Psychology Notes Units 1

Chapter 1: Evolution of Psychology Philosophy, Physiology, Psychology o Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato considered and debated issues of relevance to psychology Separation of mind and body and whether knowledge is innate or gained through experience o Impact of philosophy on development of ideas about mind, behaviour, and human nature continued as classic philosophy developed through Renaissance, post Renaissance, and Associationism o Descartes: Dualism of mind and body Both separate and fundamentally different Memory, perception, dreaming and emotions were properties of bodies One of his most important legacies to psychology Fact that humans are part of nature o William Harvey showed empirical demonstration in 1687 Blood circulation was a function of the heart o More scientists showed important insights can be gained by empirical methods New science is born: Contribution of Wundt and Hall o Wilhelm Wundt ( German Professor) Campaigned to make psychology independent discipline rather than a step child of philosophy/ physiology Intellectual climate around at the time favoured Wundts approach In 1867 he established the first formal lab for psych research at the University of Leipzig o Regarded as the date of birth of psychology 1881 first journal devoted to publishing research Known as the founder of psychology Declared psychology should be modelled after fields such as physics/chemistry Psychologys primary focus was consciousness awareness of immediate experience Scientific study of consciousness experience Most use scientific methods to investigate the mind o G Stanley Hall Contributor to rapid growth of psych in USA Americans first lab at John Hopkins University in 1883 Americans first psychology journal in 1887 He was the driving force to establishment of American Psychology Association, and was the first president of it The battle of Schools: Structuralism vs. Functionalism o Structuralism emerged through leadership of Edward Titchener

Based on notion that task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related Wanted to identify/examine the fundamental components of consciousness experience ( sensations, feelings, images) Most work concerned sensation and perception in vision, hearing, and touch Depend on methods of introspection careful, systematic self-observation of ones own conscious experience Required training to make the subject (person being studied) more objective and more aware Once trained, subjects were typically exposed to auditory tones, optical illusions, and visual stimuli o Asked to analyze what they experience Limitations associated with the use of introspection were a factor that contributed to the demise of structuralism o Functionalism Based on belief that psychology should investigate the function/purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure William James (American Scholar) Emergence of functionalism Wrote Principles of Psychology He was impressed by Charles Darwins concept of natural selection o typical characteristics of a species must serve some purpose Noted consciousness important characteristics of our species Consciousness continuous flow of thoughts o Structuralism looked at a static point of flow, James wanted to understand the flow stream of consciousness Structuralists gravitated to the laboratory Functionalists more interested in how people adapt their behaviour to the demands of the real world Introduce new subjects into psychology o Mental testing, developmental patterns in children, effectiveness of educational practices, behavioural differences b/w the senses o Attracted the first women into psychology o Who won the fight? Most say functionalism, both however faded away, but functionalism developed behaviourism and applied psychology Watsons Alters Psychology Course As Behaviourism Makes Its Debut o Early 1900s John Watson Behaviourism: theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour Proposing psychology should abandon study of consciousness altogether Redefining what scientific psychology is all about

Believed scientific method rested on verifiability by people willing to make proper observations Depends on things that can be studied objectively For him mental processes were not a proper subject for a scientific study because they are ultimately private events cant see/touch others thoughts Therefore if psych were to be a science it had to give up consciousness, take up science of behaviour only observable response/activity by an organism Believed in nurture, not nature Behaviourists view psychs mission to relate behaviour ( response) to observable environment (stimuli) Behaviourisms stimulus-response (S-R) contributed to animal research in psychology No longer need for human subjects Researchers can better control the subjects In Germany, opposition came from Gestalt\s psychology Study conscious experience rather than behaviour In Austria, Sigmund Freud Contemplating mysteries of unconscious mental processes Freud brings the unconscious into the picture o Treated people with psychology problems with innovative processes he called psychoanalysis o Believed unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below surface of conscious awareness but they still exert great influence on behaviour o Psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflict existing at an unconscious level Psychoanalysis theory attempts explaining personality, motivation, mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behaviour o Resistance of theory in psych Conflicted with the spirit of the time in psychology If consciousness inaccessible to scientific observation how would unconsciousness be Eventually psychoanalytic ideas did gain notoriety Skinner Questions Free Will as Behaviourism Flourishes o He was influenced by Watsons methodological behaviourism and by Pavlovs work on conditional reflexes o Developed radical behaviourism Did not deny existence of internal/mental events o Environmental factors mould behaviour o Organisms tend to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes and vice versa Can make animals perform unnatural behaviours, and can apply this to complex human behaviour Humanists Revolt

1950s behaviourism and psychoanalytic most influential schools of thought in psych Many psychologists found them unappealing They were dehumanizing o Psychoanalytic attack behaviours dominated by primitive sexual urges o Behaviourism study of simple animal behaviour o Diverse opposition to them led to new theory called humanism Theoretical orientation that emphasizes uniqueness of humans (freedom and potential for personal growth) Had optimistic views of human nature o Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are big contributors o To fully understand peoples behaviour psychologists must take into account human drive towards personal growth Innovative treatments for psychological problems Psychology in Canada o James Mark Baldwin created first experimental lab in British Empire at University of Toronto Psychology Comes of Age as a Profession o Many psychologists provide service to public Applied psychology concerned with practical problems o First was clinical psychology Diagnosis/treatment of psychological disorders Rose due to the need of clinicians in world war 2 Soldiers having too much trauma o Today there are many Areas of Psychology Psychology Returns to its Roots: Renewed Interest in Cognition and Physiology o Today psychologists renewing interest in consciousness Now called cognition Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge o Jean Piaget focus is study of childrens cognitive development o Noam Chomsky new interest in psychological underpinnings of language o Cognitive theorists argue psychology must study integral mental events to fully understand behaviour o Cognitive Perspective: Peoples manipulation of mental image surely influences how they behave Focusing on overt behaviour doesnt fully explain why individuals behave as they do Some say cognitive perspective has become dominant perspective in contemporary psychology o Donald Hebb important figure Importance of physiological and neuropsychological perspectives Argued locus of behaviour should be sought in the brain Introduced concept of cell assembly Repeated stimulation leads to development of cell assemblies

Resemble cognitive units that together on in concert with other cell assemblies facilitate behaviour His ideas suggested how neural networks might work/ be organized Now there is a high interest in neuroscience approach to psychology Now there is a concern for how we use information concerning our brain/connections to behaviour o Called neuroethics Psychology Broadens its Horizons: Increased Interest in Cultural Diversity o Psychology largely a western enterprise Mainly middle/upper class white males 1) cross cultural research costly, difficult, and time consuming 2)Some psychologists worry cultural comparisons may inadvertently foster stereotypes of various cultural groups 3) Ethnocentrism (view ones group as superior to others) o However, neglect of cultural variables has diminished value of some works o Civil rights movement, womens movement, gay rights movement All raised doubts whether psychology had dealt adequately with human diversity o Also the world is more connected now than it used to be o Canada is more diverse o Today, more western psychologists are broadening their horizons and incorporating cultural factors into their theories Study underrepresented groups how culture transmits through socialization practices how culture colours ones view of the world How people cope with cultural change How cultural groups are affected by prejudices, discrimination, and racism Psychology Adapts: The emergence of evolutionary psychology o Behavioural processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations o Able to explain gender differences in human behaviour based on need to meet adaptive pressures faced by our ancestors Psychology Moves in a Positive Direction: The positive Psychology Movement o Martin Seligmen :psychology needlessly negative New approach positive psychology movement psych devoted attraction to pathology, weakness, damage, and ways to heal suffering Neglect of forces that make life worth living Positive Psychology: better understanding of the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence 1) Study positive subjective experiences (happiness, love, gratitude, contentment hope) 2) Positive individual traits ( personal strengths and virtues) Origin of traits courage, perseverance, tolerance, creativity, integrity, kindness

3) Positive Institutions and Communities How societies can foster civil discourses, strong families, healthy work environments, and supportive neighbourhood communities

Chapter 2: The Research Enterprise in Psychology Goals of the Scientific Enterprise: o 3 Sets of interrelated goals 1) Measurement and Description Observation requires investigator to figure out how to measure phenomenon understudy Make it possible to describe behaviour clearly and precisely 2) Understanding and Prediction Make/test a hypothesis to evaluate their understandings Relationship between 2/more variables o Any measureable conditions/ events/ characteristics observed in a study 3) Application and Control Scientists hope for some practical use of their knowledge o Can control a phenomenon once you understand it o Construct theory to build a better understanding of behaviour System of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations Leap from description of behaviour to an understanding of behaviour Must be testable (empirical) Usually test 1 or 2 hypotheses derived from a thesis If their observations supports hypothesis the theory grows stronger Steps In a Scientific Investigation o 1) Formulate a testable hypothesis Expressed as predictions Must be formulated precisely Variables clearly defined Providing operational definitions of relevant variables Operational definitions describes actions/operations that will be used to measure/control variables o 2) Select the research methods of design study Depends on nature of questions under study Each method has advantages/disadvantages Experiments, case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, etc. Have to select the right participants Persons/animals whose behavior systematically observed in a study o 3) Collect Data Researchers use various data collection techniques

Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements o 4) Analyze Data and Draw Conclusions Observations converted to numbers Raw data of study Use statistics to analyze their data Has hypothesis been supported? o 5) Report Findings Scientific progress only if researchers share their findings Write concise summary of study and its findings Report delivered at scientific meetings and submitted to a journal for publications Periodical that publishes technical/scholarly material Allows other experts to evaluate/criticize new research findings And find flaws in a study Results can be discarded Weeds out erroneous findings Advantages of the Scientific Approach o 1) provides clarity and precision Requires people specify exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypothesis Enhances communication about important ideas o 2) relative intolerance of error Scientists are skeptical Subject ideas to empirical tests Scrutinize one anothers findings 2 studies cant conflict o Scientific approach tends to yield more accurate and dependable info o Research methods consists of various approaches to observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in an empirical study 2 Basic types 1) Experimental Research Method 2) Descriptive/ Correlational Research Methods Experimental Research Methods o Investigator manipulates one variable under controlled conditions, observes whether changes occur in a second variable o Independent and Dependent Variables Purpose to find out if one variable has an effect on other how x affects y X=independent o Condition/event experimenter varies to see impact on another variable Y=dependent

Thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable Experimental and Control Groups 2 groups treated differently with regard to independent variables Experimental Group o Receives special treatment in regard to independent variables Control Group o Doesnt receive special treatment Control and experimental groups must be alike Except for their variations which are due to independent variables Extraneous Variables Impossible to ensure that two groups 100% alike Have to only be alike on dimensions relevant to the dependent variable Experimenters try to ensure the two groups alike on a limited number of variables that could have bearing results on studies o Called extraneous variables o any other variable that the independent variable that seems likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study Confounding variables occur when two variables linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects o If extraneous variables is confounded with independent variable, researcher cannot tell which is having what effect on the dependant variables To control for extraneous variables, subjects are assigned to experimental and control groups randomly o This is so that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group/condition Variations in Designing Experiments Some experiments conducted with simple design One independent variable and one dependent variable Many variations possible in conducting experiments 1) sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as their own control group o Expose group to 2 different conditions o Experimental conditions and control conditions o Called a within subject design (comparisons made within same group of participants) o Requires fewer people o Ensures both groups are equivalent

2)Possible to manipulate more than one independent variable in a single experiment o Researchers often manipulate 2 or 3 independent variables o Advantage permits experimenter to see whether 2 variables interact effects of one variable depends on effect of another 3)Possible to use more than one dependent variable in a single study o To get more complete picture of how experimental manipulations affects subjects behaviour Disadvantages Experiments often artificial, require great precise control researchers make simple situations to test their hypothesis This creates doubts (can be fixed by field experiments) Cant be used to explore research questions Example psychologists interested in effects of facts that cant be manipulated as independent variables due to ethical/practical reasons

Advantages Permits conclusions about cause/effect relationships between variables no other method can do this Field experiments like real life, researcher can sacrifice control over extraneous variables for greater generalizability Some think field experiments prove better results than artificial, others dont Best to actually use both artificial and field experiments

Descriptive/ Correlational Research o Include naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys Cannot manipulate variables under study Therefore these methods cant be used to demonstrate cause/effect relationships between variables Can only describe patterns of behaviour and discover links/associations between variables o Naturalistic Observations: Researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour with intervening directly with research subjects/ participants Behaviour unfolds naturally in natural environment Allows researchers to study behaviour in less artificial conditions Good starting point when little is known about the study Problem trouble making observations unobtrusively so they dont affect their subjects behaviour Reactivity occurs when a subjects behaviour is altered by presence of an observer Often difficult to translate naturalistic observations into numerical data o Case Studies In depth investigations of an individual subject

Surveys Questionnaires/interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants behaviour Used to gather information of an important social issue On aspects of behaviour that are difficult to observe directly Relatively easy to collect data on attitudes / opinions Bad because they depend on self-report data Can be distorted by intentional deception, wishful thinking Also bad due to possible sampling bias

Psychological autopsies = victims of suicide Info gained variously Interviewing subjects Interviewing people close to subject Observing subject Examining record Psychological testing Clinical psychologists routinely do case studies Case study research= analysis of past case studies to look for pattern that permit conclusions Good for investigation certain phenomena ( psychological disorders) Provide real life illustrations Lead to hypothesis/ theory Bad because they are highly subjective

Advantages/ Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research Advantages Way to explore questions that cant be examined with experimental procedures They broaden scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study Disadvantages Cant isolate cause and effect Cant demonstrate conclusions that 2 variables are casually related

Looking For Conclusions: Statistics and Research: o Statistics use of math to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data o Essential to understand and draw conclusions from research o Descriptive Statistics: Used to organize and summarize data Include measure of central tendency, measure of variability, and coefficient of correlation 1) Central tendency o Median, mode, mean o Lack of agreement occurs when a few extreme scores pull mean away from centre of distribution

Frequency polygon line figure used to present data from frequency distribution orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score/ group of scores o Skewed distribution Negative if scores pile up at high end Positive if scores pile up at low end These occur when few extreme scores pull the mean away from the mode 2) Variability o Refers to how much scores in a data set vary from each other and from mean o Several Measures Simplest is the range ( highest score minus lowest score) Limited in its usefulness Standard Deviation Index of amount of variability in a set of data When variability is low, SD = Low, and vice versa Useful in understanding normal distribution o Symmetrical bell shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population o Most scores fill near centre o Percentile scores Indicates % of people who score at or below a particular score 3) Correlation o Exists when two variables related to each other o Correlation coefficient=numerical index of degree of relationship between 2 variables Indicates 1) direction of relationship ( + or - ) and 2) how strong the two variables are related + Correlation = one goes up as the other goes up, or if one goes down as the other goes down - correlation = one goes up as the other goes down o If correlation is negative then there must be a - in front of the coefficient o Strength of the Correlation Size of the coefficient = Strength Coefficient can be from 0 +1.00 and 0-1.00 o

o o Inferential Statistics: Used to interpret data and draw conclusions Can the data be used to support hypothesis When statistics show results probably not due to chance, results are statistically significant Exists when probability that observed data is due to chance is very low o Very low if there is 5% chance Looking For Flaws: Evaluating Research: o Published research not always free of errors o Important to see if key findings will stand test of replication Repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results can be duplicated Identify/ purge erroneous findings o Meta-Analysis: Combo of statistical results of many studies of same questions, yielding an estimate of the size/consistency of a variables effects o Sampling Bias Sample = collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study Population = larger collection of animals/ people that researcher wants to generalize about Sampling bias = when sample not representative of population o Placebo Effects Placebo = substance resembling drug but has no pharmacological effects Placebo effect occurs when participants expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffective treatment o Distortions In Self Report Data Social desirability bias Tendency to give socially approved answers to question about oneself Response set Tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the question o Experimenter Bias Scientists strive for objectivity Most have an emotional investment in the outcome of their research Occurs when a researchers expectations/preferences about the outcome of a study influences the results obtained seeing what they want to see Can be neutralized with double blind procedure Research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups

If its close to 0 there is little relationship, if it is lose to +1/-1 there is a stronger relationship Correlation does not tell us cause and effect relationship

Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behaviour

Nervous Tissue: The Basic Hardware o Nervous system is living tissue composed of cells Cells in nervous system fall into 2 major categories: Glia and Neurons Neurons: Individual cells in nervous system that receive, integrate and transmit information o Allow for communication o Small minority receive signals from outside the nervous system (from sensory organs) or carry messages from the nervous system to muscles that move the body o Soma (cell body) contains cell nucleus and chemical machinery common to most cells o Dendrites part of a neuron specialized to receive information Neurons receive information from many cells so they have extensive dendrite trees o Axon long thin fibre that transmits signal away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands o Myelin sheath insulating material derived from glial cells that encase some axons in humans Speeds up transmission of signals Multiple sclerosis due to degeneration of myelin sheaths o Terminal buttons axon ends, which are small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters They serve as messengers that can activate neighbouring neurons o Synapse the point at which nerves interconnect , the junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another Glial Cells o Cells found throughout the nervous system o Provide various support for nerves o Supply nourishment, remove neuron waste products o Provide insulation around many axons Myelin sheaths o Also orchestrate development of nervous system in human embryos o Important role in memory formation o Bulk of information processing done by neurons o Neuron at Rest: A tiny Battery Hodkin and Huxley learned neural impulse is a complex electrochemical reaction Inside and outside neuron are fluids containing electrically charged atoms and molecules called ions Cell membrane is semi permeable Permits movement of some ions

+ charged Na and K ions and Cl ions flow back and forth across cell membrane they dont cross at the same rate This difference in rate leads to slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell o Resulting voltage means neuron at rest is a tiny battery (source of potential energy) o Resting potential of a neuron s its stable, negative charge when cell is inactive

Action Potential When a neuron is stimulated, + Na ions are let in Nerves charge is less negative Action potential = brief shift in a neurons electrical charge that travels along an axon Reflected in the voltage spike After firing of action potential, channels in cell membrane open to let sodium ions in Some time needed before they can open again, until then neuron cant fire Absolute refractory period minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin Followed by relative refractory period Neuron can fire but threshold for firing is elevated More intense stimulation is required to initiate an action potential o All or None Law Either neuron fires or not Weaker stimuli do not produce smaller action potential, they produce nothing The Synapse: Where Neurons Meet o Neural impulse functions as a signal Must be transmitted from the neuron to other cells Takes place at synapses which depend on chemical messengers o Sending Signals: Chemicals as Couriers: Neurons separated by synaptic cleft Microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another Signals have to cross gap to permit neurons to communicate Neuron sending signal = presynaptic neuron Neuron receiving signal = postsynaptic neuron Arrival of an action potential at an axon terminal button triggers the release of neurotransmitters chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another o Must be stored in a synaptic vesicle o Diffuse through synaptic cleft to membrane of receiving cell o Bind with special molecules in the post synaptic cell membrane at various receptor sites

Recognize/ respond to some neurotransmitters but not to others o Receiving Signals: Post synaptic potentials When neurotransmitter and a receptor molecule combine reaction in the cell membrane causes a post synaptic potential (PSP) Voltage change at a receptor site on a post synaptic cell membrane Does not follow all or none law PSP are graded o Vary in size and increase/decrease probability of a neural impulse in the receiving cell 2 types of messages 1) Excitatory PSP o Positive voltage shit that increases likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potential 2) Inhibitory PSP o Negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the post synaptic neuron will fire action potentials These effects last only a fraction of a second Then the neurotransmitters drift away from the receptor sites, or are inactivated by enzymes that metabolize them into inactive forms o Most are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron through reuptake , a process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane Allowing recycling of materials o Integrating Signals: Neural Network Neuron may receive signals from thousands of other neurons Will probably pass on signals to thousands of other neurons also It is must integrate signals arriving at many synapses before it decides whether to fire a neural impulse If enough excitatory PSPs occur, electrical currents can add up and cause the cells voltage to reach the threshold(causing action potential to fire) If many inhibitory PSPs occur, they cancel effects of excitatory PSP Synaptic pruning = elimination of old/less active synapses Hebb learned neurons not alone in influencing behaviour They are linked in complex networks/ cell assemblies Neurotransmitters and Behaviour o Specific neurotransmitters work at specific kinds of behaviour o Acetylcholine(Ach) Activates motor nerves controlling skeletal muscles Contributes to regulation of attention, arousal, memory Some ach receptors stimulated by nicotine Inadequate supply memory loss (Alzheimers) Nicotine acts like Ach, causing PSPs Its an ach agonist

o o o o

Chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter Some block action of neural transmitters rendering them unusable antagonists: chemical that opposes action of neurotransmitter

Monoamines Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Serotonin Dopamine (DA) Contributes to control of voluntary movement Decreased levels associated with Parkinsons disease Activity associated with schizophrenia Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity of DA synapse Norepinephrine( Ne) Modulation of mood/arousal Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity of Ne synapse Serotonin Involved in regulation of sleep, wakefulness, eating, aggressiveness Abnormal levels may contribute to depression and OCD GABA and Glutamate Amino acids Gaba o Inhibitory o Widely distributed inhibitory transmitter o Involved in regulation of anxiety Glutamate o Excitatory o Contribute to learning and memory Endorphins Internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates ( morphine and heroin) in structure and effects Contribute to medulla or pons The Peripheral Nervous system o Made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord o Nerves are bundles of neuron fibres (Axons) routed together in the peripheral nervous system o Subdivided into 1) Somatic nervous system Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors o Carry information from skin, muscles, and joints to CNS and vice versa o This requires two kinds of fibres 1) Afferent Nerve Fibres Axons that carry information inward to the CNS from periphery of the body

2) Efferent Nerve Fibres Axons that carry information outward from CNS to periphery of the body 2) Autonomic Nervous system Involves involuntary components Made up of nerves that connect to heart, blood vessels, smooth muscle, and glands Deals with heart rate, digestion, perspiration, etc. Fight/flight Subdivided into 2 branches o 1) Sympathetic Division Mobilizes bodys resource for energy Fight/flight Activation = slowed digestion, drains blood flow periphery so less bleeding in case of injury, trigger relay of hormones that ready the body for exertion o 2) Parasympathetic Division Conserves bodily resources Active processes that allow body to save/store energy Slowed heart rate reduce blood pressure, promote digestion Central Nervous System o Consists of brain and spinal cord Protected by enclosing sheaths ( called meninges ) Bathed in its own nutritive soup Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) o Nourishes brain, provides protection and cushion for it o Ventricles are hollow cavities filled with CSF o Spinal Cord Connects brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system Enclosed in meninges and bathed in CSF Extension of the brain Paralysis can occur if damaged Looking Inside the Brain: Research Methods o Electrical Recording Electrical activity of brain can be recorded Berger invented electroencephalograph (EEG) Monitors electrical activity of brain over time by recording electrodes attached to the scalp Sums/amplifies electrical potential occurring in many thousands of brain cells EEG recordings translated into line tracings called brain waves o Different brain wave patterns associated with different styles of mental activity

Lesioning Involves destroying a piece of the brain Done by inserting electrode into brain structure and passing high frequency electric current through it to burn tissue and disable the structure Used in animals to observe what happens when a certain part of brain is removed o Electrical Stimulation of the brain Involves sending a weak electric current in to a brain structure to stimulate (activate it) Delivered through an electrode Most ESB research conducted on animals Required for medical purposes o Trans cranial Magnetic Stimulation Permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain Typically suppress activity in a discreet area of the brain and then put subjects to work on a cognitive task to see if virtual lesions interfere with performing the task Cannot be used to study areas deep within the brain o Brain Imaging Procedures CT(computerized tomography) X-ray scan of brain structure Shows horizontal slice of the brain Only shows brain structure PET(positron emission tomography) Examines brain function Radioactive chemicals introduced into the brain o Mark metabolic activity in brain o Provides colour coded map of brain Areas become active during certain activity MRI ( Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Magnetic fields, radio waves to map out brain structure Better than CT because 3d image Functional MRIs(fMRIs) monitor blood flow and oxygen consumption in brain The Brain and Behaviour o The Hindbrain Includes cerebellum and two structures in the lower part of the brain stem( medulla and pons) Medulla o In charge of unconscious vital processes o Circulation blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulation reflexes such as sneezing, coughing, and salivating

Pons o

Bundle of fibres that connect the brainstem with the cerebellum, also contain several cluster of cell bodies o Also involved with sleep and arousal Cerebellum o Critical to coordination of movement and to sense of equilibrium or physical balance o Organize sensory information that guide these movement o Depressed by alcohol

The Midbrain Segment of the brainstem that lies between hindbrain and forebrain Concerned with integrating sensory processes such as vision and hearing Reticular formation Contributes to modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception Also sleep/arousal regulation The Forebrain Complex region of the brain Includes thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum Above them Is cerebrum ( area of complex though) Wrinkled surface of cerebrum is cerebral cortex 1) Thalamus Structure in forebrain which all sensory information ( except smell) must pass through to get to the cerebral cortex Integrates information from various senses 2) Hypothalamus Structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs o Lies underneath thalamus Control the autonomic nervous system Vital link between brain and endocrine system Regulation of basic biological drives related to survival o 4 Fs Fighting, fleeing, feeding, mating 3) Limbic system Loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas Not well defined anatomical system Includes parts of thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala Involves regulation of emotion, memory, and motivation Hippocampus plays role in memory processes o Prediction and imagination Amygdala plays central role in learning of fear responses and processing of other basic emotional responses

4) Cerebrum Includes learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness Cerebral cortex is convoluted outer layer of cerebrum Divided into 2 halves (left and right cerebral hemispheres) Separated by corpus callosum o Structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres Each cerebral hemispheres divided into 4 parts(lobes) o Occipital lobe (back of brain) Cortical area where visual signals are sent and visual processing is begun Called primary visual cortex o Parietal Lobe (forward of occipital lobe) Area that registers the sense of touch Called primary somatosensory cortex Receive signals from different regions of the body Integrates visual input o Temporal Lobe (below parietal lobe) Auditory processes (primary auditory cortex) Damage can impair the completeness of speech and language o Frontal Lobe Movement of muscles (primary motor cortex) There is a prefrontal cortex, but little is known about it Does various higher order functions The Plasticity of the Brain o Brain is plastic/malleable Refers to the brains ability to change structure and function o 1) studies show experience can sculpt features of brain structure o 2) research has shown damage to incoming sensory pathways or destruction of brain tissue can lead to neural reorganization o 3)studies indicate adult brain can generate new nerves Was thought that neurogenesis (formation of neurons) did not occur in adult Forms new axons and neurons o Right / Left Brain Cerebral Laterality Brocas area (left of frontal lobe) Plays an important role in production of speech Wernickes area (temporal lobe of left hemisphere) Language centre Scientists call left brain dominant due to language processing Bisecting the Brain: Split Brain Research: o In split brain surgery, the bundle of fibres that connect cerebral hemispheres (corpus callosum) is cut to reduce severity of epileptic seizures o Each hemisphere primary connections are to the opposite side of the body o Vision/hearing more complicated

Both eyes deliver information to both hemispheres but still separation of input Stimuli in right half of visual field received by receptors on the left side of each eye, sends signals to left hemisphere Stimuli in left half are transmitted by both eyes to the right hemisphere Auditory inputs to each ear also go to both hemispheres (sound in right ear registered in left hemisphere first and vice versa) Hemispheric Specialization in the Intact Brain o Researchers developed methods that allowed them to study cerebral specialization in the intact brain o Looking at perceptual asymmetries Left/right imbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in the speed of visual or auditory processing Input in one hemisphere is relayed to the other o Left hemisphere Better on tasks involving verbal processing, such as language, speech, reading, and writing o Right hemisphere Superiority on many tasks involving nonverbal processing, such as most spatial, musical, and visual recognition tasks and tasks involving the perception of others emotions The Endocrine System: Another Way to Communicate o Consists of glands that release hormones into the blood stream, hormone help to control bodily functions They are stored for subsequent release as chemical messengers They diffuse through the blood stream and bind to special receptors on target cells Some chemical substances are both hormones and neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters really fast but hormones are slower May even be basis of cognitive differences between males and females o Much of endocrine system controlled by hypothalamus Has connection with pituitary gland Releases a great variety of hormones that fan out around body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands Adrenal glands release stress hormones Fight/flight signals from autonomic nervous system Oxytocin Hormone released by pituitary gland Regulates reproductive behaviour Trigger contractions when women giving birth Research suggests this hormone has effect on social behaviour Also can cause adult-adult pair bonding Increases male empathy Gonadotropins Released by pituitary gland

Affects gonads (sexual glands) Causes emergency of secondary sexual characteristics o Male facial hair, female breasts Heredity and Behaviour: Is it all in the Genes? o Behavioural genetics Interdisciplinary field studies the influence of genetics on behavioural traits o Basic Principle of Genetics: Every cell in body contains messages, found in chromosomes 1) Chromosomes And Genes Strand of DNA that carry genetic information Every cell has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) Parents contribute when fertilization creates a zygote (single cell formed by egg + sperm) o Each sex cell has 23 chromosomes Each chromosome has thousands of genes o Dna segments that serve as the key functional units to hereditary transmission Variety of comboniations of chromosomes = variety in children One gene of each pair comes from each parent In the homozygous condition, the two genes in a specific pair are the same In the heterozygous condition, the two genes in a specific pair are different o A dominant gene = expressed when paired genes different o Recessive gene = masked when paired genes are different 2) Genotype vs Phenotype Genotype = persons genetic makeup Phenotype = ways in which a persons genotype is manifested in observable characteristics 3) Polygenic Inhertance Polygenic traits o Characteristics influenced by more than a pair of genes Investigating Hereditary Influence: Research Methods o 1) Family Studies Researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait If hereditary affects the trait being studied, phenotypic similarity among relatives Can indicate whether or not a trait runs in the family ornot Not conclusive because families share environment o 2) Twin Studies Researchers asses hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait Identical twins (monozygote) emerge from a single zygote that split

Fraternal twins (dizygote) 2 eggs fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells forming two separate zygotes o 3) Adoption Studies Assess hereditary influence by examine the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and adoptive parents If resemble biological parents, genetic factors influence that trait If resemble adoptive parents, environmental factors influence that trait o 4) The Cutting Edge: Genetic Mapping Process of determining the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes Detail maps of genetic material of chromosomes All behavioural traits to be polygenic So scientists not likely to find a single gene trait The Interplay of Hereditary and Environment o Epigenetics Study of heritable change in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence Due to chemical events o Lead to phenotypical alterations Can be stimulated by poor nurturance, stress, bad diet Can be passed down to successive generations May contribute to psychological disorders The evolutionary bases of behaviour o Darwins Insights Wanted to explain how characteristics of a species might change over time 1) noted organisms very in endless ways 2) some of these characteristics are hereditary 3)organisms produce offspring at a pace that outstrips local availability for food Variations in hereditary traits might alter organisms ability to obtain resources necessary for survival and reproduction 4) if a trait contributed to organisms succeeds, organisms with that trait would produce more offspring Survival of the fittest Fitness refers to reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the reproductive success in the population Natural selection Heritable characteristics more likely to be passed down o Subsequent Refinement to Evolutionary Theory Genetic drift ( mutations) shape gene pool of population Mutations are spontaneous, heritable change in a piece of DNA gene flow = when gene frequencies in population change due to emigration and immigration Adaptation

Inherited characteristic that increased in a population because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged Inclusive Fitness Sum of an individuals own reproductive success plus the effect the organism has on the reproductive success of related others Behaviour as Adaptive Traits Natural selection not only applicable to evolution of physical characteristics, but behavioural traits as well, Many organisms also engage in elaborative behavioural manoeuvres to hide themselves Many behavioural adaptations are designed to improve organisms chances of reproductive success