Chapter 6

Cellular Respiration: Obtaining Energy from Food the Cell

BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY Marathoners versus Sprinters Sprinters do not usually compete at both short and long distances. Natural differences in the muscles of these athletes favor sprinting or long-distance running. The muscles that move our legs contain two main types of muscle fibers: Slow twitch Fast twitch

Slow-twitch muscle fibers can contract many times over a longer period generate less power generate ATP using oxygen (aerobically) Fast-twitch muscle fibers can contract more quickly and powerfully fatigue much more quickly
Sprinters, like all athletes, depend on cellular respiration Figure 6.0 to power their muscles

can generate ATP without oxygen (anaerobically)

All human muscles contain both types of fibers but in different ratios. Thigh muscles of marathon runners contain more slow-twitch fibers While those of sprinters contain more fasttwitch fibers Note that these differences are geneticallydetermined

ENERGY FLOW AND CHEMICAL CYCLING IN THE BIOSPHERE Animals depend on plants to convert the energy of sunlight to chemical energy of sugars and other molecules we consume as food Photosynthesis uses light energy from the sun to power a chemical process that makes organic molecules.

Producers and Consumers Plants and other autotrophs (self-feeders) make their own organic matter from inorganic nutrients. Heterotrophs (other-feeders) include humans and other animals that cannot make organic molecules from inorganic ones.

Autotrophs are producers because ecosystems depend upon them for food. Heterotrophs are consumers because they eat plants or other animals that have eaten plants

Figure 6.1

Chemical Cycling between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration The ingredients for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) CO2 is obtained from the air by a plants leaves. H2O is obtained from the damp soil by a plants roots.

Chloroplasts in the cells of leaves use light energy to rearrange the atoms of CO2 and H2O, which produces: sugars (such as glucose C6H12O6) other organic molecules oxygen gas (O2)

Plant and animal cells perform cellular respiration, a chemical process that: Primarily occurs in mitochondria Harvests energy stored in organic molecules Uses oxygen and generates ATP The waste products of cellular respiration are CO2 and H2O These are used in photosynthesis

Animals perform only cellular respiration. Plants perform both: Photosynthesis (to produce fuel molecules) and Cellular respiration (to burn them) Plants usually make more organic molecules than they need for fuel. This surplus provides material that can be used for the plant to grow or stored as starch in potatoes.

Sunlight energy enters ecosystem

Chapter Review Figure

Heat

Glucose

Photosynthesis C6H12O6 O2

+
Oxygen

Carbon CO2 dioxide

C6H12O6 Sunlight O2

H2O Water

ATP Photosynthesis CO2 H2O Cellular respiration

Cellular respiration
ATP

drives cellular work Heat energy exits ecosystem

Figure 6.2

CELLULAR RESPIRATION: AEROBIC HARVEST OF FOOD ENERGY Cellular respiration is: The main way that chemical energy is harvested from food and converted to ATP An aerobic processit requires oxygen

Cellular respiration and breathing are closely related. Cellular respiration requires a cell to exchange gases with its surroundings. Cells take in oxygen gas. Cells release waste carbon dioxide gas. Breathing exchanges these same gases between the blood and outside air.

O2

CO2

The Overall Equation for Cellular Respiration A common fuel molecule for cellular respiration is glucose.

Breathing Lungs

The overall equation for what happens to glucose during cellular respiration:
C6H12O6 Glucose +6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP Carbon dioxide Water Energy

O2

CO2

Oxygen

Cellular respiration

Muscle cells
Figure 6.3

The Role of Oxygen in Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration can produce up to 32 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule consumed. During cellular respiration, hydrogen and its bonding electrons change partners. Hydrogen and its electrons go from sugar to oxygen, forming water. This hydrogen transfer is why oxygen is so vital to cellular respiration.

Redox Reactions Chemical reactions that transfer electrons from one substance to another are called oxidationreduction reactions or redox reactions for short The loss of electrons during a redox reaction is called oxidation. The acceptance of electrons during a redox reaction is called reduction. During cellular respiration glucose is oxidized while oxygen is reduced.

Chapter Review Figure

Oxidation Glucose loses electrons (and hydrogens) C6H12O6 Glucose 6 O2 6 CO2 Carbon dioxide Reduction Oxygen gains electrons (and hydrogens) 6 H2O Water O2 Reduction Oxygen gains electrons (and hydrogens) C6H12O6 Oxidation Glucose loses electrons (and hydrogens) CO2 Electrons (and hydrogens) ATP

Oxygen

H2O

H2

1 O2 2

Why does electron transfer to oxygen release energy? When electrons move from glucose to oxygen, it is as though the electrons were falling. This fall of electrons releases a large amount of (potential) energy It is difficult for the cell to capture this burst of energy and put it to useful work
H2O
Figure 6.4

Release of heat energy

NADH and Electron Transport Chains Cellular respiration provides a more controlled fall of electrons A stepwise cascade much like going down an energy staircase Thus, cellular respiration unlocks chemical energy in smaller amounts, rather than in a burst Cells can then put these smaller energy amounts to productive use The path that electrons take on their way down from glucose to oxygen involves many steps The first step is an electron acceptor called NAD+ It is made by cells from niacin, a B vitamin The transfer of electrons from organic fuel to NAD+ reduces it to NADH
The H represents the transfer of hydrogen along with the electrons

e e Electrons from food

The rest of the path consists of an electron transport chain, which: Involves a series of redox reactions and Ultimately leads to the production of large amounts of ATP

NAD+

e e NADH

Stepwise release of energy used to make ATP

2 H+

2 e

2 e 2 H+ 1 O2 2

Hydrogen, electrons, H2O and oxygen combine to produce water

Figure 6.5

An Overview of Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is an example of a metabolic pathway, which is a series of chemical reactions in cells All of the reactions involved in cellular respiration can be grouped into three main stages: Glycolysis The citric acid cycle Electron transport

Cytoplasm

Mitochondrion

High-energy electrons carried by NADH Glycolysis Glucose 2 Pyruvic acid

High-energy electrons carried mainly by NADH Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport

ATP

ATP

ATP

Figure 6.6

The Three Stages of Cellular Respiration With the big-picture view of cellular respiration in mind, lets examine the process in more detail. Remember that the three stages are: 1) Glycolysis 2) Citric acid cycle 3) Electron transport chain
BioFlix Animation: Cellular Respiration

Stage 1: Glycolysis A six-carbon glucose molecule is split in half to form two molecules of pyruvic acid. These two molecules then donate high energy electrons to NAD+, forming NADH.

INPUT
INPUT NADH NAD+ 2 ATP 2 ADP
2 Pyruvic acid

OUTPUT

OUTPUT 2 ATP 2 ADP

2 Pyruvic acid
Glucose

NAD+ Key Carbon atom NADH Phosphate group High-energy Energy investment phase Energy harvest phase electron

2 ADP 2 ATP

Glucose

Figure 6.7

NADH P NAD
+

Glycolysis:
P 2 ADP 2 ATP

2 ATP

2 ADP 1

2 P

Uses two ATP molecules per glucose to split the six-carbon glucose Makes four additional ATP directly when enzymes transfer phosphate groups from fuel molecules to ADP
2 ATP

P P 2

P 3 2 ADP

NAD+ NADH

Thus, glycolysis produces a net of two molecules of ATP per glucose molecule.

Energy investment phase

Energy harvest phase

Figure 6.8

Stage 2: The Citric Acid Cycle This cycle completes the breakdown of sugar. However, first the pyruvic acid is groomed (converted to a form the citric acid cycle can use)

Enzyme

ADP

ATP
INPUT (from glycolysis) NAD+ Oxidation of the fuel generates NADH NADH CoA OUTPUT (to citric acid cycle)

ATP synthesis by direct phosphate transfer from fuel molecules to ADP

Pyruvic acid

Pyruvic acid Acetic acid loses a carbon as CO2

CO2

Coenzyme A

Acetic acid attaches to coenzyme A

Acetyl CoA

Figure 6.9

INPUT (from glycolysis)

OUTPUT (to citric acid cycle) CoA

2 Oxidation of the fuel generates NADH + NADH NAD

OUTPUT

Pyruvic acid

Acetyl CoA

1 Pyruvic acid loses a carbon as CO2

Acetic acid CO2 Coenzyme A

3 Acetic acid attaches to coenzyme A

INPUT

The citric acid cycle: Extracts the energy of sugar by breaking the acetic acid molecules all the way down to CO2 Uses some of this energy to make ATP Forms NADH and FADH2
Blast Animation: Harvesting Energy: Krebs Cycle
3 NAD+ FAD Acetic acid ADP + P

Citric acid

OUTPUT

2 CO2 ATP Citric Acid Cycle

3 NADH

FADH2 Acceptor molecule Figure 6.10

Stage 3: Electron Transport Electron transport releases the energy your cells need to make the most of their ATP. The molecules of the electron transport chain are built into the inner membrane of mitochondria The chain functions as a chemical machine that uses energy released by the fall of electrons to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. These ions store potential energy. When the hydrogen ions flow back through the inner membrane, they release energy. The hydrogen ions flow through a miniature machine, called an ATP synthase, which is constructed from protein ATP synthase takes the energy from this flow and synthesizes ATP

How electron transport drives ATP synthase machines

Space between membranes Electron carrier Protein complex Inner mitochondrial membrane Electron flow NADH H+ H+ Matrix H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+

Cyanide is a deadly poison that binds to one of the protein complexes in the electron transport chain This prevents the passage of electrons to oxygen, and so no H+ gradient is generated

FADH2

FAD

H+ 1 O2 + 2 H+ 2 H2O ADP + P H+ H+ H+ ATP synthase ATP

This ultimately stops the production of ATP

NAD+

Electron transport chain

Figure 6.11

The Results of Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration can generate about 32 ATPs per molecule of glucose
Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle each contribute 2 ATP by directly making it All the rest of the ATP are produced by the ATP synthase machines during electron transport The electrons are carried from the organic fuel to electron transport chain by NADH or FADH2

A summary of ATP yield during cellular respiration

Cytoplasm Mitochondrion 6 NADH

2 NADH

NADH

2 FADH2 Glycolysis 2 Pyruvic acid 2 Acetyl CoA Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport Maximum per glucose: About 28 ATP by ATP synthase About 32 ATP

Glucose

2 ATP by direct synthesis

2 ATP by direct synthesis

Figure 6.12

Mitochondrion O2

The Results of Cellular Respiration In addition to glucose, cellular respiration can burn many other kinds of food molecules. These include:

NADH

NADH

6 NADH 2 FADH2

Glycolysis Glucose 2 Pyruvic acid

2 Acetyl CoA

Citric Acid Cycle

Electron Transport

diverse types of carbohydrates fats

2 CO2 by direct 2 ATP synthesis

4 CO2 by direct 2 synthesis ATP About 28 ATP

H2O by ATP synthase

proteins

About 32 ATP

Food

Adding Up the ATP from Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration can generate up to 38 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle each contribute 2 ATP by direct synthesis All of the rest are produced by the ATP synthase proteins powered by the fall of electrons from food to oxygen

Polysaccharides

Fats

Proteins

Sugars

Glycerol Fatty acids

Amino acids

Glycolysis

Acetyl CoA

Citric Acid Cycle

Electron Transport

ATP

Figure 6.13

FERMENTATION: ANAEROBIC HARVEST OF FOOD ENERGY Some of your cells can actually work for short periods without oxygen. Fermentation is the anaerobic (without oxygen) harvest of food energy.

Fermentation in Human Muscle Cells Under strenuous conditions, your muscles can spend ATP faster than your bloodstream can deliver O2 When this happens, your muscle cells begin to work anaerobically After functioning anaerobically for about 15 seconds, muscle cells begin to generate ATP by the process of fermentation Fermentation relies on glycolysis to produce ATP

 Glycolysis: Does not require oxygen

INPUT

Fermentation: producing lactic acid

Produces two ATP molecules for each glucose broken down to pyruvic acid Pyruvic acid, produced by glycolysis, is reduced by NADH, producing NAD+, which keeps glycolysis going.
In human muscle cells, lactic acid is a by-product

2 ADP +2 P

OUTPUT
2 ATP

Glycolysis

2 NAD+ 2 NADH

Glucose

2 NADH 2 NAD+ 2 Pyruvic + +2H acid

2 Lactic acid

Figure 6.14

The Process of Science: What Causes Muscle Burn? Observation: Muscles produce lactic acid under anaerobic conditions. Question: Does the buildup of lactic acid cause muscle fatigue? Hypothesis: The buildup of lactic acid would cause muscle activity to stop. Experiment: Tested frog muscles under conditions when lactic acid could and could not diffuse away.

Battery Force measured

Battery Force measured

Frog muscle stimulated by electric current

Solution prevents diffusion of lactic acid

Solution allows diffusion of lactic acid; muscle can work for Figure 6.15 twice as long

Fermentation in Microorganisms Results: When lactic acid could diffuse away, performance improved greatly. Conclusion: Lactic acid accumulation is the primary cause of failure in muscle tissue. However, recent evidence suggests that the role of lactic acid in muscle function remains unclear. Fermentation alone is able to sustain many types of microorganisms. The lactic acid produced by microbes using fermentation is used to produce: Cheese, sour cream, and yogurt dairy products Soy sauce, pickles, olives Sausage meat products

10

 Yeast is a type of microscopic fungus that: uses a different type of fermentation produces CO2 and ethyl alcohol instead of lactic acid This type of fermentation, called alcoholic fermentation, is used to produce:
Glucose INPUT

Fermentation: producing ethyl alcohol

OUTPUT 2 ADP +2 P 2 ATP 2 CO2 released

Glycolysis

2 NAD+ 2 NADH

2 NADH 2 NAD+ 2 Pyruvic + 2 H+ 2 Ethyl alcohol acid

Beer Wine Breads

Figure 6.16

Today, glycolysis: Occurs in almost all organisms Is a metabolic heirloom of the first stage in the breakdown of organic molecules

Billions of years ago

Glycolysis could be used by ancient bacteria to make ATP when little oxygen was available, and before organelles evolved.

2.1 2.2 2.7

O2 present in Earths atmosphere

Evolution Connection: Life before and after Oxygen

First eukaryotic organisms Atmospheric oxygen reaches 10% of modern levels Atmospheric oxygen first appears

3.5

Oldest prokaryotic fossils Origin of Earth Figure 6.17

4.5

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