The

Use of Non-Wheat Derived Flours in Baked Goods.

Food Science/Composition: FOS 4041 March 14, 2013
Matthew Thomas

n recent years, there has been a rise in gluten intolerances as well as Celiac disease patients which requires these individuals to exclude the gluten protein from their

diet. Gluten is a protein complex formed when wheat flour is exposed to water.1 (p339) Flour is defined as the product from milling anytime of grain.1 (p392) Wheat is the most common grain for milling because it is most favorable in baked products. When an alternative grain is milled into flour, the lack of gluten often yields a liquid batter rather than dough. When this dough is baked the product has a crumbling texture, odd color and other unfavorable baking quality properties2. As a result, there has been extensive scientific research to create flours that mimic the same favorable baking outcomes as wheat flour but using another grain that does not contain the gluten protein complex. A common alternative grain that is milled into flour to be used in baking are legumes. Legume flours consist of mug beans, soybeans, peas, lupins, lentils, and chickpeas. In this paper, the scope of legume flours will include soybean and chickpea.3, 4 Soy flour is derived from soybean that is either ground whole or defatted. Soybeans have been a staple crop in the Far East for centuries. Through agricultural advances, soybeans can be processed into flour and can be partially substituted with wheat four in a variety of baked goods. Soy flour is widely available and is a relatively inexpensive legume flour.5, 6 Chickpea flour is the main ingredient for traditional fermented foods of some Mediterranean cultures.7 Rice flour is a common form of non-wheat derived that is composed of broken rice grains that are milled or grounded into flour.8 A feature that makes rice flour unique is its hypoallergenic properties, its mild indistinct taste, and its white color2. Rice flours are traditionally found in baby foods, noodles and in many Asian cuisines.8 With a variety of alternatives grains being milled into flour and incorporated into baked goods, the outcomes differ greatly due to their

distinctive chemical and physical properties. In this paper, the chemical properties discussed are carbohydrate, protein, lipid, and fiber content. Our sensory organs such as eyes, mouth, and smell measure the physical properties of flours. In this paper, the physical properties examined include volume, color, and crumbs1 (p71-82). All of these properties will be compared to traditional wheat derived flour. The final portion of the paper will incorporate the findings of the chemical and physical properties of non-wheat derived flours and apply it to the dietetics practice. The purpose of writing this paper is to explain the effect of the physical and chemical properties of baked goods when non-wheat derived flours are used. 1. Chemical Properties: 1.1 Carbohydrate Content The macronutrient carbohydrate is the umbrella term for multiple types of carbohydrates found in non-wheat flours. A common form of carbohydrate found in legume flours is the polysaccharide: starch. A polysaccharide consists of thousands of glucose molecules forming either amylose or amylopectin of which are polymers from glucose.1 (p129) The form of polysaccharide found in legume flours is amylopectin.9 Amylopectin is composed of a linear backbone of 10-25 glucose units then branch. The glucose unties are bonded together by 1-4- -glucosidic linkages and 1,6- -glucosidic linkages.1 (p133) Their composition allows for minimal solubility which is has health promoting properties by lowering the glycemic index.3,4,7 According to Mohammed et.al whom conducted a study on the dough rheology and bread quality of wheat-chickpea flour blends, starch is the primary macronutrient found in legume flours consisting of 35-52% of the dry weight mass followed by fiber at 14.6-26.3% then protein at 18.5-30%.10

In comparison to legume fours, the amount of amylopectin found in rice flours is lower.11 In a study directed by Hasjim et.al, they tested the impact milling had on the starch/flour structure. There findings state that the starch structures may be related to the degradation of starch crystalline structure caused by the milling processes of rice flour. As a result, the disruption of the starch structure effects the gelatinization temperature which may act as a physical barrier for heat transfer.8 The starch content can be detected by the level of gelling due to the increased rate of gelatinization during baking2. Another macronutrient that differentiates between wheat flour and legume flour is protein. 1.2 Protein Content Protein is a macronutrient molecule composed of amino acids that are linked together by peptide linkages. Amino acids are considered the building blocks of protein due to their organic substances that containing a amino functional group, and a carboxyl amino group. The various sequences of amino acids exist in foods.1 (p281) Legume flours are increasingly being used in many countries because of its naturally good source of vegetable protein, have a low fat content and most importantly, include all nine of the essential amino acids required by humans. The essential amino acid content in soybean exceeds the amino acid requirements of children and adults, which confirms the protein quality. An amino acid found in legume flours and absent in wheat flours is the essential amino acid lysine.3,5,6,7,10,12 The legume flour that has the highest protein content is soybean.12 In a study conducted by Doxastakis et al., the aim of their study is to measure soybean, lupin and wheat flours and there effect on rheological properties. They discovered that soybean flour contain high amounts of the following amino acids: lysine, leucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and arginine which provide a balanced essential amino acid

profiles when consumed with cereals and other foods rich in sulphur-containing amino acids and tryptophan The amino acid profiles of legume flours are complementary to wheat flours when they are incorporated together. For example the legume flour lupin flour contains high amounts of lysine and low amounts of methionine whereas wheat flour has poor in lysine content and rather higher levels of sulphur-containing amino acids. Therefore integrating legume flours into wheat flour creates a blend that improves the nutritional value of bread.4,5 Coda et al. measured the concentration of free amino acid and amino acid derivatives (mg/kg) of wheat flour (WFB), non-conventional flour (NCB) and non-conventional flour sourdough (NCSB) breads in his study regarding the use of sourdough fermentation, pseudo-cereals and leguminous flours for the making of functional breads. There results showed that the amino acid lysine content in NCSB breads was 10 times higher than in WFB breads.7 However, only a fractioned amount of legume flours can be incorporated into wheat flours to prevent undesirable changes in the physical properties of the baked good including the color, texture, moisture, and volume.4 Some other non-wheat derived flours that contain the amino acid lysine are rice and buckwheat flour.2

In a study conducted by Chillo et.al, the aim was to determine the effects of incorporating 25% chickpea flour into semolina spaghetti measuring its cooking quality and glycemic impact. Due to the higher protein content in chickpea flours, the spaghetti sample containing a blend of chickpea flour was more firm than the control even though the cooking time for both samples were closely similar. This study show how chickpea flour can be incorporated into the traditional semolina wheat flour and promote healthy properties while not dramatically including sensory properties nor cooking time.3 In regards to using legume flours in baked

goods, the higher protein content results in a greater increase in water absorption versus baked goods solely containing wheat flours. This increase in water absorption leads to weakening the gluten network. 10 According to Mohammad et al. whom studied about dough rheology and the bread quality of wheat and chickpea flour blends. In this study, there were four samples to test the dough rheology and bread quality of wheat and chickpea flour blends. The first sample was the control containing 100% wheat flour, the second sample consisted of 90% wheat flour and 10% chickpea flour. The next sample comprised of 80% wheat flour and 20% chickpea flour. The final sample had only 70% wheat flour and 30% chickpea flour as illustrated in figure 1 below. This figure shows that an increase amount of chickpea flour in dough yields more stickiness hence making the dough tougher to handle. The stickiness of the dough is due to the greater gluten protein: glutenin found in legume flours. Notice that the addition of chickpea flour lead to a weakening of the gluten network even with the elevated glutenin. This confirms that the both gliadin and glutenin are equally critical for optimal gluten network development.10 In comparison to wheat flour, rice flour contains a greater amount of protein but not as much as legume flours. The correlation of protein content and water absorption still applies when baking with wheat flour.2
Figure 1: Dough surface characteristics containing different levels of chickpea flour (CF). (1) 100% WF; (2) 90% WF and 10% CF; (3) 80% WF and 20% CF; and (4) 70% WF and 30% CF.

Mohammed I, Ahmed AR, Senge B. Dough rheology and bread quality of wheatchickpea flour blends. Industrial Crops and Products. 2012;36(1):196-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.09.006 Assessed March 13, 2013.

 1.3 Lipid Content Lipids are organic compounds composed of a glycerol backbone and a varying fatty acid chain.1 (p237) The lipid content of legume flours (with the exception of mug bread and lentil flour) is greater than wheat flour.3,12 The lipid content of flour controls the gelatinization rate as well as the peak viscosity of a baked product. In legume flours, the increased lipid content lower the maximum peak as well as lowering the gelatinization rate which. In baking, the high lipid content along with the low starch content of legume flours lowers gelatinization rate. The decrease in peak viscosity is due to lipids forming a complex with amylose that results in lowering peak viscosity.3 On the other hand, rice flours, whom composition is higher in carbohydrate contains higher maximum peak torques and gelatinization rates than other flours.12 1.4 Fiber Content Fiber, most commonly found in plant foods, is the combination of materials in foods that cannot be freely digested. Fiber is classified into two categories, soluble and insoluble. Soluble fibers are capable of being partially digested thus providing some energy. Insoluble fibers are non-digestible fibers that are excreted from the body it is full form.1 (p223) Both types of fiber have been shown to have multiple health benefits thus needs to be increasingly integrated into the Western diet. Dietary fiber content in legume and rice flours is greater than wheat flour.10 In a study directed by Veluppillai et al. shows that malted rice flour bread contained more soluble fiber, insoluble fiber, and total fiber than wheat flour bread. Even though there are many beneficial health properties to fiber, the presence of fiber in flours may inhibit

carbohydrate absorption.11 The chemical properties of legume and rice flours do not only impact the nutritive properties of backed goods but the physical properties are also influenced as well. 2. Physical Properties 2.1 Volume According to research team of Miarro et al. the loaf specific volume is considered as

one of the most important gauges in evaluating bread quality since it provides quantitative measurements of baking properties.13 The volume of foods is established by seed displacement.1 (p71) When legume flours are integrated or substituted with wheat flour, the volume of the baked good decreases.4, 5,6,7,10,13 A study orchestrated by Gmez et al. measured the cake quality made of wheat/chickpea flours showed that the cake volume condenses as the chickpea flour percentage rises in both layer and sponge cakes tested.4 In the study regarding the dough rheology and bread quality of wheat/chickpea flour blends carried out by Mohammad et al. also found that the volume of the control bread sample was significantly higher than the samples containing chickpea flour. As the level of chickpea supplementation increased, the loaf volume of the breads gradually decreased as illustrated in figure 2 below.10 The reduced volume of baked goods is a result of starch gelatinization occurring at low temperatures as well as the increased fiber, and protein content found in legume flour.4

Figure 2: Loaf volume, crust color and crumb structure of breads containing different levels of chickpea flour (CF) (1) 100% WF; (2) 90% WF and 10% CF; (3) 80% WF and 20% CF; and (4) 70% WF and 30% CF.

Mohammed I, Ahmed AR, Senge B. Dough rheology and bread quality of wheatchickpea flour blends. Industrial Crops and Products. 2012;36(1):196-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.09.006 Assessed March 13, 2013.

Given the chemical properties of legume flour yielding a lower volume product. Studies have been implemented to view possible solutions of increasing the volume of a baked good without compromising the amount of legume flour. Shogren et al. states in their study that a possible solution to increase the loaf volume of breads containing soy flour is to treat the dough by adding gluen, oxidants such as bromate, ascorbic acid, and surfactants such as sodium steroyl lactylate.6 Another solution to increase volume is to increase water levels in the dough. A study conducted by Doxastakis et al. concluded that, the supplying more water would lead to greater water absorbed yielding in a greater bread volume. However, this increased water amount in dough cannot be applicable because of the workability of the dough becomes impaired thus making the dough non-manageable.5, 10 Interesting enough, the increased water absorption chickpea flours require does not alter the product weight. This information was determined in a study specifically focusing on baked cakes.4 Another alternative to lessen the effect of chickpea flour on the volume of baked goods is the type of chickpea flour used. According to Gmez et al., the volume changes are minimized if white chickpea flours are used

instead of whole chickpea flours. Although legume flours in baked goods yield a lower volume baked product, chickpea flour has the highest specific volume of the popular legume flours shown in figure 3 below. The chickpea protein flour offerings a higher foam expansion and stability values compared to the other popular legume flours proteins like pea and soybean protein.4, 13
Figure 3: Digital images of legume flour gluten-free breads.

Miarro B, Albanell E, Aguilar N, Guamis B, Capellas M. Effect of legume flours on baking characteristics of gluten-free bread. J Cereal Sci. 2012;56(2):476-481. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2012.04.012 Assessed March 13, 2013.

Rice flour in baked goods decreases the product volume due to hydrocolloid content. In rice flour, hydrocolloids improve the dough development and gas retention leading to the increase in dough stickiness, hence producing breads with higher specific volume.9 According to Lazaridou et al., the volume of breads made with rice flour increased with addition of hydrocolloids at 1% supplementation level (except xanthan gum and pectin) versus the control 100% wheat flour sample. However, when the hydrocolloid concentration increased from 1% to 2%, bread volume was reduced occurred (excluding pectin). 2 A possible loophole in avoiding the decreased volume of breads without changing the rice flour content is to supplement 2g of margarine per 100g of flour. According to Veluppillai et al., the specific volume increased only up a threshold fat level of 20 g/kg of flour, beyond that threshold the specific volume decreased

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and the bread's texture was sticky. Therefore, including more fat will raise the fat threshold level that will allow the bread to continue to rise.11 Manipulating the amount and type of hydrocolloid has shown to increase bread volume as well. According to Sciarini et al., the addition of carrageenan made with 75% water incorporation resulted in the highest specific bread volume among tested hydrocolloid samples. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), xanthan gum, and algin fortification showed the same specific bread volume as the 100% wheat flour control bread.9 2.2 Color Color is a physical property that food manufactures place a heavy emphasis on because

it is the one property that people are able to evaluate before purchasing/consuming. In baked goods the incorporation of legume flour yield in a rich, more concentrated colors resulting from the Maillard reaction and sugar caramelization occurring while baking.4,7,10 The Maillard reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which non-enzymatic browning occurs when a protein and sugar are heated or stored together for some time 1 p145. As a result of the increased protein (and amino acids) content found in legume flours is responsible for this chemical reaction to occur. Sugar caramelization is another chemical reaction which monosaccharaides are fragmented into a variety of compounds including organic acids, aldehydes, and ketones resulting from the use of intense heat1 p144. Sugar caramelization occurs in all baked goods despite the flours used but baked goods containing legume flours will have both of these chemical reactions occurring. 4,7,10 The amount and type of legume flours applied also determines the color intensity in baked goods. According to Chillo et al., the incorporation of 10% of legume flours did not significantly alter the product color compared with the 100%

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wheat flour control.3 Breads made with soybean flour received the highest approval rating versus the other legume flours show in figure 3 on page 10.13 2.3 Crumbs The incorporation of chickpea flour alters the crumb color of the baked good. The

substitution of chickpea in baked goods produces a redder and more yellow crumb color. As the amount of chickpea flour in a baked good increase, the greater deeper red/yellow crumb color appears after baking. The absence of gluten network as well as the increased protein content is responsible for the heavier and tougher crumb found in baked goods make with legume and/or rice flours.10 An possible way to avoid this unfavorable crumb composition is enhancing the dough with hydrocolloids. The fusion of hydrocolloids and legume flour dough allows the hydrocolloids to reduce the moisture loss during storage that delays staling thus making the crumbs hard and lose moisture.9 3. Other Types of Non-Wheat Derived Flour Similar to legume and rice flours, buckwheat flour has greater protein content and a different array of amino acids versus wheat flour. The amino acid lysine is also present in buckwheat flour in greater amounts versus rice flour, but lesser amounts then legume flour.14 Buckwheat flour also follows the same trend as the previously mention flours regarding a higher protein and fiber content. The increase amounts of fiber (cellulose) in buckwheat flour leads to a longer water absorbing time hence requires longer dough development time the rhenological, textural and sensory properties of gluten free bread formation using rice and buckwheat flour blend was studied by Torbica et al. In this study, they tested both husked and un-husked buckwheat flour blended with rice flour in bread making. The focus of this paper was

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to prepare a gluten-free product that contained rice and buckwheat flour that is known as nutritionally improved flour blend. The increase the buckwheat flours content lead to greater weakening of protein network. This is due to the decrease in protein quality in both husked and un-husked buckwheat flours. Some benefits of utilizing buckwheat flour and rice flour are the end product of an optimal rheological profile. Buckwheat flour has lower lipid and protein content is associated with a higher peak viscosity that leads to higher starch swelling. This study concluded that the increase in the ratio of buckwheat flour to rice flour did not significantly affect the textural properties of the bread. Therefore, gluten-free bread containing higher amount of nutritionally valuable buckwheat flour could be produced without affecting the textural properties of the product.15 It is still important to note than when working with buckwheat flour that the protein quality decreases as the buckwheat flour amount increases. The decease in protein quality is evident when cracked surfaces appear on the upper crust of gluten-free products2.
Figure 4: Upper surface crust appearance and breadcrumb structure of the final gluten-free products. KEY: Husked Buckwheat Flour (HBF) Un-husked Buckwheat Flour (UBF)

Torbica A, Hadnaev M, Dapevi T. Rheological, textural and sensory properties of gluten-free bread formulations based on rice and buckwheat flour. Food Hydrocoll [serial online]. 2010;24(67):626-632. Available at: http://linksource.ebsco.com/FullText.aspx?linkout=https%3a%2f%2flogin.dax.lib.unf.edu%2flogin%3furl%3dhttp%3a%2f%2f dx.doi.org%2f10.1016%2fj.foodhyd.2010.03.004 Accessed March 13, 2013.

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4. Application to Practice In the field of nutrition and dietetics, acquiring a fundamental education about gluten

and its function in foods, health and how the absence of gluten in foods alters its baking properties it critical. The role of replacing gluten presents a major challenge due to its functions as a structure-building protein, contributing to the volume, color and crumb structure of many baked products. The gluten complex in baked goods dictates the important rheological characteristics of dough, such as the elasticity, extensibility, resistance to stretch, mixing tolerance, and gas-holding ability.2 It is also imperative that dietitians know the chemical and physical properties of the common substitutes for wheat flour in baked goods. According to Hadnaev, et al., wheat is considered one of the most common grains use for bread making however Bread prepared from wheat flour is considered to be nutritionally poor.12 With the growing number of research and non-wheat derived flours such as legume, rice and buckwheat flours, dietitians are able to enhance the nutrient content of baked goods by creating blends of wheat and non-wheat flours to achieve the expected physical properties as well as including some additional nutrition. Torbica et al. says rice flour is becoming increasingly popular wheat flour alternative for the preparation of foods for wheat-intolerant, celiac patients or wheat allergen patience. They suggest that rice flour is the most practical cereal grain flour alternative for the preparation of foods due to its indistinguishable taste, white color, and hypoallergenic properties.15 Legume is another wheat alternative flour that has additional health promoting characteristics including low glycemic index, providing additional energy, dietary fiber, proteins, minerals, and vitamins when compared to wheat flour.3 For example, if a client is looking to improve there protein and/or is lacking in sufficient amino acid

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intake, incorporating legume flours into wheat flours to create a blend to yield a product that will look and taste as the clients envisions as well as containing a greater protein and lysine content in the baked good.12 In union of rice flours and wheat flours as a blend provide a low the glycemic index of a baked good which is a pertinent health promoting property.11 5. Conclusion In conclusion, the gluten protein complex found in wheat flour is the backbone in

the yield of a good quality baked goods. However due to the rise in gluten intolerant, celiac and wheat allergen patents, further research is continually being conducted to study non- wheat flour alternatives that will successfully achieve the functions of gluten while resulting in a products that looks, feel and taste like a food product made with traditional wheat flour. This paper analyzed the chemical and physical properties of common non- wheat flour alternatives including legume flours, rice flour and buckwheat flours. The analyzed results were compared to wheat flour. The chemical properties of flour examined were carbohydrate, protein, lipids and fiber. Legume and rice fours primary macronutrient is carbohydrate. The carbohydrate found was mostly in the form of amylose that is effective in reducing the glycemic index, a property not found in wheat-derived flours. The protein content of legume and rice flours are also higher in comparison to wheat derived flours and include the full essential amino acid profile. Too much of these protein-rich flours will lead to undesirable outcomes in baked goods. The augment amounts of lipids in both the non- wheat derived flours lower the gelatinization rate and the peak viscosity of baked goods. This is an unfavorable property in food preparation. Higher amounts of fiber are found in these non-wheat derived flours that is beneficial for digestive health but is not ideal in food preparation because fiber inhibits carbohydrate absorption. All of these chemical

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properties influence the physical properties of flours that include volume, color and crumbs. In baked goods, as the substitution rate of legume and rice flour increases, the volume of the end product decreases due to the increase in protein and hydrocolloid content. Research is being performed to find alternative additives to dampen this effect. The color tones of baked goods made with legume and rice flours are darken due to the Maillard and sugar caramelization chemical reactions occurring during baking. The crumb composition of gluten free baked goods is often harder as a result of the accelerated stalling rate versus wheat-derived baked goods. The chemical and physical properties of non- wheat derived flours falls within the scope of the dietetic practice. Knowing the chemical, physical, and health properties of wheat-derived fours containing gluten and the common non-wheat derived flours including legume, rice and buckwheat flours is critical when working with client based on their health needs and recommendations.

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9. Sciarini LS, Ribotta PD, Len AE, Prez GT. Incorporation of several additives into gluten free breads: Effect on dough properties and bread quality. J Food Eng [serial online]. 2012;111(4):590- 597. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0260877412001434 Accessed March 13, 2013. 10. Mohammed I, Ahmed AR, Senge B. Dough rheology and bread quality of wheatchickpea flour blends. Industrial Crops and Products [serial online]. 2012;36(1):196-202. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926669011003815 Accessed March 13, 2013. 11. Veluppillai S, Nithyanantharajah K, Vasantharuba S, Balakumar S, Arasaratnam V. Optimization of bread preparation from wheat flour and malted rice flour. Rice Science [serial online] . 2010;17(1):51-59. Available at: https://login.dax.lib.unf.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=e dselp&AN=S1672630808601043&site=eds-live Accessed March 13, 2013. 12. Hadnaev TD, Torbica A, Hadnaev M. Rheological properties of wheat flour substitutes/alternative crops assessed by mixolab. Procedia Food Science [serial online]. 2011;1(0):328-334. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211601X11000526 Accessed March 13, 2013. 13. Miarro B, Albanell E, Aguilar N, Guamis B, Capellas M. Effect of legume flours on baking characteristics of gluten-free bread. J Cereal Sci [serial online]. 2012;56(2):476-481. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073352101200094X Accessed March 13, 2013. 14. Merdel B, Pollak L, Novotni D, et al. Improvement of gluten-free bread quality using transglutaminase, various extruded flours and protein isolates. Journal of Food & Nutrition Research [serial online]. 2012;51(4):242-253. Available at: https://login.dax.lib.unf.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a 9h&AN=84015213&site=eds-live Accessed March 13, 2013. 15. Torbica A, Hadnaev M, Dapevi T. Rheological, textural and sensory properties of gluten-free bread formulations based on rice and buckwheat flour. Food Hydrocoll [serial online]. 2010;24(6 7):626-632. Available at: http://linksource.ebsco.com/FullText.aspx?linkout=https%3a%2f%2flogin.dax.lib.unf.edu%2flogin %3furl%3dhttp%3a%2f%2fdx.doi.org%2f10.1016%2fj.foodhyd.2010.03.004 Accessed March 13, 2013.

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