri
summam
governs the genitive:
as, Potiri
imperii. Hep. regni. Cic.
Potior sometimes
ruddlman's rules.
101
(4.)
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS (IMPERSONAL).

verbs govern the dative: as,
XXXVIII. Impersonal
ExpMU
Licet
reipublicac;
it is
neminipeccare; no
man
profitable for the state. is allowed to sin.
XXXIX. Refert and

Refert patris ;
Interest
it
interest govern the genitive: as,
concerns
it is
my
father.
all.
omnium;
the interest of
mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, are used instead of the genitives of the personal pronouns: as, JVon. mca refert; it does not concern me.
XL.
But
XLI. These five miseret, poenitet, pudet, taedet, and piget govern the accusative of a person, with the genitive of the object: as,
MisSret me tai; I pity you.
J'uenilet
me pecedti;
repent of
my
sin.
XLIL These four decet, delectat, juvat, and oportet govern the accusative of a person, with the infinitive: as,
Delectat
me
studere;
it it
delights
Non decet
XLIII.
te
rixdri;
me to study. does not become you to scold.
The
ablative, with dative: as,
principal agent, after a passive verb, is put in the the preposition a or ab; and sometimes in the
the world is governed by God. he seen by any.
Mundus gidiernatur a Deo;

Neque cerultur
ulli;
nor
is
(5.)
GOVERNMENT OF THE INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES.

in the infinitive: as,
XLIV. One verb governs another
Cupio discere; I desire to learn. SoU. The infinitive is sometimes governed by
adjectives.
XLV. Participles,
A mans
By
llule
gerunds, and the
case of their verbs: as,
first
supine, govern
th9
virtutem; loving virtue.
XXVI.
guile.
Carcnsfraude; wanting
By Rule XXXVI.
152

in
XLVI. The gerundive

Vivendum
est
-dum
I
of
the verh est governs the dative: as,
the
nominative case
with
Morioulum
est
mild rccte; omnibus;
all
must live well. must die.
XLVII. The gerund

jectives:
in -di is governed by substantives and adof reading.

to learn.
as, Tempns Ice/cndi; time
Cupldus discendi; desirous See Rules VIII. and XII.
XLVIIL The gerund
in -do of the dative case is governed by
adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness: as,
Charta ui'dis scribendo; paper useful for writing. See Rule XIV.
XLIX. The gerund in -dum of the accusative case by the preposition ad, or inter: as, Promptus ad audiendum ; ready to hear. Attcntus inter docendum ; attentive in time of teaching. See Rule LXIX.
is
governed
Note. It is sometimes governed by VlKG.
ante,
circa,
or ob: as, Ante
domandum.
L.
The
gerund in -do of the ablative case

e,
prepositions a, ab, de,
ex, or in
as,
is
governed by the
Poena apeccando
See Rules
absterret;
punishment frightens from sinning.
LXX.
and LXXI.
in -do of the ablative case is used without a
LI. The gerund
preposition, as the ablative of manner, or cause: as, Memoria excolendo augetur ; the memory is improved by exercising
it.
Defcssus
sum ambulando;
am
wearied with walking.
See Rule LV.
LIL Gerunds
ciples in -dus,
governing the accusative are varied by the parti-
which agree with

as,
number, and case:

GERUNDS.
their
substantives in gender,
PARTICIPLES.
Petendum est pacem. Tempus petendi pacem. Ad petendum pacem.
Petenda
est
pax.
Tempns petendae pads.
petendo pacem. Note. The gerunds

changed into the
potior: as,
Ad petendam pacem. A petenda pace.

which do not govern the accusative are never except those of utor, abator, fruor, fungor, and
,
of verbs
participles,
Ad haec
utenda idonea est. Tek.
kuddiman's rules.
LIII.-The supine in -urn plying motion: as,
is
153
used after verbs expressing or im-
Abiit dcambuldtum ; he has gone to walk.
LIV.
The
supine in -u
is
put after an adjective: as,

be
told.
Facile diciu; easy to
tell, or, to
I.
-THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT.
LV. The
tive
:
as,
cause, manner,
and instrument are put in the
abla-
PaUco metu;
I
;
am
I
Fecit suo more
he did
pale for fear. it after his
own way.
Scribo calamo;
write with a pen.
II. PLACE.
or at a place is put in the genitive if the noun be of the first or second declension, and singular number: as
LVL In
Vixit liomac; he lived at
Rome.
are also used in the genitive:
as,
Mortuus
est
Londlni; he died at London.

militiac,
Kote.Humi,
centia fraga.
Viro.
and
belli,
IJumi ncu-
LVIL In
or at a place is put in the ablative if the
noun be
of the third declension, or of the plural
number: as,
Habitat Carthagme; he dwells at Carthage. Studuit Parisiis; he studied at Paris.
LVIIL To a place is put in the Venit Romam; he came to Rome.

Profectus
est
accusative: as,
Athens.
is
Athenas; he went
to
LIX. From
Laodiced
or
by (through) a place
put in the ablative
as,
Discessit Corintho; he departed from Corinth.'

iter
faciebat ; he went by Laodicea.
LX. Domus, way as names
rus, of
and some other words, are construed the same

as,
towns:
Manet domi; he
stays at
home.
Domum
revert'dur ; he returns home. Vvvit rure, or ruri; he lives in the country. Rediit rure; he has returned from the country.
154

names
of countries,
is
LXL To
provinces,
and
:
all as,
except towns, the preposition
generally added
other places,
Ifatus in Italid, in Latio, in urbe, JLc; born in Italy, in Latitat), in a city, &c. Abiit in Italiam, in Latium, in urbcm, dr.; be has gone to Italy, to Latiuni, to a city, &c. See Rules LXIX., LXX., LXXI., and LXXII.
accusative,
LXII. Substantives denoting space or and sometimes in the ablative

Urbs distat triginta millia
miles distant.
(or millibus)
distance are put in the

:
as,
passuum; the
city is thirty
III.-TIME.
LXIIL Substantives
ablative:
denoting a point of time are put in the
as,
Venit hord tcrtid; he came at the third hour.
LXIV. Substantives denoting continuance of time are put in the accusative or ablative, but oftener in the accusative: as,
Mansit paucos dies ; he stayed a few days. Sex mensibus abfuit ; he was absent six months.
LXV. A substantive and a participle, whose case depends upon no other word, are put in the ablative absolute:* as,
Sole oriente, fugiunt tenebrae ;

rises,
the sun rising, or,

or,
when the sun
away. Opere peracto, ludemus; our work being finished,

is finished,
darkness
flies
when our work
we
will play.
CONSTRUCTION OF INDECLINABLE WORDS.

I. AD VERBS.
IX VI. Adverbs
adverbs
:
as,
are joined
to
verbs,
adjectives,
and
other
Bene
scribit;
he writes well.
For titer pug nans ;
fighting bravely. Satis bene; well enough.

* See
Note
, p.
132.
ruddiman's rules.
LXVII. Some adverbs
genitive
:
155
as,
of time, place,
and quantity, govern the
illius diei; the day before that day. Ublque gentium; everywhere. Satis est verborum; there is enough of words.
Pridic
LXVIII. Some
tives: as,
derivative adverbs govern the case of their primi-
Omnium, elegantissime loquitur ; he speaks the most
elegantly of
to
all.
By Rule XIII.
Vivcrc convenicnter naturae;
to
live
agreeably
nature.
By
Rule XIV.
II. PREPOSITIONS.
LXIX. The
sative:
prepositions ad, apud, ante,
&c, govern the accu-
as,
to the father.
Adpatrcm;
LXX. The
tive: as,
prepositions
a,
ab,
abs,
&c,
govern
the
abla-
patre ; from the father.
Note.
Tenia sometimes governs the genitive

in, sub,
as,
Crurum
tenia.
LXXI. The prepositions

accusative
super, and subter, govern the

is
when motion
to
a place
signified: as,
Eo
in scholam ; I go into the school. Sub moenia tendit ; he goes under the walls. Incldit super agmina; it fell upon the troops.
LXXIL When
or ablative:
motion or rest in a place

;
is
signified, in
and
6ub govern the ablative
super and subter either the accusative run up and down,
as,
I
sit,
Sedeo or discurro in schold;

school.
or,
in the
Sedens super arma; sitting above the arms. Subter litore; beneath the shore.
LXXIIL A preposition often governs position that it does out of it: as,
Adedmus scholam; let us go to Excdmus schold; let us go out
the school.
the
same case in com-
of the school.
156

III. INTERJECTIONS.
LXXIV. The
tive,
interjections 0, heu,
and proh, govern the vocaas,
and sometimes the accusative:

formdse puer
I
fair
boy
lieu
me miscrum!
ah, wretch that I
am
LXXV. Hei and

Jlei
vae govern the dative: as,

!
mihi! ah ine
Vae vobis/ woe
to
you
IV. CONJUNCTIONS.
LXXVI. The conjunctions et, ac, atque, some others, couple independent words or dependencies of the same word: as,
nee, neque, aut, vel, clauses,
and and co-ordinate
Honora patrem
Nee
et
matrem; honour your
father and mother.
scribit nee legit;
he neither writes nor reads.
IXXVII. Tit, quo, licet, ne, utlnam, and dummodo, are generally joined to the subjunctive: as, Accldit ut terga vertZrent; it happened that they turned their backs. Utlnam sapercs; I wish you were wise.
APPENDIX.
GENDER OF NOUNS.
Note.The
following Utiles will guide the pupil to the principal classes of words and of terminations belonging to the different Genders. The more common Exceptions are also given; but the limits of the book forbid an exhaustive For more complete lists consult the Larger Grammar chapter on this subject belonging to this Series.
I.
GENERAL RULES.-GENDER DECIDED BT THE MEANING.

names
;
I.
The
Vlr, mail
of male beings are masculine: as, Caesar, Caesar; Taurus, bull. of rivers, winds,
Path;
father;
II. The names
and months are masc.
(fluviiis,
ventiis, and mensis being masc): as, Tibirls, the Tiber; Oarumna, the Garonne; Jqu'lo, the north wind; Aprllis, April. Exc The following river-names are feminine: Alliii, Albiila, MulrOna, Styx,
and
Lethe.
III. The names of many mountains are masc. (mons being masc): as, Othrys. But they generally follow the gender of the
termination: as, Atlas, m.
;
Ida,
f.
Soracte, n.
fern.:
IV. The names

S6rt/r, sister
;
of female beings are
as,
Mater, mother;
Midler, woman.
V. Most of the names of countries, islands, towns, trees, and precious stones are fern.: as, Aegyptua; Salamts; llhodus; Tyrus; Quercus, an oak Sm&ragdus, an emerald. Exc. 1. Names of countries ending in -urn or -a (plur.) are neut. as, Lfitium;
;
:
BactrS.
Exc. Exc.
in -i, -drum, are masc. as, Pldlipp-i, -drum. in -um, -e (gen. -it,) -ur, -on, and -a, -orum (plur.), are neut.: Tarentum; Caer-e, -is; Tibur; /lion; Leuctr-S, -Orum. Exc. 4. Several in -o are masc, as, Sulmo, Vesontio, Xarbo, Hippo, &c.
2.
:
3.
Those
Names of towns
as,
VI. Nouns which may denote either the male or the female are said to be of common gender: as, C'tvis, a citizen; Parens, a parent;
Conjux, a wife or husband; Dux, a leader.
158
II.
ArrENDix.
SPECIAL RULES. GENDER DECIDED BY THE TERMINATION.
FIRST
DECLENSION.
fern.; in -as and -es, masc: as, Those Mcnsa, a table; Epitome, an abridgment Aeneas; Anchises. in -e, -as, and -es, are Greek. Exc. 1. Names of men, and their designations, are masc.: as, Cinna, Cinna;
I.
Nouns
in -a
and
-e
are
Exc.
2.
POeta, a poet; Auriga, a coach driver; Nautii, a sailor. Names of rivers in -a are masc. as, Sequana, the Seine.
But see
above, Rule
II.,
with Exception,
p. 157.
SECOND DECLENSION.
II. Nouns ending in
garden
;
-iis, -er,
and
-Ir
are masc.: as, Hortus, a
Jgifr,
1.
field
of
Exc.
in -us are generally fern, (see above, Corinth; PopSlus, a poplar tree. Exc. 2. The following words are fern., viz.: Alcus, the belly; Cultis, a distaff (rarely m.); Humus, the ground; Vannils, a corn fan. Exc. 3. Greek words in -us retain their Greek fern, gender: as, MtSthSdUs. a method ; Carbasus, (in the sing.), fine flax. Exc. 4. Three nouns in -us are neut., viz. Virus, poison ; P&agus, the sea; and Vulgus (also m.), the common peopje.
Names
Vlr, a man. towns and of trees

:
Rule
V., p. 157)
as, Corinthus,
III. Nouns ending in -um are neut.:
as,
Malum, an
apple.
A.
IV,
Nouns in -a and -e are neut.

ending in
-o
Words Ending in a
:
THIRD
DECLENSION.
Vowel.
:
V.
Nouns
as,
Poema, a poem Mare, the

as,
sea.
are
masc:
Sermo,
conversation;
Ordo, order; Cardo, a hinge; Margo, a margin. Exc 1. Abstract nouns ending in -do and -io are fern.;
also those in -go: as, Magnitudo, greatness; Cupido, desire, (also m as a proper name); LarAlso, Ratio, reason; Oratio, speech; gitio, bribery; Virgo, a maiden. RSgio, a district ; Caro, flesh. Leglo, a legion Exc. 2. Some nouns in -o, though names of towns, are masc. (See p. 157, V., Exc. 4.)
;
VI.Nouns ending in
mlsyos), vitriol.
-y are
neut.:
as,
Misy
(gen.
m'si/is,
or
B.
VII.
ER.
;
Words Ending in a Consonant. MASCULINE TERMINATIONS.

I.
Nouns ending
in
in -er are generally

as,
masc:
as,
Venter,
the belly
Exc.l.
Exc.
Many
Career, a prison.
-er are neut.:
Cadaver, a corpse;
Papaver, poppy;
Ver, spring; IiSr, a journey.
2.These arefem.
Mater, a mother.
(see
Rule IV., p. 157)
Linter, a boat; ifiilier, a
woman;
GENDER OF NOUNS.
than
159
VIII. ES. Nouns in -es, which have a syllable more in the gen. in the nom. (i.e., "increasing nouns,") are masc: as, Pes, pedis, a foot Fanes, piiritiis, a wall.
;
ExcThe
(Compes), compfdis, a fetter; SSgSt, sejetis, a following are fem. crop; Merces, merctdis, a reward; QuiSs, tjuietis, rest, and some others.
:
IX. OR. Nouns

Labor,
toil.
in -or are generally

:
masc:
as,
Honor, honour;
Exc. 1. Several In -or, pen. -itris, are neut. as, Ador, (-Oris,) spelt; Aeoudr, the sea-plain; MarmOr, marble. So also, Cur, cord-Li, the heart. Exc. 2. These are fem. by Rules V. and IV., p. 157: Arbor, a tree; SdrOr,
sister;
Uxdr, wife.
as,
X. OS. Nouns in -os are generally masc: custom Flos, flons, a flower.
;
Mos,
gen.
moris,
Exc. 1. These are fem.: Cos, Exc. 2. These are neut.: Os,
cotis,
oris,
a whetstone; and Dos, dotis, a dowry. the mouth; and Os, ossis, a bone.
XI. ON. Greek words

Babylon, Babylon-is.
II.
in -on are masc. (but a
few are
fem.): as,
FEMININE TERMINATIONS.
XII.
state.
AS.
Nouns
in -as are fem.: as, Actds, actdtis, age; Clvltas, a
Exc. 1. Some are masc.:
as, As, assis, an as (a Roman coin); Elephds, an elephant; GigCts, a giant; Mas, marts, a male; Yds, vddis, a surety. Anas, a duck, is common. Exc. 2. The following are neut: Yds, vasis, a vessel; Fas, and Ne/as.
XIII. AUS. Nouns in -aus are fem. They

and Fraus, fraudis,
deceit.
are, Laus, laudis, praise
XIV. ES. Nouns in -es, which do not increase, are fem.: as, Caedes, caedis, slaughter; C'lddes, clddls, defeat. Exc. 1. One word is common, viz.: Pdlumbcs, a wood-pigeon. Exc. 2. The names of rivers in -es are masc. by Rule II., p. 157: also, Yerres, a
boar.
XV. IS. Nouns

Exc.
1.
in
-is
Cuspis, cusp'idis, a point; Lis,
are fem.: as, Navta, a ship; Vallis, a valley; litis, a law-suit.
masc: as, Amnls, a river; Axis, an axle; CoOts, a hill; a sword; Fasds, a bundle; FlnTs, an end, (also f. in a sing.;) Funis, rope; Fustls, a club; Ignis, fire; Lapis, hipldls, a stone; ensis, a month; Orbis, a circle; Pdnis, bread; Fuels, a fish; Fulvls, pulare
Crtnis, hair; Ensis,
Many
a post; Sanguis, sanguinis, blood; Unguis, a nail. Also a few others of rare occurrence. Exc. 2. Some are common: as, Cants, a dog; Anguis, a snake; Corbls, a basket Clunls, a buttock.
veris, dust; Poslis,
;
XVI. X. Nouns in -x are generally fem. as, Pax, pdcis, peace Nex, necis, death Radix, rddicis, a root Nox, noctis, night Lex, legit, a law Vox, vocis, a voice; Arx, arcis, a citadel.
:
Exc. 1. Most of those in -ex are masc: as, Grex, gregis, a flock. Exc. 2. The following, with a few others, are masc: Cdlix, a cup; Fornix, an arch; Tradux, a vine-branch.
GO
APPENDIX.
XVII. Nouns ending in -s, preceded by a consonant, are generally fern.: as, Vrbs, a city; Jlicms, winter; Daps, da-pin, a feast (lens, a race; Mens, the mind; Frons, frontis, the forehead Frons, frond is, a
;
;
leaf; Glaus, gland/is,
an acorn; Ars,
artis, art, skill.

:
Exc The following,

tain; tfont,
with a few others, are masc.
Pons, a bridge; Fons, a foun-
a mountain; Om*,atooth;
Orient,
the east; Torrant, a torrent.
111.
NEUTER
in
-1
TERMINATIONS.
are ueut.: as, Lac,
lactis,
XVIII. C. Nouns ending

Alec, atecis, pickle.
in -c
milk;
XIX. L. Nouns ending

Animal, an animal. Exc. The following
Miigil, a
are neut.; as, Mel, mellis, honey;

Sol,
mullet
are mase. ConsUl, a consul; Piigil, a boxer.

:
the sun; Sal,
salt;
XX. N. Nouns
Exc These
in -n are neut.: as, CarmZn, carmlnls, a poem.

:
Pectin, peclfnis, a comb; Flamen, a priest; Tlbicen, a flute-player; Con.icen, a horn-blower, <tc
are masc.
XXI. AR. Nouns in -ar are neut.: as, Calcar, a Exc One word is masc, viz.: Lar, a household god.
XXII.
spur.
TJE.
a
Nouns
in -ur are neut.: as, Fulyur, lightning; Robur,
rSbSris, strength.
Exc The
hawk
following are masc: FUr, furis, a thief; Vultur, a vulture; Aslur, Turtiir, a turtle-dove; and Fur/fir, bran.
;
XXIII.
Corpus, corporis, a body
in -us are neut.: as, Vulnus, vulneris, a wound; Jus, juris, law. ; Exc. 1. Two are masc Lepfis, lepSris, a hare; and Mus, mfiris, a mouse. Exc. 2. These are common: Sus, a pig; and Grus, a crane.
US.
Nouns
Exc.
3.
The
following are fern.: Juvenilis, juventutis, youth; Palus, paliidis, a
marsh; Pe~cus, pecudis, cattle; Salus,salutis, safety; Stnectus, sencclutis, old age; Servltus, bondage; Telliis, teliuris, the earth; and Virtus, virtulis, virtue.
XXIV. T. Nouns
in -t are neut.: as, Caput, capitis, the head.
FOURTH DECLENSION. XXV. US. Nouns in -us are masc. as, Fruetiis,
:
fruit
Exc.
The following are fern.:
Grddiis, a step.
house; Llus, (pi.), porch; Tribus, a tribe; and (by Rule IV., law; and Socrus, a mother-in-law.
AcOs, a needle; Anils, an old woman; DSm&s, a the ides of a month; JUdniis, the hand; Portiriis, u
p. 157), Niirus,
a daughter-in-
XXVI.
U.
Nouns
in
-ii
are neut.: as, Gelu, frost; Cornu, a horn.
FIFTH
DECLENSION.
XXVII. ES. Nouns

Exc.
in -es are fem.: as, Res, a matter. The following are excepted, viz.: Dies (sing.), m. or Dies
f.
;
(plur.),
m.;
Meridies, mid-day, m.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
161
CONJUGATION* OF VERBS
MORE OR LESS IRREGULAR
IN
THE PERFECT AND SUPINE.
162
3.
APPENDIX.
Perfect in
-i (vi);
Supine in -turn,
cavere,
favere,
fovere,
to take care,
to favour,
Caveo,
cavi,
favi,
fovi,
Faveo,
F5veo,
cautum, fautum,
fotum,
to cherish,
to
to
Moveo
Voveo, Paveo,
movi,
vovi,
motum,
votum,
movere,
vovere, pavere,
move,
vow.
pavi,
to fear.
IRREGULAR VERB3.
B. Guttural
163
Stems.
164
APPENDIX.
C Dental
Perfect in -si
;
Stems.
Supine in -sum.
Cedo,
IRREGULAR VERBS.
fido,
165
166
APPENDIX.
E. Stems Ending
Cerno,
in R.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Cresco,
167
1G8
APPENDIX.
Third Conjugation.
Amplector,
GREEK NOUNS.
169
GREEK NOUNS.
The subjoined table sets forth at one view the most important of Greek nouns as declined in Latin
:
varieties
NOMINATIVE.
170
APPENDIX.
THE CALENDAR.
1. According to the reformed Calendar of Julius Caesar (b.c. 45), the Our names for year was regulated almost as at present with ourselves.
the months are merely adaptations from the Februarius, Martius, &c.
2.
Roman
names, Januarius,
3.
1. The Roman year originally began on the 1st of March; hence the fifth month was called Quinctilis, the sixth Sextilis, the seventh Septembris, &c. Obs. 2. But in the time of Augustus the names of the fifth and sixth months
Obs.
were changed to Julius and Augustus, in honour of the two great Caesars who had made so important alterations on the Calendar.
4. The Romans did not count the days of the month right on, as we do; but selecting three fixed periods in each month, subdivided their months into three portions, and computed the days in each portion as so many
before the first of the succeeding portion.

5.
These periods were as follows (a) The Calends, or 1st day of the month. of the month; (b) The Nones, or 5th day
:
i.e.,
nine days before
(c)
(See Art. 6.) The Ides, or 13th day of the month: which, divided the month into nearly equal parts. (See Art. 6. )
the Ides.
6.
Obs. In the four months, March, May, July, and October, which were originally two days longer, the Nones fell on the 7th, and, consequently, the Ides on the 15th, as expressed in the following rhyme:
"In March, July, October, May, The Nones fall on the seventh day."
7.
The day
(a)
of the
month was expressed

:
In the ablative
as,
in two ways : Kalendis Januariis, the 1st of January
(b)
28th December ; Quinto die ante Kalcndas Januarias, the or shortly, V. Kal. Jan. By the phrase Ante diem quintum Kalendas Januarias; or
shortly, a. d. V. Kal.
Jan.*
was expressed by Kalendis Januariis, or Kal. Jan.; the 2nd by quarto ante Nonas Januarias, or IV. Non. Jan., or a. d. IV. Non. Jan.; the 3rd by tertio ante Non. Jan., or III. Non.
8.
The
1st of January, then,
ante Non. Jan.); the Jan., &c. the 4th by pridie Nonas (i.e., pridie 5th by Nonis Jan.; the 6th by octavo ante Idus Januarias, or VIII. The 13th was exthe 7th by VII. Id. Jan., and so on. Id. Jan., &c. 14th by XIX. Kal. Feb., i.e., XIX. pressed by Idibus Januariis; the ante Kalendas FebruariasJ the 31st by pridie Kal. Feb.; the 30th by
; ;
///. Kal. Feb.

* This phrase
seems
to
have been originally, Ante Kalendas Januarias,
die quinto.
THE CALENDAR.
9.
Obs.lt
will be observed, by reference to the following tuble, p. 172, that there occurs no "second day before the Nones, Ides, or Culends" of any month. This arises from the circumstance that the Romans counted inclusively; and the day which they reached. i.e., both the day from which they started Thus in the above example the 5th of January (the Nones) is counted one, the 4th (pridie) two, and the 3rd three.
10.
To reduce an English
found useful
If the date
:
date to a
Roman
will be
one, the
two following rules
(1.)
fall
between the Calends and the Nones, or between
the Nones and the Ides,
Rule I. Subtract the number of the given day from the number of the day on which the Nones or Ides occur, and add one (for the inclusive reckoning). Ex. Thus In January the Nones are on the 5th; and if we wish to know how to express the 2nd, we subtract 2 from 5, which leaves 3; to this we
add
(2.)
1,
and write IV.
JYon. Jan.
If the date fall between the Ides
and the Calends,
Rule II. Subtract the number of the given day from the number of days in the month, and add two (for inclusive reckoning).
See Art. 11. Ex.Thus
11.
06s.
if
we wish
to express the 20th
leaving 11; to which
we add
2,
12.
1. As we count to the Calends of February, this forms an extra day beyond the month (January) in which our date lies, and so it becomes necessary to add another day besides the one for inclusive reckoning. Obs. 2. These rules may be briefly expressed in the rhyme, " In Nones and Ides add only one, But in all Calends two; And then subtract the number given; You'll find the date quite true."
making 13;
January, we subtract 20 from 31, i.e., XIII. ante Kal. Feb.
13. In leap year the 24th February was counted twice {i.e., a day intercalated between the 24th and 25th February,) and the added day
was was
expressed thus: a. d. lissextum Kal. Mart. bissextilis, and our term bissextile.
14.
Obs.
Hence the phrase Annus
This added day did not affect the earlier days of February, for the 23rd
called, as before, VII. Kal.
was
15.
Mart, the 22nd
VIII.,
and so
on.
The days
2. 3.
of the
week were,
(or
(Dies Solis
Dies Dominicus), the Lord's
"\
Monday
Tuesday
day; (French, Dimanche). Dies Lunae (Lundi).
5.
Wednesday Thursday
Friday
Dies Martis {Mardi). Dies Mercur ii (Sfercredi).

Dies Jovis (Jeudi).
6.
7.
Dies Veneris
Saturday
( Vendredi). Dies Saturni, or Dies Sabbati {Samedi).
172
APPENDIX.
THE ROMAN YEAR.

Days of the
MONEY.
173
ROMAN
1
COINS.
1 Sestertius, 1
1
Quinarius (5 Denarius (10
asses), asses),
1 5.
Aureus,
But
unit of calculation.
in the later days of the Commonwealth, the sestertius was the great It was equal to 2^ asses, or about 2d. of our money.
174
APPENDIX.
ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.

1 Pes, 1 Gradiis,
2 125
Gracilis,
1 Passus,
Passus,
...
1 Stadium,
1 Milliare,
is
8 Stadia (1000 passus),
Obs.
An English mile
1700 yards.
ABBREVIATIONS.
175
ABBREVIATIONS.
I. PRAENOMINA,
A.,
OR FIRST NAMES.
Mam., Mamercus.
N. or Num., Numerius. P., Publius.
Q.,
S.
Aulus.
App., Appius. C. or G., Caius or Gaius. Cn. (Gn.), Cnaeus, or Gnaeus.

D.,
Quintus.
Decimus.
Lucius.
K., Kaeso.
L.,
or Sex., Sextus. Ser., Servius.

Sp., Spurius.
T., Titus.
Ti.,
M., Marcus.
M'.,
Mauius.
Tiberius.
II. ANCIENT TITLES, ETC.

Cos., Consul.
Cos. des., Consul designatus.

Coss., Consules.*
F., Filius.
P.R., Populus Romanus, Praet., Praetor.

Praett., Praetores,*
Quir., Quirites.
Imp., Imperator. N., Nepos, (grandson).

O.M., Optimus Maximus. P.C., Patres Conscripti.
Resp., Respublica.
S.P.O..R.,
Senatus
Populusque
Romanus.
X.V., Decemvir.
III. EPISTOLARY.
D.,
S.,
data (est epistola).
S.V.B.E.E.V.
Si vales,
bene
est,
Salutem (scil. dicit). S.D.. Salutem dicit. S.P.D., Salutem plurimam
ego valeo.
S.V.G.V., Si vales gaudeo.
dicit.
Valeo.
V., Vale.
IV. MISCELLANEOUS.
A.U.C.,
Ab
D.D.,
urbis conditae, or urbe condita.
Anno
H.M.H.N.S.,(a)Hocmonumentum heredes non sequitur.

L.,
Dono
dedit.
Libertas.
DD., Dederunt. D.D.D., Dat, dicat, dedicat. D.M., Dis Manibus.
M.P., Mille passuum.

Ob., (a) Obiit.
P.C., (a)
Deo Optimo Maximo. F.C., (a) Faciendum curavit. H.C.E., (a) Hie conditus est.
D.O.M.,
H.S.E.,
(a)
O..B.F.F.Q.S.,
Ponendum curavit. Quod bonum

sit.
felix
faustumque
B.C.,
Senatus consultum.
Hie situs
est.
(a)
V., (a) Vixit.
Used on tombs.
(6), p.
1
*See Note
>
176
APPENDIX.
V.-MODERN ABBREVIATIONS.
A.B. or B.A., Artium Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Arts.
A.C., {a) Christ. L.B.,
Lectori benevolo, indulgent reader.
To
the
Ante Christum, Before
LL.B., Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws.

LL.D.,
Anno Domini, In the year of our Lord. A.M. or M.A., Artium Magister, Master of A rts. Cet., Cetera, The rest.
A.D.,
Cf.,
Legum
Doctor, Doctor of
Laws. M.B., Medicinae
Baccalaureus,
Bachelor of Medicine.
Confer, Compare.
(6)
M.D., Medicinae Doctor, Doctor of Medicine.
Cod., Codex, Copy.
MS., Manuscriptus
(scil..
liber) or
Codices, Copies. D., Doctor, Doctor. D.D., Doctor of Divinity. Del., Dele, Blot out. Ed., Editio, Edition. Edd., (b) Editiones, Editions.
E.g., Exempli gratia,
Codd.,
manuscript. MSS., plur., Manuscripts. N.B., Nota bene, Observe carefully.

N.T.,
P.S.,
Manuscriptum,
Novum Testamentum,
Testament.
The
New
Postscriptum,
Postscript
see.
For example.
the rest.
is.
{written after).
Q.v.,
Etc., H.e.,
I.C.,
Et cetera,
And
Quod
vide,
Which
Hoc
est,
That
{this)
Sc, Scilicet, To wit.

Sq., (quod) Sequitur, The following. Sqq., (plur.,) The following.
Jesus Christ.
I.H.S., Jesus hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of mankind.

lb. or Ibid., Ibidem,
place.
S.T.B.,
Sanctae Tbeologiae Bacca-
In
the
same
laureus, Bachelor of Divinity. S.T.D., Doctor of Divinity.

S.T.P., Professor of Divinity.
J.U.D., Juris Utriusque Doctor, Doctor of Laws. Id., Idem, The same.
I.e.,
V.D.M., Verbi Divini Minister, Minister of the Gospel.

Viz., Videlicet,
I.q.,
Id est, That is. Id quod, That which. Leg., Lege, Read.

(a)
V.T.,
Vetus
Namely. Testamentum, The
Old Testament.
" Before Christ" is very often indicated by the English initials, B.C. (6) In abbreviations like Edd., LL.D., MSS., the second of the doubled letters for a separate word, but indicates the plural number; or does not stand S) (d, L, hence there should be no point between the doubled letters.
'

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m

TRIN. COLL., DUftT.TN;

THE HIGH SCHOOL OF

LONDON: NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW;

NELSON'S CLASSICAL SERIES.

FIRST LATIN READER. By

Archibald H. Bryce, LL.D. Fourth

21G pages 12mo.

SECOND LATIN READER.

OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE. By

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR.

FIRST GREEK READER.

Life of Horace, Notes, Vocabulary

Names, and Chronological Table.

VTRGILII MARONIS CARMINA.

Edited by Dr. Freund. and Vocabulary of Proper Names. 12mo, cloth.

NELSON AND SONS, LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK.

an abridgment of the Larger Latin Grammar

forming part of the same Series.

intend to prosecute classical

amount and kind of information considered

necessary for the age and requirements of such

matter, however, has been inserted

which may be omitted in the

earlier stages of instruc-

with more prufit be presented to the

students, whatever their ultimate object

should have a systematic view of the principles

which regulate the construction of Latin sentences, and of

In compliance with the wish of many teachers in Scotland,

illustrate satisfactorily the

many changes which

in the declension of Nouns, an unusually large

and clearness of arrangement,

of Latin present the facts and principles

Letters and Stllabi.es, I. The Letters, Sect.

Gbnder Number Case,

IV. Third Declension,

IV. Demonstrative Pronouns,

V. The Relative Pronoun,

VI. The Interrogative Pronouns,

The Ablative, ... X. The Infinitive, ... XI. The Supines,

XVII. Final Clauses, ... XVIII. Conditional Clauses,

138 139 140

XIX. Concessive Clauses, XX. Temporal Clauses,

XXIV. Sequence of Tenses,

Greek Nouns, The Calendar,

Roman Monet and Roman Names,

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR.

SECTION l.-THE LETTERS.

as the English, except that

"sound-producing") are six, a,

ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR.

without the help of a vowel, are either,

the organ by which they are pronounced,

Labials, or lip-letters ; Lingual Dentals, those uttered by apply-

ing the tongue to the teeth.

breathing employed in their utterance,

According to the degree of or sharp, interme-

light or sharp. intermediate.

double consonants, being equal,

to cs, or gs, sd or ds.