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1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

DATA CONVERSION

1.1 ANALOGUE COMPUTERS

Analogue computers operate by using voltages, currents, shaft angles etc to
represent physical quantities.
The basic concept of the analogue computer is as follows:
1.

Physical variables, usually voltages, are used to represent the magnitudes

of all the variables contained within the equation or problem.

2.

Computer "building blocks", each performing a single mathematical

function, are interconnected in such a manner that the relationships
between the input and output variables correspond to the desired
mathematical relationship.

3.

The voltage solution exists at a specific point within the system and is
made available to the operator in some form.

Generally, there are two types of analogue circuit arrangements in use. The first
is a 'general purpose' computing arrangement consisting of a large number of
networks, which are capable of providing solutions to a range of problems. The
second type is a 'special purpose' arrangement, which is capable of serving as a
model for, or simulating, a specific condition.
Since the analogue computer operates by a process of measurement, it is best
suited to applications where continually varying quantities are to be dealt with.
Although computation involving measurement usually introduces errors, it is
possible to attain accuracy of better than 0.1%. This is adequate for many
applications and, since small analogue computers can deal with relatively simple
problems, this type of computer will be met in some equipment carried in aircraft.
1.2 DIGITAL COMPUTERS
Digital computers are arithmetic machines: that is, they operate by a process of
counting numbers or digits (hence their name). The basic operation that a digital
computer can perform is addition.
The digital computer is, therefore, used when the problem to be solved is of an
arithmetical nature and where an exact answer is required. Digital processing
errors are very low, with accuracy in the order of 0.001% being possible, although
a digital computer operating in a controlling role will have inputs derived from
some form of measurement with consequent errors. For specific tasks, the
programme of instructions, which supplies the computer with the information on
which it operates, can be built in to the machine; digital computers of this type
have many aircraft applications.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

uk
engineering

MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

1.3 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

Analogue (continuous) information is made available in virtually all aircraft
equipment. Figure 1 shows the analogue signal created by a variable resistor. In
the circuit +0V is present at the output A when the potentiometer is at position 1
and +5V when at position 2. These values would represent either a 1 (+5V) or a
0 (+0V). However, it can be seen from the graph of the analogue signal that it
does produce distinct values of +5V and +0V as the potentiometer moves from
one end to the other.

+5V
POSITION
2

POSITION
1

+5V
O/P A
+0V
TIME

Analogue Signal Representation

Figure 1
A digital signal is one that contains two distinct values (1 and 0). Figure 2 shows
a digital signal being produced by use of a switch. With the switch in the open
position, +0V will be present at point (logic 0). When the switch closes, +5V will
be present at point (logic 1). Digital signals are often considered to be either
ON or OFF (logic 1 or 0).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

uk

MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

engineering

+5V

+5V

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

O/P A

+0V
TIME

Digital Signal Representation

Figure 2
Signals in analogue form can be processed using operational amplifiers and other
devices in various configurations and ultimately converted to an observable
output by a suitable output device.
Systems, which are completely analogue, are limited in the accuracy that can be
achieved both physically and economically, they also suffer from error and
distortion for various reasons such as non-linearity, drift, crosstalk, noise etc.
Digital systems, especially since the advent of integrated circuits, offer
improvements over analogue systems in most respects, thus modern processing
systems employ fixed analogue and digital circuitry (hybrid systems) in which, of
course, conversion from one form to the other must take place at certain points
within the system.
Hybrid systems are more common than all digital systems presumably because
of the simplicity of analogue transducers, and the nature of the information to be
processed lends itself more readily to analogue representation. For example it
would be difficult to digitize an audio signal without converting it from changing air
pressure to an electrical analogue by means of a microphone (transducer).
For further computing such an electrical analogue signal would be converted into
digital form.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

uk

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

engineering

1.4 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

In an ADC a range of input values must correspond to a unique digital word. The
type of code used depends on the system but here only binary coding will be
considered.
Consider an analogue signal, which can take on any value between 0 and 7 volts.
For any particular voltage there is a corresponding binary code word. For
example, using 3-bit words, the voltage analogue value between 4 and 5 volts
would be represented in binary code by the word 100, which would change to
101, when the analogue value passed through 5 volts.
Figure 3 shows digital representation of an analogue input signals.

ANALOGUE SIGNAL

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0

0
0
1

0
1
0

0
1
1

1
0
0

1
0
1

1
1
0

1
1
1

DIGITAL SIGNAL

Digital Representation of Analogue Signals

Figure 3

3 BIT
WORD

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

uk

MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

engineering

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

The levels at which the code changes are known as quantisation levels, and the
intervals between them as quantisation intervals. In the example given in Figure
5.3.3, the quantisation levels are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 volts, and the
quantisation interval is 1 volt.
Using a 3-bit word gives 23 = 8 different quantisation levels. With a 4-bit word we
would have 24 = 16 quantisation levels with 0.5 volt quantisation intervals giving
improved resolution over the same range of input voltage.
Thus the more bits available the greater the resolution for a given range of
analogue signal input. It can be seen from the above that an ADC using an n-bit
word would have a resolution of one part in 2 n.
1.5 ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
In order to convert the analogue signal into a digital signal, an Operational
Amplifier is used as a comparator. Figure 4 shows an Op amp comparator.

+VE
VREF

+
VIN

VOUT

Comparator Circuit
Figure 4
The output of the comparator will be logic 0 when the reference voltage is
greater than the analogue input, changing to logic 1 when the analogue voltage
is greater than the reference voltage.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

uk
engineering

MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

Figure 5 shows the resultant digital waveforms from an analogue input signal
using an Op Amp comparator.

VREF
VIN

+VMAX
VOUT 0
-VMAX
WHEN VIN < VREF THEN VOUT = -V MAX
WHEN VIN > VREF THEN VOUT = +V MAX

Analogue/Digital waveforms
Figure 5
In the example in figure 3, the quantisation level was 0 7 with a quantisation
interval of 1 volt. To convert this range to digital a total of 7 comparator Op Amps
would be required. This however would give a word length of 7 bits. We know to
represent the range 0 7 with an interval of 1 volt will only require a 3-bit word.

uk
engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

To convert the seven bit word to a 3-bit word an encoder circuit is used. The
circuit contains a number of logic gates that will convert the 7-bit word down to
the required 3-bit notation. Figure 6 shows the layout of an encoder circuit.

A
B
LSB

E
F

Z
MSB

Encoder Circuit
Figure 6

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

1.6 DECIMAL TO BCD ENCODER

Some aircraft systems have a keypad, which is used either to select or input data
into the systems computer. The computer requires the key select function to be
converted into a BCD code. A decimal to BCD encoder is used to carry out this
function. Figure 7 shows decimal to BCD encoder circuit operation.

D
E
C
I
M
A
L
I
N
P
U
T

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Decimal BCD Encoder

Figure 7

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

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MODULE 5.3
DATA
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MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
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INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

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1.7 DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERSION (DAC)

Since many systems used on aircraft will require outputs in analogue form, it will
be necessary to be able to convert the digital information back into analogue.
The input to the DAC is effectively a number, usually binary coded. This number
must be converted to a corresponding number of units of voltage (or current) by
the DAC.
The output of the DAC will thus be stepped as the digital input changes, taking on
a series of discrete values. The spacing between these values (quantisation
levels) will depend on the length of the input digital word and the maximum range
of the output voltage. For example, a DAC, which can provide an output voltage
of between 0 and 16 volts, will, with 4-bit word input, have 1 volt between
quantisation levels and is illustrated in Figure 8.

ANALOGUE O/P SIGNAL

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1

0
0
1
0

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
0

0
1
0
1

0
1
1
0

0
1
1
1

1
0
0
0

1
0
0
1

1
0
1
0

1
0
1
1

DIGITAL I/P SIGNAL

DAC Output
Figure 8

1
1
0
0

1
1
0
1

1
1
1
0

1
1
1
1

uk
engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

Similarly, an output voltage range of 0 to 10 volts with 10-bit word input will give
spacing between quantisation levels of approximately 0.01 volts. The stepped
nature of the output can of course be smoothed.
To change a digital word into an analogue signal we require a circuit capable of
carrying out this function. One method would be to apply the digital word to a
corresponding number of resistors (4-bit word 4 resistors), connected as a
potential divider. Figure 9 shows a circuit that would carry out the function of
Digital to Analogue conversion.

MSB

4
B
I
T

2R

V OUT

W
O
R
D

4R

LSB

8R

DAC Weighted Circuit

Figure 9

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE

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MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

engineering

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

Figure 10 shows a Digital to analogue converter.

V REF
S1

MSB

S2

2R
-

4 BIT
DIGITAL
INPUT

S3

S4

4R

ANALOGUE
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE

8R

LSB
0V

Digital Analogue Converter

Figure 10

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engineering

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
MODULE 5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

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MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 5

uk
engineering

DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

MODULE 5.3
DATA
CONVERSION