The Effects of Non-Nutritive Sweeteners on the Texture, Flavor, Baking Time and Temperature of Baked Goods Debbie McCall

FOS 4041 March 14, 2013

Introduction The use of non-nutritive sweeteners in foodstuff has been ongoing for over a hundred years. Non-nutritive sweeteners continue to be quite popular as an alternative to regular sugar reflected in the rise in usage in the last 35 years1. With obesity on the uptick2 and Americans continuously looking for ways to cut calories, non-nutritive sweeteners offer enhanced sweetness with little to no calories3. Not only are they found in individual packets used to sweeten coffee or tea, nonnutritive sweeteners are found in favorite diet soft drinks, puddings, jellies, baby foods, processed foods and baked goods4. In 2009 it was estimated almost 6,000 products contained non-nutritive sweeteners5. It is a 60 billion dollar market that is only expected to grow larger6. Types of Non-nutritive Sweeteners Non-nutritive sweeteners are those considered to have minimal to no calories and thus provide no energy3. They may be referred to as artificial sweeteners, non-caloric sweeteners and even intense sweeteners because of their concentrated sweetness per gram as compared to sugar and other nutritive sweeteners7. According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics3, there are seven non-nutritive sweeteners approved for consumption by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame K, sucralose, neotame, stevia and luo han guo fruit extract. They have undergone extensive research and are considered generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration8.

Common Names of Sweeteners There are common names for most of the non-nutritive sweeteners sold on the market. Saccharin is sold as Sweet n Low, aspartame is known as Equal and Neotame is made by NutraSweet which is derived from aspartame4. Acesulfame K is sold under the name Sunett, Sucralose is popularly known as Splenda and Stevioside, also known as Stevia, is sold under the names Truvia, Pure-Via and Sweetleaf4. Purpose The purpose of this research paper is to examine the effects of non-nutritive sweeteners in baked goods. The application of food science principles in respect to the characteristics of texture, taste, baking time and temperature in using non-nutritive sweeteners will be evaluated. Comparisons using non-nutritive sweeteners versus nutritive sweeteners, specifically sucrose, in baked goods will also be assessed. The scope of this paper will focus on the more common non-nutritive sweeteners used in baking. History The first non-nutritive sweetener, saccharin, was discovered by accident by a Russian chemist in a laboratory at Johns Hopkins in 18799. Constantine Fahlberg, while handling coal tar, licked his fingers without thinking and discovered them to taste extremely sweet. Six years later Fahlberg made his discovery available for public consumption in London. Ten years after that Americans unknowingly found it being used in their soft drinks9.

In the 1960s two more non-nutritive sweeteners were discovered. Aspartame was discovered while trying to formulate an ulcer drug9. Acesulfame K, sucralose and neotame followed in 1976 and 1990 respectively, and are the latest contributions to the non-nutritive sweetener market4. Initially, non-nutritive sweeteners were used in maintaining blood sugar in diabetic patients but have now gained wide acceptance in a variety of applications 9. Chemical Composition Most non-nutritive sweeteners are synthetically made but some are derived from natural sources like plants and sucrose10. In order to determine the differences in baking with non-nutritive sweeteners versus sucrose their chemical compositions will be addressed. Nutritive sweeteners, unlike most non-nutritive sweeteners are made of carbohydrates and thus provide energy10.

Sucrose is a disaccharide. It is made of one unit of the monosaccharide glucose and one unit of the monosaccharide fructose that are chemically bonded by glycosidic linkages11. Sucrose is a nutritive sweetener that contains calories due to its carbohydrate nature11. The chemical structure of aspartame is made up of two amino acids, phenylalanine and aspartic acid that are attached to a methanol backbone10. Aspartame is the only non-nutritive sweetener that is metabolized in the body. Most other non-nutritive sweeteners are generally excreted from the body unchanged10. Technically, aspartame cannot be called a non-caloric sweetener because it contains 4kcal/g, the same as sugar4. However, because it is such an intense sweetener, approximately

200 times sweeter than sugar, much smaller amounts need to be used and thus the caloric intake is minimal. Those with phenylketonuria must avoid the non-nutritive sweetener aspartame due to the amino acid phenylalanine. The other non-nutritive sweeteners contain zero calories12. Acesulfame K is a combination of an acid and potassium and saccharin is made from sodium or calcium saccharin and both are similar in composition10. Stevia and luo han guo are from plant extracts with natural sweetness near 200-300 times sweeter than sucrose13. Sucralose does not metabolize like sugar in the body, even though it is derived from sugar; sucralose has no calories14. Its sweetness factor is from the three chlorine atoms that take the place of the three hydroxyl groups10. Health Risks There has been controversy surrounding the safety of non-nutritive sweeteners since cyclamate was associated with bladder cancer in rats in 1969. Within a year it was banned10. There are still lingering concerns that non-nutritive sweeteners may have carcinogenic risks. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration concluded after investigating these claims that there is no medical basis linking the two14. Other health risks include the correlation of aspartame with neurological issues and cancer. No scientific evidence was found associating the two with aspartame15. In 1977, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration was going to ban saccharin because of a link with cancer. This was proven untrue as it appeared the link was to the rats themselves and imposed no

human danger15. In case studies of persons presenting with migraines, the cessation of nonnutritive sweeteners provided relief from the migraines14. Health Benefits There is interest and concern with the increased consumption of nutritive sweeteners, especially sugar, and the correlated increases of chronic diseases and obesity16. There is no wonder that non-nutritive sweeteners, even with their abundance of sweetness are the logical alternative choice17. The low glycemic response due to the reduction in carbohydrates and minimal to no calories could be considered a positive benefit of using non-nutritive sweeteners7. Studies have shown when non-nutritive sweeteners are substituted for sugar that hunger levels drop, triglyceride levels are lowered and postprandial glucose levels are significantly lowered17. Larger studies show a decrease in overall body weight, lower risk of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease when non-nutritive sweeteners were used in place of sugar. Longer duration clinical trials must be performed to confirm the potential advantages of using non-nutritive sweeteners17. Nutritive Sweeteners versus Non-nutritive Sweeteners It is important to establish how the use of non-nutritive sweeteners affects the taste in baked goods. The conscious flavor of sweetness occurs in sugar from the simple carbohydrates of glucose and fructose that form sucrose14. In non-nutritive sweeteners this sensation can come from the somewhat sweeter amino acids that are found in aspartame or the extremely

sweet non-nutritive sweetener neotame, which is 7000 times sweeter than sucrose13. Sucrose is the gold standard by which most consumers compare for sweetness18. The Effects of Non-nutritive Sweeteners in Baking Compared to Sugar Because of its low to zero calorie count and the reduced amount needed for baking due to their intense sweetness, non-nutritive sweeteners can be enticing as a substitute for sugar in baking. Yet many non-nutritive sweeteners can impart a bitter or off taste, some are unstable at high temperatures and others can be combined for an acceptable outcome19. This paper will discuss a few of the non-nutritive sweeteners and their effects in baking compared to sugar. When the home cook chooses to bake with a non-nutritive sweetener in place of sugar there are adjustments that need to be made. A one to one substitution ratio of non-nutritive sweetener to sucrose may not apply in baking with many of these19. Non-nutritive sweeteners impart sweetness but little bulk in baking20. Typically in processed foods, bulking agents are added as solids to make up for the lack of consistency in non-nutritive sweeteners19. Browning, volume and texture may all be affected when using non-nutritive sweeteners compared to sugar20. Sucrose influences the outcome of baking in many ways. It gives sweetness to a product when heated to a higher temperature and then starts to degrade, imparting that sweet flavor. It gives character to the structure and texture of a product21. Sucrose incorporates air during preparation and it adds volume while baking. This is accomplished by delaying the gelatinization of starches so the air bubbles can expand from carbon dioxide and water vapor22.

This results in a higher product. Sugar also helps in retaining moisture and prolonging freshness22. Sucrose slows the development of the gluten proteins to allow for a more tender product. It also has the capability to provide crispness and it helps gives the browning color to a product23. It is presumed that during baking, sucrose recrystallizes at the surface of the product to lend that typical cracked pattern found on many baked goods 21. Saccharin can be used in baking. There is a one to one ratio with the use of saccharin to sugar. It is heat stable but can have a strong metallic aftertaste, so it is recommended to use saccharin with sugar or another non-nutritive sweetener24. Saccharin tends to have low volume in a product due to the lack of moisture because of the hygroscopicity of saccharin19. The proteins arent hydrated sufficiently and thus less gluten is developed19. This causes minimal starch gelatinization to occur due to the nominal available liquid, which steam needs to give rise to the product. This leads to a very dense, almost rubbery texture to the product25. Using aspartame in baking is not suggested24. In fact, products containing aspartame that may be used in baking have a label stating that it may not be suitable for baking 15. It breaks down in heated temperatures and loses its sweetness becoming unpalatable. It is mainly used in sweetening diet soft drinks12. When used in baking with a one to one ratio, it results in very low volume and compact texture25. Aspartame does not go through the series of chemical reactions necessary that result in browning, because no reducing sugar is available to combine with the amine for the Maillard

reaction to take place20,23. Thus a very pale product occurs. The leavening agents that are responsible for creating that grain texture of small holes do not develop and tunnels form. The overall result is a very gummy mouthfeel25. Sucralose can be used in baking as it is heat stable. It is derived from sucrose and doesnt decompose or interact negatively with the other ingredients in baking19. It does however cause the dough to become solid and elastic and it decreases batter viscosity26. This results in a tougher product that is chewy, dense and spongy as less air is incorporated to produce a tender grain26. Even though sucralose is made from sugar its properties result in low volume, only a slight amount of browning occurs from minimal chemical reactions and though there is enough sweetening in the product a metallic aftertaste can occur19. Baking with sucralose in yeast products is not recommended as sucralose does not activate yeast, therefore the yeast has nothing to feed off of for fermentation to take place19. Baking times with sucralose are shortened by up to ten minutes from the normal baking times depending on the product and a lower temperature should be used26. Although the ratio in baking is one to one, sucralose to sucrose, good results in flavor, appearance, texture and sweetness were achieved when a blend of half sucralose and half sucrose was used27. When used in baking at a ratio of 1 cup sugar to 2 tablespoons of stevia, stevia is comparable in sweetness27. In order for the other properties of sugar to be exhibited when using stevia, bulking agents must be added to accommodate for the lack of consistency. When using sugar in baking, numerous small to medium size air bubbles are incorporated in the batter giving it increased volume22.

When using stevia a reduced amount of larger air bubbles form. Different interactions with the starch and proteins in the batter affect the outcome of the product. Decreased batter viscosity and lower batter stability lead to a harder, less tender product with a bitter aftertaste due to the presence of flavonoids and tannins27. Baking in temperatures over 400F causes stevia to breakdown its glycosides which are a derivative of steviol. Lowering the oven temperature and baking for less time is recommended27. In the use of non-nutritive sweeteners in many of these products, chemical interactions can occur in a synergistic but sometimes antagonistic way27. Whether by the type of dough used hence the protein content, the emulsifiers incorporated or the moisture binding qualities of the non-nutritive sweetener, all of these can affect the outcome of the product19. It is important to realize how many reactions and interactions take place in baking that can lead to a desirable or undesirable product. Conclusion Popularity of non-nutritive sweeteners is on the rise1. There may be benefits and risks related to the use of non-nutritive sweeteners but rigorous testing of the non-nutritive sweeteners that are on the market was done over many years28. The use of non-nutritive sweeteners is considered safe when consumption is within the daily intake recommended by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration3. Non-nutritive sweeteners are hundreds to thousands of times sweeter than sugar4. Careful consideration must be taken when substituting a non-nutritive sweetener for a nutritive

one in baking20. Not all non-nutritive sweeteners are recommended as they can leave bitter or metallic aftertastes or are unstable at high temperatures28. The use of non-nutritive sweeteners provides lower calories and if personal tastes can accommodate the intense sweetness a non-nutritive sweetener can be an acceptable substitute in baking. Adjustment of baking times, a lower ratio of non-nutritive sweetener to sugar and an allowable difference in texture and volume must be accounted for in baking with non-nutritive sweeteners. Application to Practice Approximately 86% of households consume products that contain some type of nonnutritive sweeteners29. There is no wonder that manufacturers continue to churn out products that shout low sugar, reduced sugar, or no-added sugar on their packaging. One glance at the ingredient list and almost assuredly aspartame, acesulfame k and saccharin amongst others are lurking inside. Non-nutritive sweeteners appear in everything from diet soft drinks to puddings to processed foods. They are widely available for purchase and their affordability and low to zero calories make them appealing to consumers. A consideration into understanding why individuals are so drawn to sweetened products is surmised. Humans are born with an innate taste for sweetness. There are taste receptor cells located in fungiform papillae on the tongue that detect different sensations with sweet being one of them23. When a substance activates those receptor cells, signals are messaged to the brain to perceive the sweet taste. When a concentration of molecules assaults the gustatory

cells as in the highly sweetened non-nutritive sweeteners, an intense sweet perception is received23. Sweet tastes can enhance the eating experience. There is concern that the taste of sweetness and the pleasure it evokes can lead to overeating30. However, suggestions that nonnutritive sweeteners may increase the appetite and thus cause greater caloric intake have not been confirmed30. It is important that a dietician understand that clients have different sensory responses to food, including sweetness. Many consumers are trying to reduce their intake of sugar because so much is needed to obtain that appealing sweet flavor31. Non-nutritive sweeteners may offer an option as an alternative to sugar by reducing the amounts needed due to their intense sweetness. Instead of opting out of eating a sweet treat those looking to decrease caloric intake may seek out a product with non-nutritive sweeteners due to their minimal or zero calories31. When sucrose is digested in the body it returns to its simple sugar units of glucose and fructose and is released into circulation. Glucose needs insulin to maintain blood sugar levels so when sucrose is digested it sends a spike of insulin into the blood and impacts the system. Nonnutritive sweeteners are not insulin dependent and thus have no real glycemic effects 32. Diabetics can benefit from using non-nutritive sweeteners32. Once used specifically for the purpose of maintaining blood sugar in diabetics, non-nutritive sweeteners continue to offer a way to enjoy a sweet product without the rise in insulin 32. The American Diabetes Association confirms that non-nutritive sweeteners are a viable option for use when complying with the daily intake levels that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration have established 7.

Dieticians may be reluctant to recommend non-nutritive sweeteners as many are synthetically made. However, they can feel confident in recommending non-nutritive sweeteners to certain clients due to their rigorous testing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration8. Conversely, if a client wishes to include non-nutritive sweeteners in their diet a dietician should be supportive. Dieticians can offer ways to use them as substitutes, including in baking, as reflected in this paper. Many products, unknowingly to the consumer, contain non-nutritive sweeteners. Dieticians should instruct their clients on what names to look for in the ingredient list on the food label so they are aware what products may contain non-nutritive sweeteners. Future of Non-nutritive Sweeteners Consumers are demanding that non-nutritive sweeteners mimic the taste of sugar or are sweeter than sugar with no unappealing aftertaste and minimal caloric content33. The future may likely be one where non-nutritive sweeteners are combined with sugar to produce a blend that obtains that desired level of sweetness and has minimal calories13. However, there is still a market for highly intense non-nutritive sweeteners as new ones are being discovered and marketed34. Alitame is a new non-nutritive sweetener that has been discovered by Pfizer, Inc. A petition has been filed in the U.S. for use of Alitame in food and beverages. It is formed from two amino acids and an amine and is 2,000 times sweeter than sucrose 15.

Alitame has an extended shelf life and is stable at high temperatures. It has a synergistic effect where it combines well with other non-nutritive sweeteners to enhance the flavor and reduce the amount needed overall to achieve a certain level of sweetness. Alitame exhibits an off-putting flavor when stored for an extended time15. Another new non-nutritive sweetener looking to enter the U.S. market is Advantame. It is derived from aspartame and vanillan and has 20,000 times the sweetness of sugar. It contains no calories and is more stable in higher temperatures than aspartame. Advantame is still waiting approval from the Food and Drug Administration34. The artificial sweetener cyclamate is looking for re-approval in the United States. It was originally discovered in a lab in 1937 by a graduate student while he was smoking 35. It is 30 times sweeter than sugar, has a long shelf life and is synergistic with other non-nutritive sweeteners with no bitter aftertaste35. The demand for healthier, all natural products has led to the discovery of using proteins, once thought too large a molecule to impart a sweet taste34. Monellin was the first protein discovered with a sweetening agent naturally found in the African fruit, serendipity berry. It has about 1,500 times the sweetness of sugar and 4kcal/g. It is not heat stable and is sensitive to acidic conditions. It is currently not approved for use in the United States34. A future area of research in non-nutritive sweeteners is moving away from the discovery of intense sweeteners and into the sensory stimulation to sweetness30. Investigation into sites in the brain that function to determine satiety levels and food likes and wants in choosing nonnutritive sweeteners are being discussed. Trigger factors for sweetness and the neurological

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