[FISIKA] bahan komposit (2)

Ihsan Hariadi Thu, 08 Jun 2000 11:30:21 -0700

***************************************************** MILIS FISIKA INDONESIA (MFI) INDONESIAN FORUM FOR PHYSICS AND PHYSICS MANAGEMENT *****************************************************

Dari guntingan tulisan dari sebuah diktat kuliah di bawah ini, info mungkin bisa kita peroleh, antara lain: -> "filosofi" bahan komposit, termasuk fakta bahwa di sekitar kita sebetulnya sudah tersedia bahan-bahan di alam yang bisa dikategorikan sebagai bahan komposit (bahan komposit alam). -> pentingnya struktur "serat (fiber)" sebagai bentuk yang banyak digunakan untuk komponen bahan "rangka"/ reinforcement bahan komposit -> beberapa jenis serat yang penting : glass fiber, carbon fiber, dan KEVLAR: serat polimer yang kuat sekali, merupakan bahan utama untuk baju / rompi anti peluru. Di samping tahan peluru, dikatakan juga anti tusukan. Kalau Kevlar nanti sudah begitu murah, mungkin bahan ban luar mobil juga bisa dilapisi kevlar, sehingga tahan tusukan paku ... (tapi kalau tukang tambal nanti jadi ndak laku gimana ya ... ;-) ) -> contoh penggunaan bahan komposit sebagai bahan biomedik, misalnya untuk gigi, atau prothesis (anggota tubuh buatan). hope you'll enjoy reading ... ;-) <http://www.courses.ahc.umn.edu/medicalschool/BMEn/5001/notes/composites.htm> xoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxo< ihsan> xoxoxoxoxoxo ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Introduction to Composite Materials ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

M. Arif Iftekhar BMEn 5001, 10/26/98 Note ----: The figures will be provided in a hand-out.

Objectives: ---------(o) (o) (o) (o) (o) (o) (o) What Why What What How What What are are are are are are are composite materials? composite materials significant? the common structural components? the various kinds of composite materials? composite materials of various kinds processed? some important structure property relationships? the concerns for medical applications?

Definition of composite materials: --------------------------------Practically everything is a composite material in some sense. For example, a common piece of metal is a composite (polycrystal) of many grains (or single crystals). The following is an operational definition for the purpose of this lecture: A composite material: --------------------> Consists of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct suitably arranged or distributed phases, with an an interface separating them. -> It has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the components in isolation Most commonly, composite materials have a bulk phase, which is continuous, called the matrix, and one dispersed, non-continuous, phase called the reinforcement. The concept of composite materials is ancient: to combine different materials to produce a new material with performance unattainable by the individual constituents. An example is adding straw to mud for building stronger mud walls. Some more recent examples, but before engineered materials became prominent, are carbon black in rubber, steel rods in concrete, cement/asphalt mixed with sand, fiberglass in resin etc.

In nature, examples abound: ----------------------------> a coconut palm leaf, -> cellulose fibers in a lignin matrix (wood) -> collagen fibers in an apatite matrix (bone) etc. The essence of the concept of composites is this: the bulk phase accepts the load over a large surface area, and transfers it to the reinforcement, which being stiffer, increases the strength of the composite. (fig.1) The significance here lies in that there are numerous matrix materials and as many fiber types, which can be combined in countless ways to produce just the desired properties. (fig. 11) Most research in engineered composite materials has been done since 1965. Today, given the most efficient design, of say an aerospace structure, a boat or a motor, we can make a composite material that meets or exceeds the performance requirements. Most of the savings are in weight and cost. These are measured in terms of ratios such as stiffness/weight, strength/weight, etc. Components of Composite Materials --------------------------------* Bulk phase: matrix materials Polymers Metals Ceramics * Reinforcement: fibers and particulate Glass Carbon Organic Boron Ceramic Metallic * Interface -------------------------------------------------------------Fibers ------

Reinforcements are not necessarily in the form of long fibers. They can be particles, whiskers, discontinuous fibers, sheets etc. A great majority of materials is stronger and stiffer in the fibrous form than in any other form. This explains the emphasis on using fibers in composite materials design. There are many naturally occurring fibers: cotton, flax, jute, hemp, ramie, wood, straw, hair, wool, silk etc., but these have varying properties, and present many processing challenges. Fibers used in advanced composites have very stiffness but low density. high strength and

They also should be very flexible (to allow a variety of methods for processing) and have high aspect ratio (length/diameter), that allows a large fraction of the applied to be transferred via the matrix to the fiber. Fibers are added to a ductile matrix (like polymers and metals) usually to make it stiffer, while fibers are added to a brittle matrix (like ceramics) to increase toughness. Glass fibers -----------1) The most common and inexpensive fiber used is glass usually for the reinforcement of polymer matrices. 2) Typical composition is 50-60% SiO2, and other Ca, Mg, Na, etc. oxides

fiber,

of

Al,

3) There are mainly three types of glass fibers: E, C, S a) b) c) E offers good electrical insulation C is resistant to chemical corrosion S has high silica content, and can withstand greater temperatures

4) 90% of all continuous glass fibers is of the E type. 5) "Sizing" is a treatment applied to glass fibers to protect the strands from surface defects, bind the filaments into a strand, and reinforce the interface bond to the matrix. It is usually based on PVAc and silane coupling agents. 6) Glass fibers are available as:

a) b) c) d)

Chopped strands Continuous yarn Roving Fabric sheets

7) Moisture decreases glass fiber strength. 8) Glass fibers are susceptible to static fatigue, i.e. cannot withstand static loads for long periods of time. 9) Properties: a) b) c) d) Density is quite low (~2.55 g/cc) Tensile strength is quite high (~1.8 GPa) Stiffness is, however, low (70 GPa) Therefore, whereas strength/density is high, stiffness /density is low. they

Carbon fibers ------------1) Carbon is a very light element, with density about 2.3 g/cc 2) The graphitic structure is preferred over crystalline forms for making fibers. (fig7) the diamond-like

3) Fibers are made by carbonization of precursor fibers, followed by graphitization at high temperature. The precursors are usually PAN (polyacrylonotrile) and Rayon, which are both textile polymers. (fig8) 4) Since the graphitic structure is made of densely packed hexagonal layers, stacked in a lamellar style, the mechanical and thermal properties are highly anisotropic. Controlling the orientation of the crystalline layers is a crucial issue. a) Young's modulus in the layer plane can be 1000 GPa, while that along the c-axis is equal to about 35 GPa. Carbon has excellent compression properties. b) Transverse CTE is 5.5 to 8.4E-06/K, while parallel CTE is -0.5 to -1.3E-06/K 5) Carbon fiber composites find wide applications in the aerospace and sporting goods industries. The ability to tailor

the required stiffness and strength properties of internal plates gives them a definite advantage over metallic parts

bone

6) Carbon fiber adds electrical conductive properties to composites. While this may be preferred where static charges need to be dissipated, it can cause corrosion problems, especially in proximity to metallic parts. Oriented organic fibers ----------------------1) Strong covalent bonds in polymers, if aligned long the fiber axis of high molecular weight chains, can lead to impressive properties. (fig 10) 2) Two examples are UHMPE (ultra high molecular weight polethylene) called Spectra, made by Allied Corp., and Kevlar made by DuPont. 3) Spectra is a very light fiber (denisty ~0.97 g/cc) made from gels and solution. It has a stiffness of about 200 GPa. Its primary disadvantage is its low melting point (around 150 Celsius), but this may not be an issue in biomedical applications. 4) Kevlar is an aramid (aromatic polyamide) composed of oriented aromatic chains, which makes them rigid rod-like polymers. (fig 9) It has a very high Tg and poor solubility. Since very concentrated acids are used in its processing, this can be an issue in biomedical applications if all acid residues are not extracted. Although very strong in tension, Kevlar has very poor compression properties. Its stiffness can be as high as 125 GPa. The fibers are mostly used to increase toughness in otherwise brittle matrices. Other fibers -----------1) Boron fibers are very brittle, very stiff and quite expensive. They are used in very high-end applications, and find little use in medical applications, where carbon fibers can provide the needed performance. 2) Ceramic fibers, such as Alumina and SiC (Silicon carbide) are advantageous in very high temperature applications, and also where environmental attack is an issue.

3) Metallic fibers, such as steel and tungsten, have high strengths and show very consistent properties, unlike ceramic fibers. Since density is very high for these fibers, they are rarely used to reduce weight in a composite. Drawing very thin metallic fibers (less than 100 micron) is also very expensive. --------------------------------------------------------------Matrix materials ---------------Polymers, metals and ceramic material structure and properties have been covered in previous lectures and will not be repeated here. --------------------------------------------------------------Interface --------1) The interface is a bounding surface or zone where a discontinuity occurs, whether physical, mechanical, chemical etc. 2) More often than not, the interface between fiber and matrix is rather rough, instead of ideal planar. (fig. 14) 3) The matrix material must "wet" the fiber. Coupling agents are frequently used to improve wettability. Well "wetted" fibers increase the interface surface area. 4) To obtain desirable properties in a composite, the applied load should be effectively transferred from the matrix to the fibers via the interface. This means that the interface must be large and exhibit strong adhesion between fibers and matrix. Failure at the interface (called debonding) may or may not be desirable. This will be explained later in fracture propagation modes. 5) Bonding with the matrix can be either forces or strong covalent bonds. weak van der Walls

6) The internal surface area of the interface can go as 3000 cm2/cm3. 7) Interfacial strength is measured by simple tests that

high

as

induce

adhesive failure between the fibers and the matrix. The most common is the Three-point bend test or ILSS (interlaminar shear stress test) -------------------------------------------------------------Fabrication of Composites ------------------------PMC (Polymer Matrix Composites) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Filament winding Pultrusion Compression molding Laminate stacking Wet flow methods (fig.17) (fig.18) (fig.21) (fig.22)

a) Injection molding (fig. 20) b) Resin transfer molding (fig.19) CMC (Ceramic Matrix Composites) 1) Usually a two-step process a) Incorporation of a reinforcing phase into an unconsolidated matrix b) Matrix consolidation 2) Several methods are common: c) Melt infiltration (fig. 23) d) Chemical vapor deposition/infiltration (CVD)(fig. 24) -------------------------------------------------------------Properties of Composites -----------------------We will consider the results of incorporating fibers in a matrix. The matrix, besides holding the fibers together, has the important function of transferring the applied load to the fibers. It is of great importance to be able to predict the properties of a composite, given the component properties and their geometric arrangement. 1) Isotropic vs. anisotropic

a) Fiber reinforced composite materials typically exhibit anisotropy. That is, some properties vary depending upon which geometric axis or plane they are measured along. b) For a composite to be isotropic in a specific property, such as CTE or Young's modulus, all reinforcing elements, wether fibers or particles, have to be randomly oriented. This is not easily achieved for discontinuous fibers, since most processing methods tend to impart a certain orientation to the fibers. One example is the classic Skin-Core-Skin pattern seen for injection molded short fiber composites. c) Continuous fibers in the form of sheets are usually to deliberately make the composite anisotropic in a particular direction that is known to be the principally loaded axis or plane. 2) Rule of Mixtures The Rule of Mixtures is a rough tool that considers the composite properties as volume weighted averages of the component properties. It is important to realize that this rule works accurately only in certain simple situations, such as determining composite density and elastic modulus (fig 6). For most other properties, this provides only a rough estimate for initial design purposes. Below are some equations derived for unidirectional continuous fiber composites. The derivations can be found in any introductory book on composite mechanics. The principle used is that in longitudinal direction, both fibers and matrix have the same strain (isostrain) and in transverse direction, both fibers and matrix have the same stress (isostress). The subscripts f, m, v and c refer to fiber, matrix, voids and composite respectively. The subscripts l and t refer to longitudinal and transverse respectively. E is the Young's Modulus, , and r (rho) is density. a (alpha) is the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Lowercase v refers to volume, whereas uppercase V refers to volume fraction (volume of a component divided by total volume). a. Density : ... (figure) used

b. Young's Modulus -> Longitudinal : ... (figure ..) -> Transverse : ... (figure ..)

c. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion -> Longitudinal : ... (figure ..) -> Transverse : ... (figure ..) 3) CTE mismatch Because of a difference in the thermal expansion properties of fibers and matrix, the composite is not allowed to deform uniformly under thermal stress, and this can lead to microcracking of the matrix and debonding at the interface. This is a particularly important concern in dental composite materials where thermal stresses are significant. 4) Interface, fracture propagation and toughness a) In a ductile matrix, like most polymers and metals, a strong interfacial bond is important, since the fibers carry most of the load in such matrices. Fibers tend to fail first, usually by cohesive failure through the fiber crosssection. This is because the fibers cannot strain as much as the matrix (e.g. carbon in epoxy). Cracks are few, and tend to propagate slowly. When the cracks hit the interface, strong interfacial bonds stop them (fig. 16). b) In a brittle matrix, like ceramics, the matrix carries most of the load, which is usually compressive (like in teeth or bone), and fibers are added only to increase toughness. That us, to increase the time to catastrophic failure by holeding the matrix together after cracking. Fibers here are more ductile than the matrix (e.g. glass in alumina) and the matrix fails first. As the cracks propagate and reach the interface, a weak interfacial bond is desired. This enhances debonding, and the cracks are not stopped, but deflected along the length of the fibers. This effectively delays the time it takes the cracks to propagate through the entire matrix, and thus increases toughness. (fig.15)

-------------------------------------------------------------Biomedical Issues ----------------1) A composite is made of two or more materials, and each individual component can elicit a different biological response. This complicates testing for biocompatibility since every additional material increases the requirements for approval under federal regulations. 2) Composite material processing for non-medical applications tends to involve strong solvents and reagents. Particularly in thermosetting matrices like epoxy and phenolics, considerable solvent residues are present. Modifying these processes for medical-grade implantable products is challenging. 3) The history of advanced composites is not very long, such that long-term concerns related to fatigue and corrosion are difficult to address. Biomedical Applications ----------------------The most successful applications of composite materials have been in the area of dental materials. This will be discussed further in the lecture on Orthopedic and Dental Applications. Common composites in this area are polyurethanes and ceramics impregnated with borosilicate glass fibers or particles.