The chemical earth Writing word and balanced formulae equations A balanced chemical equation must have the

same number of atoms of each element on each side of the arrow. To balance a chemical equation: 1. Write a word equation which includes all reactants and products. 2. Write the formulae for all the substances involved (to make unbalanced equation) by referring to the valencies. 3. Balance the equation by putting numbers in front of symbols or formulae: start with atoms that occur in one place only on each side of the equation. 4. Add state symbols, (s), (l), (g), (aq).

systematic naming of inorganic compounds When you have molecular compounds (non-metal with non-metal), use di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, etc. in front of each part of the name. For example, P2O5 is named diphosphoruspentoxide. For ionic compounds (metal with non-metal), never use those prefixes. For those metals which display variable valencies, the valence of the metal in the compound is indicated by: 1. Putting the valence as a capital Roman numeral in brackets after the name of the metal, as in iron(II) chloride, FeCl 2. 2. Using special endings: -ous for the lower valence state and ic for the higher valence state sometimes with a Latinised name for the metal, as in ferrous chloride, FeCl2. Common chemical equations: Some useful general equations: Acid + base salt + water Acid + metal salt + hydrogen gas Acid + carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide gas Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas Sometimes the Roman numeral can be dropped if one valence is much more common than the other, e.g. copper sulfate is copper(II) sulfate, lead iodide is lead(II) iodide.

elements, compounds and mixtures A mixture can be separated into two or more pure substances by physical or mechanical means such as filtering, boiling or using a magnet or tweezers. It may be homogeneous (tap water, air) or heterogeneous (fruit cake, concrete). A pure substance is always homogeneous. Homogeneous means of uniform composition throughout, for example pure water, sugar, aluminium, petrol or whisky. Heterogeneous means having non-uniform composition where we can recognise small pieces of the material which are different from other pieces, for example strawberry jam, wood, or water with ice in it. An element is a pure substance which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. A compound is a pure substance which can be decomposed into simpler substances, for example into elements. It is made up of two or more elements, always has the elements present in the same ratio by mass and has properties that are quite different from those of the elements that make it up.

the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere The biosphere contains all the living matter in earth, encompassing the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Such organism consists of carbon-containing compound, fats lipids carbohydrates and proteins in the insoluble forms. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, predominantly nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, though it may contain small amounts of gaseous compounds such as water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfuret dioxide and carbon monoxide. The Hydrosphere also consists of different mixtures; the major component of mixtures in here is water. Sea water is an example of a mixture in the hydrosphere; it also contains small amounts of compounds such as iodide. Ground water is a

mixture similar to river water, except that it generally contains larger amounts of dissolved solids such as chlorides and sulphates. Apart from dissolved oxygen and nitrogen, the mixtures of hydrosphere contain only compounds. The lithosphere contains a diverse range of mixtures: o Rocks which are mixtures of various silicates o Sand which is mainly silicon dioxide with variable amounts of ground up shells or dirt Coal, oil and natural gas which are mixtures of compounds of carbon formed from decayed plant and animal matter. The three most abundant elements in each zone of the Earth (in decreasing order) Biosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Oxygen Nitrogen Oxygen Oxygen Silicon Oxygen Hydrogen Silicon Aluminium argon chlorine Aluminium

Separation techniques Separating solids of different sizes process Properties used Sievingis the process of separating solid particles DIP: Particle Size of various sizes. Using a sieve fine materials fall through the mesh. The coarser pebbles are caught. Sedimentationoccurs when solid particles are allowed to settle from water (or other liquids) or air. Froth flotation is a process uses to concentrate minerals in an ore mixture. Ground minerals are mixed with water, detergents and oily chemicals. Air is blow through to create a froth. The forth layer contains a concentrated amount of the minerals and can be removed for further treatment. This is used in several processing industries. DIP: Solubility and Density

Uses

sort foodstuffs mining industry to separate mineral particles of different sizes. the purification of water supplies and in waste water treatment. the mining industry The paper recycling industry.

DIP: Hydrophobicity and density

Magnetic Separation Some components of a mixture can be separated from the mixture because they are magnetic.

DIP: Magnetic

separate some of the components of mineral sands. Iron-containing minerals such as magnetite are separated from iron ore in this way.

process Filtration Insoluble solids can be separated from soluble solids. The solution that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate. The insoluble solids are called the residue. Used in water filtration. Centrifuges accelerate the process of sedimentation of a suspension. The suspension is spun at high speeds so sediments collect at the base of the centrifuge tubes in layers according to the particle size and weight.

Separating solids and liquids Properties used DIP: Solubility

Uses

DIP: Particle size and weight

Used in the dairy industry to separate cream from milk and in medicine to separate blood cells from plasma.

process Evaporation relies upon the substances in the mixture having different volatilities.

Separating dissolved solids in liquids Properties used DIP: Volatility (ability to be evaporated)

Uses It is used to collect common salt, mostly sodium chloride, from sea water.

One of the substances evaporates far more readily, leaving the other behind. Crystallisationdepends on the components of the mixture having different solubilities in a selected liquid, usually water. DIP: Solubility Crystallisation is used in the production of sugar from sugar cane and sugar beet.

process Separating Funnel Liquids that do not mix with each other are said to be immiscible. They form separate layers, with the less dense liquid floating on top of the denser liquid. The denser liquid is run off through a tap at the bottom of the flask, leaving the less dense liquid in the funnel. distillation Distillation is often used in the purification of liquids. Distillation involves boiling a liquid and cooling the gas produced to condense it back to the liquid state. Distillation is effective where the components in a mixture have very different boiling points. The component with the lowest boiling point boils off first, is cooled in a condenser and collected as a pure liquid, as shown in Figure 1.22. Fractional distillation

Separating liquids Properties used DIP: Density, immiscible

Uses

Separating oil from water.

DIP: Boiling Point

Pure water can be obtained from sea water obtain substantial amounts of pure water from the distillation of salt water using solar stills. Distillation is also used in the manufacture of spirits such as brandy, whisky and rum.

process Fractional distillationis the separation of a mixture of several different liquids with similar boiling points. The process involves numerous vaporisationcondensation steps through which the components are gradually separated. Chromatographyis for separating components that are represented in small quantities of mixtures. The separation of the components in the mixture occurs because the components adsorb, or cling, to the surface of the inert substance with different strengths. Gas chromatography is used to detect the components present in a gas or vaporised mixture. The gas mixture is passed through a tube containing a particular solid such as carbon or silica. The different components present pass through the tube at different rates and can be detected as they emerge from the tube. The components of natural gas can be analysed in this way.

Separating gases Properties used DIP: Boiling Point

Uses In the petroleum industry, repeated fractional distillation is used to separate the components of crude oil into aviation spirit, petroleum, kerosene, lubricants, waxes and asphalt.

DIP: Adherence to the material

Detecting what is in our gas

Gravimetric analysis To carry out complete gravimetric analysis on a sample we need to determine the mass of each component present in the mixture. Two special terms are used: Qualitative Analysis refers to what is in the mixture refers. Quantative Analysis to how much of each component is present in a substance. Some useful applications of gravimetric analysis include: Determining the composition of soil in a particular location to see if its suitable for growing a certain crop Determining the amounts of a particular substance present in water or air to decide how polluted the samples are To decide whether a particular commercial mixture being sold has the same percentage composition as a similar mixture being marketed by a rival company. Deciding whether a newly discovered mineral deposit contains a sufficiently mass of the particular substancepresent Percentage compositio n high percentage of the required total mass of the sample mixture compound to make its extraction from that deposit economically viable.

Classifying elements The physical properties: melting point the lowest temperature at which a solid changes to aliquid at normal atmospheric pressure boiling point the lowest temperature at which a liquid changes tovapour density the mass of the substance per unit volume electrical conductivity the quantity of electric current transmittedthrough a unit cube of the material when there is a potential differenceof 1 volt across the cube. thermal conductivity the rate at which heat energy is transferred throughthe material Metals, non-metals and semi-metals Out of the 92 naturally occurring elements, at room temperature: only two are liquids mercury and bromide Eleven are gases: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, fluorine. The rest are solids Elements that do not fit conveniently into either group are called semi-metals. Metals are elements which: Are solids at room temperature Have shiny or lustrous appearance Are good conductors of electricity Are malleable (able to be rolled into sheets) and ductile (able to be drawn into wires) Most other elements are called non-metals Non-Metals are elements which: Poor electrical conductivity Good heat insulators Dull lustre Brittle and non-ductile and non-malleable Generally colourless Low density and low tensile strength Group metals semimetals non metals Appearance lustrous Low sheen Dull Electrical conductivity High Low (semi-conductor) None Thermal conductivity High High Low (insulator) Malleability and ductility Generally high Moderate Low (brittle) Density High Intermediate Low Boiling point High Very high Low strength high Variable Low examples Iron, magnesium, gold, merury Boron, silicon, geranium, Hydrogen, helium, carbon arsenic Properties and Uses: While metals show a wide range of properties such as melting point, conductivity, tensile strength and hardness, the commonly used ones such as iron, aluminium, copper, zinc, chromium and nickel have reasonably high melting pints and except copper are fairly hard. This makes them perfect for industrial and mechanical usages for building cars, planes, trains and machinery. Non-metals display an even wider range of melting points, at room temperature some are gases, some are liquids and even solids. A property all non-metals have in common are their low tensile strength, other than that everything else varies from element to element.

Common uses include: Carbon as graphite for lubricant and use in lead pencils Carbon as diamond used in jewellery because of high refractive index and transparency and dispersive power, also aesthetic appeal. And used in drill tips because of its high melting point and hardness. Gaseous chlorine as an industrial bleach, for disinfecting public swimming pools and making plastics such as PVC Chemical reactivity of elements Some cannot occur naturally but in compounds. Basically, the more reactive an element is the less chance there is of finding it in the Earth as an uncombined element because most elements are chemically reactive: that is when they come into contact with certain other elements they react to form compounds. The alkali metals are very reactive. The noble gases occur in nature freely. Copper is used for electrical wiring as it conducts heat and electricity. Iron is used for buildings as it has high tensile strength Gold is used in jewellery as it is lustre and highly unreactive.

Atoms Matter Matter is made up of 3 types of particles: atoms the smallest particles of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction molecules the smallest part of a pure substance that can exist separately.Molecules are usually composed of two or more atoms chemically bonded together, although the noble gases (including helium and argon) are regarded as monatomic (single-atom) molecules. ions charged atoms or charged molecules. Ions can be positively or negatively charged. Structure of an atom Atoms are made up ofprotons, neutrons and electrons. There is a small nucleus. It contains 99.95% of the weight Protons are negative, neutrons are neutral, electrons are negative. Neutrons and protons account for most of the weight of the atom. (1.007amu :1.008amu) Atomic Number = the number of protons in the nucleus. (Z) Mass Number the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. (A). Therefore, neutrons equal the Mass number minus the Atomic number. (A) (Z) = Neutrons Thus, an element is a pure substance where all atoms have the same atomic number (Z). Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number (Z) but different mass numbers (A), meaning they have a different amount of neutrons. Symbols Every element has its own atomic number. Any element E can be represented by the following symbol: Where A is the atomic mass and Z is the atomic number. Molecules A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can have a separate existence, and can move around independently of other particles. It is also a group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds, these are covalent bonds where each atom involved in the bond contributes an electron to the shared pair. When bonded the shared pair of electrons occupy a volume of space that surrounds both the nuclei, and even though the strong covalent bonds bind the atoms together within each molecule, their discrete energy levels allow them to move about independently in their volume of shared electrons. Isotopes These are atoms of an element that have a different mass number. Electron shells Electrons are considered to exist in the energy levels or shells so to speak. The shells are numbered from the inner parts of the 2 atom outwards (n= 1, 2, 3) and the maximum number of electrons that can occupy each shell is determined by the formula: 2n The outer shell in each atom is called the Valence shell; the maximum number of electrons in this shell is eight. The pattern of arrangement of electrons is the electron configuration. When determining electron configuration one must apply: o Electrons are placed in the lowest energy shells (closet the nucleus) first. o As each level is filled, the next energy level starts to fill. o Elements with atomic numbers between 19 and 28 have incomplete M shells and have 1 or 2 electrons in the N shell. For example, scandium has an atomic number of 21 but a electron configuration of 2, 8, 9, 2 The octet in the valence shell (exception of helium with 2 electrons) confers stability; other less table atoms can achieve the octet by gaining/losing electrons. Atoms and Ions with the same electron configuration are said to be isoelectronic.

Ionic bonding (between non metal +metals) Ions are charged atoms. Atoms can gain or lose electrons by sharing or giving. When a neutral atom loses one electron is become positively charges: we call this positive ion cation. When a neutral atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged: we call this negative ion anion. Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding which involved the outright transfer of electrons from one atom to another. The bonding consists of electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions formed by this transfer of electrons. Elements that can attain noble gas configurations by losing or gaining one or two electrons commonly form ions. This means that we can use the Periodic Table to predict which elements will form ions generally those which are only one or two elements away from the noble gas. However whilst groups 1 and 2 only form ionic compounds with the exception of beryllium, groups 6 and 7 may also form covalent compounds. When naming ionic compounds, the cation is named first, then the anion. There is an ide added to the non-metal at the end. E.g. FeO is iron oxide. Covalent bonding (between non metal +gases) Gases are diatomic. Covalent bonding occurs when both elements share electrons to gain a full outer shell. Elements such as carbon, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorous, oxygen, sulfuret, fluorine, chlorine usually form covalent compounds. The number of covalent bonds an atom forms is the number of electrons that atom needs to gain to acquire a noble gas configuration. This is its valency. Single bond= 1 electron pair shared. Double bond= 2 electron pairs shared. Triple bond Three electron pairs are shared. For example, hydrogen molecules share 2 electrons, so its a single bond. When drawing structural formulae. Lines are used to represent how many bonds are there. For covalent formulae, the sum of the valencies of 1 element should be the same as the other. IF there are 3 elements, the sum of the first 2 elements valencies should be the same as the last element. E.g. nitrogen trichloride has formulae of NCI3. Greek prefixes are used to name molecular compounds. The non metal is named first. For simple ones, the suffix ide is used at the end of the second element. For example: N20 is dinitrogen oxide. Metallic bonding Metallic bonding is the bonding between metals, usually a lot of positive metal ions surrounding by a sea of delocalised electrons.Metals consist of an orderly three-dimensional array of positive ions held together by a mobile sea of delocalised electron s. The valence electrons break away from their atoms, leaving behind positive ions. These free electrons, called delocalised because they no longer belong to particular atoms, move randomly through the lattice and, by being shared by numerous positive ions, provide the chemical bonding which holds the crystal together. Metals can be bent, rolled into sheets and drawn into rods and wires. These processes are possible because when the orderly array of positive ions is sheared, the mobile electrons are able to adjust to the new arrangement of positive ions and again stabilise the whole assembly of positive ions.

Properties and classification of chemical compounds Physical properties can be used to classify compounds into three groups or types of lattice. These groups are: ionic compounds - compounds where two or more ions are held next to each other by electrical attraction. One of the ions has a positive charge (called a "cation") and the other has a negative charge ("anion"). covalent molecular compounds- molecules of compounds that are linked covalently Covalent network compounds- a network of atoms which are linked by covalent bonds. Physical properties of crystal lattices Type of compound ionic covalent molecular Type of particles cations and anions molecules Forces holding the lattice ionic bonds intermolecular forces Electrical conductivity solid: zero molten: good aqueous solution: good high hard; brittle solid: zero molten: zero aqueous solution: zero (unless molecule reacts to form ions) low soft; brittle

covalent network atoms covalent bonds solid: zero molten: zero aqueous solution: zero (as solids are insoluble in water) very high very hard; brittle

Melting point Other properties

Lattices Metallic lattices A metallic lattice consists of positive ions in a 'sea' of outer shell negative electrons which are delocalised and mobile through the metal structure.The lattice is held together by strong forces of attraction between the mobile electrons and the positive ions. Properties include: High melting and boiling point High electrical and thermal conductivity High density High lustre High malleable and ductile

These properties result from the strong forces that exist between particles in the lattice. The conductivity is because of the free electrons. The density results from the tightly packed atoms. Ionic lattices These are positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions) held together by electrostatic forces in a rigid array or lattice. The physical properties of ionic compounds are: High melting and boiling points Ionic solids do not conduct electricity (they are insulators). When molten (liquid) ionic compounds conduct electricity. When dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution ionic compounds conduct electricity. Hard Brittle These properties arise as when a stress is applied to the ionic lattice, the layers shift slightly.Ions of the same charge will repel each other, so the lattice structure breaks down into smaller pieces. There is no conductivity as the ions (charged particles) are locked into a rigid lattice or array. The melting and boiling points are high as a lot of energy is needed to free the ions. Covalent network lattices These are three-dimensional array of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds.The bonding between the atoms goes on and on in three dimensions.The physical properties are: Very hard High melting and boiling points do not conduct electricity as solids These properties arise as the structure is very rigid and hard to break. There are also no free ions as they are in a network. The distortion breaks covalent bonds. Covalent molecular lattices These are groups of molecules held together by covalent bonding in a geometric shape. These molecules are held in place within the lattice by intermolecular forces, which are not as strong as normal chemical bonds. Some properties are: low melting and boiling points very brittle and weak do not conduct electricity as solids These properties arise as the shapes are not as rigid, no free electrons. Physical and chemical changes Physical changes are changes in physical properties. Physical properties include odour, colour, taste, hardness, density, malleability, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, melting point, boiling point and solubility. The physical changes are usually very easy to reverse, such as melting ice and re-freezing it. There is no change in the composition of a substance. Generally relatively small amounts of energy are absorbed or released. E.g. Iron is a grey solid, with metallic lustre, fairly soft when pure, malleable, ductile, good electrical and thermal conductor and has high melting point all of these are physical properties. Chemical change occurs when new substances with new compositions formed. This involves large quantities of energy being absorbed or released, generally in the form of heat, light or electricity. These changes are quite hard to reverse, such as re combining H2 and O2 with a high temperature spark. E.g. Combustion of fuels or decomposition NaOH(S) -----> Na(S) + O2(g) + H2(g) Chemical properties are those that related to the ability of a substance to form a new substance. That is reactions with oxygen, water, acids and bases or specific reactions with other substances. Irons chemical properties include: Reacts slowly with moist air to form rust If finely divided will burn in oxygen when heated Reacts with steam and dilute acids to form hydrogen

Boiling and electrolysis of water When we boil water, the H2O liquid becomes H2O gas, and it is still in its elemental form, only there is a change of state. Thus the intermolecular forces here are broken and this requires less energy than to break the intramolecular bonds. requires energy input (heat) When we put water through electrolysis, it decomposes into its constituent elements, the strong covalent bonds within the molecule must be overcome thus the intramolecular forces are broken; and new covalent bonds between H and O must be formed. This requir es more energy than boiling supplied by electrolysis. Boiling water does not alter the actual particles (molecules): it just separates them from one another: the water vapour contains the same water molecules as the liquid did. Electrolysis actually breaks the particles up (water molecules broken up and hydrogen and oxygen (H2 and O2) molecules formed) Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices. Covalent Molecules: H2O Water H2, F2, Cl2, O2 and N2 are diatomic gases. NH3 Ammonia HCl Hydrogen Chloride Br2 is a diatomic liquid. I2 is a diatomic solid.

Phosphorus and Sulphur exist as covalent P4 and S8 covalent molecules respectively. Covalent Lattices: Carbon exists as diamond which is a three-dimensional lattice and as graphite which is a two dimensional lattice. The semi-metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te closely approximate covalent lattice though their bonding electrons are not as firmly localised as in diamond. Many substances in the lithosphere are covalent lattices: Sand and quartz as silicon dioxide Some gemstones are silicon dioxide with traces of impurities which provide the colour, while others are silicates which are covalent lattices with some ionic bits incorporated. (Emerald, aquamarine, topaz and garnet.) Mica, talc and asbestos are also silicate lattices Clays and zeolites are alumina-silicate lattices, again with some ionic portions.

Explain therelationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network substances. Types of solids and their properties: Melting and Boiling points: Covalent Network:

Molecular Solids:

Metallic:

Ionic:

Low

Variable

High

High

Conducts electricity?

No

Yes

As solid: NO As liquid/molten: YES

No

Hardness and/or workability?

Soft

Variable hardness; malleable and ductile Delocalised sea of electrons (metallic bonding)

Hard and Brittle

Hard and Brittle

Forces holding particles in the solid

Intermolecular

Electrostatic attraction

Covalent bonding throughout the crystal