HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 1 Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING Chapter 1 of a thesis shoul !o"tai" a is!ussio" of ea!

h of the follo#i"$ topi!s%

I"tro u!tio" State&e"t of the Pro'le& Assu&ptio"s a" H(potheses Si$"ifi!a"!e or I&porta"!e of the Stu ( Defi"itio"s of Ter&s S!ope a" Deli&itatio" of the Stu ( Co"!eptual )ra&e#or*

The I"tro u!tio"

Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduction of a thesis should contain a discussion of any or all of the following:

1. Presentation of the problem. The start of the introduction is the presentation of the problem, that is, what the problem is all about. This will indicate what will be covered by the study.

2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.

. !ationale of the study. The reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct the study must be discussed.

". #istorical bac$ground of the problem. %or a historical bac$ground of the research problem of the teaching of science, the first satellite to orbit the earth sent aloft by !ussia may be mentioned

&. ' desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation, circumstance, or phenomenon. (f the teaching of science in the high schools of Province ' is the topic, the researcher must explain his earnest desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of the situation so that he will be in a better position to initiate remedial measures.

). ' desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product. The researcher must also explain his desire to find a better way of teaching science in the high schools of Province ' to improve the outcome of instruction.

*. ' desire to discover something. (n connection with the teaching of science in the high schools of Province ', the researcher may have the desire to discover what is wrong with the instruction and a desire to discover better ways of teaching the sub+ect. #e may discuss his desire to discover such things.

,. Geographical conditions of the study locale. This is necessary an anthropological and economic studies. (f the sub+ect of investigation is rice production, then the terrain, soil, climate, rainfall, etc. of the study locale have to be described.

-. ' lin$ between the introduction and the statement of the problem. ' sentence or two should show the lin$ between the introduction and the conducting of the researcher.

State&e"t of the Pro'le& There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific .uestions or subproblems into which the general problem is bro$en up. These are already formulated at the beginning of the study and so they should only be copied in this section.

Assu&ptio"s a" H(potheses #istorical and descriptive investigations do not need explicit hypotheses and assumptions. /nly experimental studies need expressly written assumptions and hypotheses. 0ince these are already formulated at the start of the experiment, they are +ust copied in this section. I&porta"!e or Si$"ifi!a"!e of the Stu ( The importance of the whole study must contain explanations or discussions of any or all of the following: 1. The rationale, timeliness, and1or relevance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and1or relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained or discussed. %or instance, a survey test in science reveals that the performance of the students in the high schools of Province ' is poor. (t must be pointed out that this is a strong reason why an investigation of the teaching of science in the said high schools is necessary. 'lso, the study is very timely and relevant because today, it is science and technology that are ma$ing some nations very highly industriali2ed and progressive. 0o, if science is properly studied and taught and then applied, it can also ma$e the country highly industriali2ed and progressive. 2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions. The poor performance of the students in the high schools of Province ' in a survey test in science should be explained as a problem and an unsatisfactory condition. 0o if the in.uiry is made, the possible causes of the poor performance of the students in the science survey test may be discovered so that remedial measures may be instituted to solve the problem or the unsatisfactory situation.

. 3ho are to be benefitted and how they are going to be benefitted. (t must be shown who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position on account of the study. (n the in.uiry conducted about the teaching of science, for instance, some wea$nesses of the instructional program may be discovered. This will benefit the administrators of the high schools in Province ' because they can ma$e the findings of the study as a basis for formulating their supervisory plans for the ensuing year. They may include in their plans some measures to correct the wea$nesses so as to strengthen the instruction. (n turn, the students will also be benefitted for learning more science. (n the long run, the whole country will en+oy the good results of the study.

". Possible contribution to the fund of $nowledge. (f in the study it is found out that the inductive method is very effective in the teaching of science, it should be pointed out that this can be a contribution of the study to the fund of $nowledge.

&. Possible implications. (t should be discussed here that the implications include the possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the remedial measures to solve the problems. (mplications also include the good points of a system which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.

Defi"itio" of Ter&s 1. /nly terms, words, or phrases which have special or uni.ue meanings in the study are defined. %or instance, the term non4teaching facilities may be used in the study of the teaching of science. 5on4teaching facilities may be defined as facilities needed by the students and teachers may be defined as facilities needed by the students and teachers but are not used to explain the lesson nor ma$e instructions clearer.

2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study. %or instance, a study is made about early marriage. 3hat is meant by early marriage6 To ma$e the meaning clear, early marriage may be defined as one in which the contracting parties are both below eighteen years of age.

. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term defined. Thus, a house of light materials may be defined as one with bamboo or small wooden posts7 nipa, buri, or nipa walls7 split bamboo floor7 and cogon or nipa roof. This is also an operational definition.

". 8efinitions may be ta$en from encyclopedias, boo$s, maga2ines and newspaper articles, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must ac$nowledge his sources. 8efinitions ta$en from published materials are called conceptual or theoretical definitions.

&. 8efinitions should be as brief, clear, and une.uivocal as possible.

). 'cronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly $nown or if it is used for the first time.

S!ope a" li&itatio"s of the Stu ( The scope and delimitations should include the following: 1. ' brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

2. The sub+ect matter and topics studied and discussed.

. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong.

". The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be large enough to ma$e generali2ations significant.

&. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were gathered.

Li&itatio"s of the Stu (

9imitations of the study include the wea$nesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where the variables involved are uncountables or continuous variables such as ade.uacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent, etc. The wea$nesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents. %or instance, library facilities may be rated as very ade.uate by &: students, ade.uate by *& students, fairly ade.uate by : students, inade.uate by 2: students, and very inade.uate by 1& students. ;ertainly, with these ratings, not all of them could be correct in their assessment. 0ome could have inaccurate if not entirely wrong perceptions.

Co"!eptual )ra&e#or*

%rom the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a theoretical scheme for his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framewor$ consists of the investigator<s own position on a problem after his exposure to various theories that have bearing on the problem. (t is the researcher<s new model which has its roots on the previous models which the researcher had studied.

The conceptual framewor$ becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the study. (t serves as a guide in conducting the investigation. =riefly stated, the conceptual framewor$ for the teaching of science can be: The effectiveness of a science instructional program depends upon the .ualifications of the teachers, the effectiveness of their methods and strategies of teaching, the ade.uacy of facilities, the ade.uacy of supervisory assistance, and the elimination of problems hampering the progress.

Paradigm. ' paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framewor$. (t depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual framewor$ wants to convey.

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER +

Chapter + RELATED LITERAT,RE AND ST,DIES

Guidelines in ;iting !elated 9iterature and 0tudies

A- Chara!teristi!s of the Materials Cite

The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should be cited:

1. The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social, political, scientific, and technological changes. 8iscoveries in historical and archaeological research have also changed some historical facts. !esearchers in education and psychology are also ma$ing great strides. 0o, findings fifteen years ago may have little value today unless the study is a comparative in.uiry about the past and the present. >athematical and statistical procedures, however, are a little more stable.

2. >aterials must be as ob+ective and unbiased as possible. 0ome materials are extremely one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided.

. >aterials must be relevant to the study. /nly materials that have some similarity to or bearing on the problem researched on, should be cited.

". >aterials must not be too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough to give the researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. This is especially a problem with pioneering studies. 5aturally, there are few related materials or even none at all. /rdinarily, from fifteen to twenty4five may do for a master<s thesis and from twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation, depending upon their availability and depth and length of discussions. The numbers, however, are only suggestive but not imperative. These are only the usual numbers observed in theses and dissertations surveyed. %or an undergraduate thesis, about ten may do.

B- Wa(s of Citi"$ Relate Literature a" Stu ies

The following are the ways of citing related literature and studies:

1. =y author or writer. (n this method the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have the same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with their respective authors or writers.

2. =y topic. (n this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the same topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers. This is a summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of the same topic.

. ;hronological. !elated materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according to the year they were written. >aterials which were written earlier should be cited first before those which were written later. This can be done

especially when citation is by author or writer. chronological citation can be done in the footnote.

(f citation is by topic,

C- What to Cite

(t should be emphasi2ed that only the ma+or findings, ideas, generali2ations, principles, or conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be discussed in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas, generali2ations, principles, or conclusions are summari2ed, paraphrased, or synthesi2ed.

D- .uoti"$ a Material

' material may be .uoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial and it is not too long. (t is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and right sides of the paper but without any .uotation mar$s.

/ustifi!atio" of the Stu (

(t should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present in.uiry may only be a replication of another study. (t should be stressed also that inspite of similar studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of studies in other places are also true in the locale of the present study. There may also be a need to continue with the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other in.uiries about the same research problem or topic so that generali2ation or principles may be formulated. These generali2ations and principles would be the contributions of the present investigation together with other studies to the fund of $nowledge. This is one of the more important purposes of research: the contribution that it can give to the fund of $nowledge.

;hapter !?0?'!;# >?T#/8/9/G@ ;hapter 1 P!/=9?> '58 (T0 =';AG!/B58

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 0

Chapter 0 METHODS O) RESEARCH AND PROCED,RES

Generally, the research design is explained in this chapter. 'mong those topics included in the research design which need to be given some $ind of explanations are the following:

>ethod of !esearch Bsed >ethod of ;ollecting 8ata and 8evelopment of the !esearch (nstrument 0ampling 8esign 0tatistical Treatment

Metho of Resear!h

The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.

The descriptive method of research was used in this study. 8escriptive method of research is a fact4finding study with ade.uate and accurate interpretation of the findings. (t describes what is. (t describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions, practices, situations, or any phenomena. 0ince the present study or investigation was concerned with the present status of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province ', the descriptive method of research was the most appropriate method to use.

Metho of Colle!ti"$ Data a" De1elop&e"t of the Resear!h I"stru&e"t

The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument for gathering data must also be explained.

?xample: The method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This is concerned with loo$ing into the commonality of some elements. 0ince the presents research is a status study, the normative survey was the most appropriate method to use in gathering data.

The instrument used to collect data was the .uestionnaire. This was used because it gathers data faster than any other method. =esides, the respondents were teachers and students and so they are very literate. They could read and answer the .uestionnaire with ease.

Development of the instrument. 'fter reading and studying samples of .uestionnaire from related studies, the researcher prepared his own .uestionnaire. #e also consulted some $nowledgeable people about how to prepare one. The researcher saw to it that there were enough items to collect data to cover all aspects of the problem and to answer all the specific .uestions under the statement of the problem. Then he submitted the .uestionnaire to his adviser for correction after which it was finali2ed.

%or validation purposes, the .uestionnaire was given to ten high school science teachers for them to fill up. These teachers did not participate in the study. 'fter they had filled up the copies they were interviewed by the researcher to find out their assessment of the .uestionnaire. They were as$ed if all the items were clear and une.uivocal to them7 if the number of items were ade.uate enough to collect data about all aspects of the teaching of science7 if the .uestions were interesting and not boring7 if all the items were ob+ective and not biased except for a few unavoidable essay .uestions7 if all the items were relevant to the research problem7 and if the

.uestionnaire was not too long. 'll of them said the items were clear and une.uivocal except a few, relevant, interesting and ob+ective .uestions, and the length was alright. The few .uestioned items were revised for more clarity and definiteness.

The copies of the .uestionnaire were then distributed personally by the researcher to the respondents. 'fter a few days, all the copies distributed were retrieved also personally by the researcher.

The Sa&pli"$ Desi$"

=efore the collection of data starts in any research pro+ect, the proportion of the population to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the sample must have been finished. 0o, what the researcher has to do here is to write about the complete procedure he used in determining his sample. 'mong the things that he should explain are:

a. The si2e of the population7 b. The study population7 c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used7 d. The type or techni.ue of sampling used whether pure random ampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling or a combination of two or more techni.ues7 e. The actual computation of the sample7 and f. The sample.

The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. #e must be able to show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used the appropriate techni.ue of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid and reliable.

Statisti!al Treat&e"t of Data

The last part of this chapter usually described the statistical treatment of data. The $ind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the specific problems, and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypotheses particularly determine the $ind of statistics to be used.

The role of statistics in research. 3ith the advent of the computer age, statistics is now playing a vital role in research. This is true especially in science and technological research. 3hat functions do statistics perform in research6 0ome are the following:

1. 0tatistical methods help the researcher in ma$ing his research design, particularly in experimental research. 0tatistical methods are always involved in planning a research pro+ect because in some way statistics directs the researcher how to gather his data.

2. 0tatistical techni.ues help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability of his research instruments. 8ata gathered with instruments that are not valid and reliable are almost useless and so the researcher must have to be sure that his instruments are valid and reliable. 0tatistics helps him in doing this.

. 0tatistical manipulations organi2e raw data systematically to ma$e the latter appropriate for study. Bnorgani2ed data cannot be studied. 5o inferences nor deductions can be made from unorgani2ed data. 0tatistics organi2ed data systematically by ordered arrangement, ran$ing, score distribution, class fre.uency distribution or cumulative fre.uencies. These ma$e the data appropriate for study.

". 0tatistics are used to test the hypotheses. 0tatistics help the researcher determine whether his hypotheses are to be accepted or to be re+ected.

&. 0tatistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. %or instance, if the standard deviation of the class fre.uency of a group is small, we $now that the

group is more or less homogeneous but if it is large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.

). 0tatistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significance of vital statistical measures. These statistical measures are the bases for ma$ing inferences, interpretations, conclusions or generali2ations.

Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures. The researcher must have at least a rudimentary $nowledge of statistics so that he will be able to select and apply the appropriate statistical methods for his data. 0ome suggestions for the selection and application of statistical techni.ues follows: 1. %irst of all, the data should be organi2ed using any or all of the following depending upon what is desired to be $nown or what is to be computed: talligram Ctabulation tableD, ordered arrangement of scores, score distribution, class CgroupedD fre.uency distribution, or scattergram.

2. 3hen certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such as age, height, income, etc. are desired to be $nown, fre.uency counts with their fre.uency percents may be used. %or further analysis, cumulative fre.uencies Cup and downD with their respective cumulative fre.uency percents Cup and downD may also be utili2ed.

. 3hen the typical, normal, or average is desired to be $nown, the measures of central tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may be computed and used.

". 3hen the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that they cannot be counted individually such as ade.uacy, efficiency, excellence, extent, seriousness Cof problemsD, and the li$e, the weighted mean may be computed and used if the average is desired to be $nown. The variable is divided into categories of descending degree of .uality and then each degree of .uality is given a weight. %or instance, the .uestion is E#ow ade.uate are the facilities of the school6F 'de.uacy may be divided into five degrees of .uality such as Every ade.uateF with a weight of &, Eade.uateF with a weight of " E%airly ade.uateF with a weight of , Einade.uateF with a weight of 2, and Every inade.uateF with a weight of 1. Then the weighted mean is computed.

&. 3hen the variability of the population is desired to be $nown, the measures of variability such as the range, .uartile deviation, average deviation or the standard deviation may be computed and used. 3hen the measure of variability or dispersion is small, the group is more or less homogeneous but when the measure of variability is large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.

). 3hen the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be $nown, ran$ing, .uartile or percentile ran$ may be computed and used. These measures indicate the relative positions of scores in an ordered arrangement of the scores.

*. 3hen the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a group toward a certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be $nown but in which there is a neutral position, the chi4s.uare of e.ual probability, single group, is computed and interpreted.

,. 3hen the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions of two distinct groups in which there is a neutral position is desired to be $nown, the chi4s.uare of e.ual probability, two4group, is computed and used. -. To determine how one variable varies with another, the coefficient of correlation is computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group of students in a >athematics test vary with the scores of the same group of students in an ?nglish test. This is also used to determine the validity of a test by correlating it with a test of $nown validity. 3hen the coefficient of correlation between the two tests is $nown and a prediction is to be made as to what score a student gets in a second test after $nowing his score in the first, the so4called regression e.uation is to be utili2ed.

1:. (f the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two groups about a certain situation is to be studied, the computation of the difference between means is to be made. ?xample: (s there a significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students about the facilities of the school6 To answer this .uestion, the significance of the difference of two means is to used. The statistical measure computed is called t.

The t is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable to which one group called the experimental group is exposed and a second group called control group is not exposed.

11. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things to which different randomi2ed groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test is given to the different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate to use.

12. To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which they are related, partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used. The process of partial and multiple correlation will reveal the pure and sole effect of each of the independent variables upon the dependent variable, the passing of the licensing examination.

1 . To determine the association between two independent variables, the chi4 s.uare of independence or chi4s.uare of multiplication may be used. The .uestion answered by this statistical process is: (s there an association between education and leadership6 /r, the level of education and the ability to ac.uire wealth6 /r, between social ability and economic status6

(ndeed, there are lots of research situations in which different statistical procedures may or can be used and if the researcher is not so sure that he is in the right path, he better consult good statistical boo$s, or ac.uire the service of a good statistician plus the services of a computer especially if the statistical procedures are complex ones.

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2 3 ANAL4SIS5 PRESENTATION5 AND INTERPRETATION O) DATA

(n this chapter, the researcher ma$es his analysis, presentation, and interpretation of his data.

'nalysis

'nalysis is the process of brea$ing up the whole study into its constituents parts of categories according to the specific .uestions under the statement of the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study. 'nalysis usually precedes presentation.

?xample: (n the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province ', the whole study may be divided into its constituent parts as follows according to the specific .uestions:

1. ?ducational .ualifications of the science teachers 2. >ethods and strategies used in the teaching of science . %acilities available for the teaching of science ". %orms of supervisory assistance &. 8ifferences between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students concerning the teaching or science ). Problems encountered in the teaching of science *. Proposed solutions to the problems ,. (mplications of the findings

?ach constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories. ?xample: The educational .ualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the following:

1. 8egrees earned in pre4service education 2. >a+ors or speciali2ations . Bnits earned in science ". Teacher<s examinations and other examinations passed &. 0eminars, conferences, and other special trainings attended for the teaching of science

). =oo$s, +ournals, and other materials in science being read *. 'dvanced studies ,. 5umber of years in science teaching

Then under degrees earned are

1. =achelor of 'rts 2. =achelor of 0cience in ?ducation . >aster of 'rts The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The data are then grouped under the categories or parts to which they belong.

Classification of data. ;lassification is grouping together data with similar characteristics. ;lassification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are the following:

a. Qualitative (kind). Those having the same .uality or are of the same $ind are grouped together. The grouping of elements in the examples given under analysis is .ualitative.

b. Quantitative. 8ata are grouped according to their .uantity. (n age, for instance, people may be grouped into ages of 1:4":, 1&41-, 2:42", 2&42-, etc.

c. Geographical. 8ata may be classified according to their location.

d. Chronological. occurrence.

(n this, data are classified according to the order of their

Cross-classification. This is further classifying a group of data into subclasses. This is brea$ing up or dividing a big class into smaller classes.

Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement of data or groups of data are the same as those of classification.

a. Qualitative. 8ata may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest class to the smallest class as from phylum to specie in classifying animals or vice versa, or listing the biggest country to the smallest one or vice versa, or from the important to the least important, or vice versa, etc. !an$ing of students according to brightness is .ualitative arrangement.

b. Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical magnitudes, from the greatest to the smallest number or vice versa. 0chools may be arranged according to their population, from the most populated to the least populated, and so with countries, provinces, cities, towns.

c. Geographical. 8ata may be arranged according to their geographical location or according to direction. 8ata from the (locos region may be listed from north to south by province as (locos 5orte, 'bra, (locos 0ur, and 9a Bnion.

d. Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last those that occurred last, or vice versa according to the purpose of presentation. This is especially true in historical research.

;lassification, cross4classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes of organi2ing the thesis report and in presenting them in tabular form. (n tables, data are properly and logically classified, cross4classified, and arranged so that their relationships are readily seen.

Group6 eri1e Ge"erali7atio"

/ne of the main purposes of analy2ing research data is to form inferences, interpretations, conclusions, and1or generali2ations from the collected data. (n so doing the researcher should be guided by the following discussions about group4derived generali2ations.

The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method of collecting data for research implies the study of groups. %rom the findings are formulated conclusions in the form of generali2ations that pertain to the particular group studied. These conclusions are called group4derived generali2ations designed to represent characteristics of groups and are to be applied to groups rather than to individual cases one at a time. These are applicable to all $inds of research, be they social, science or natural science research. There are several types of these but are discussed under four categories by Good and 0cates. The $ey sentences are of this author.

1. Generall ! onl proportional predictions can "e made . /ne type of generali2ation is that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the cases in a group, often in the form of probability. 3hen this type is used, we do not have enough information about individual cases to ma$e predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a group of future observations. 's to individual event, however, we can say nothing7 probability is distinctly a group concept and applies only to groups.

Guality control in manufacturing is an example. =ased on the recognition that products cannot be turned out as precisely as intended, but that so long as a given proportion of the cases fall within assigned limits of variation, that is all that is expected. (n the biological field, certain proportions of offspring, inherit certain degrees of characteristics of parents, but individual predictions cannot be made. (n the social field, in insurance especially, based on demographic and actuarial data, life tables indicate life expectancies of groups but nothing whatsoever is $nown about the life expectancy of any particular individual.

2. The average can "e made to represent the #hole group . ' second type of group4derived generali2ation results from using the average as a representation of the group of cases and offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring the individuals comprising the group or the variation existing in the group but the average represents the whole group. Generally, the mean and the median are used to denote the averages of scale position but other statistical measures such as the common measures of variation, correlation, regression lines, are also structurally considered as averages. These are group functions conveying no sure $nowledge about any individual case in the group. . $ull-fre%uenc distri"ution reveals characteristics of a group. 's a third type of $nowledge growing out of the study of groups, we have the full4fre.uency distribution H the most characteristic device, perhaps of all statistical wor$. Perhaps too, the most inferential characteristics of fre.uency distribution are shape and spread. %re.uency distributions carry the implication of probability.

/ne implication is as follows. 0uppose the heights of Grade ( pupils are ta$en and then grouped into a class fre.uency distribution, using height as the trait or basis of distribution in groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and tables for the pupils will be able to $now the number of chairs and tables to suit the heights of the pupils.

". A group itself generates ne# %ualities! characteristics! properties! or aspects not present in individual cases. %or instance, there are many chairs in a room. The chairs can be arranged in a variety of ways. #owever, if there is only one chair, there can be no arrangement in any order. #ence, order and arrangement are group properties and they represent relationships within a group, properties which can arise only if there are two or more cases.

/ther group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition, organi2ation, speciali2ation, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of emotions which vanish in individual cases.

Two more categories of generali2ation may be added at this point.

1.

' generali2ation can also be made about an individual case. %or instance, a high school graduating student is declared valedictorian of his class. 3e can generali2e that, that student is the brightest in his class. This is a group4derived generali2ation because it cannot be made if there is only one student. #ere is another example. ' teacher declares that Iuan is the best behaved pupil in her class. This is a group4derived generali2ation because this statement cannot be made if there is only one pupil. There are many instances of this $ind.

2. (n certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. (t has been mentioned earlier that, generally, only proportional predictions can be made. #owever, in correlation and regression studies, one variable can be predicted from another. Ta$e the case of the civil engineering graduate ta$ing the licensing examination. (f the coefficient of correlation between the school grades of those who too$ the licensing examination and their scores in the examination is computed and it is high, it is possible to predict the chance of an individual graduate of passing the licensing examination by the use of regression e.uations. The accuracy of prediction is high if C1D there is linearity in the relationship of the two variables if graphed, C2D the distributions in the two variables are normal or not badly s$ewed, and C D the spread or scatter of the two variables is the same for each column or row in the correlation table.

Prepari"$ Data for Prese"tatio"

=efore presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the form of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram which may be called talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The individual responses to a .uestionnaire or interview schedule have to be tallied one by one.

&o# to construct a talligram. ' talligram may be constructed as follows:

1. 8etermine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their respective numbers.

2. >a$e rows for the classes by drawing hori2ontal lines with appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of the rows should be two more than the number of classes.

. >a$e columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of columns should be two more than the number of subclasses.

Prese"tatio" of Data

Presentation is the process of organi2ing data into logical, se.uential, and meaningful categories and classifications to ma$e them amenable to study and interpretation. 'nalysis and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific .uestions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular, and graphical.

Te8tual Prese"tatio" of Data

Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data. The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to supplement tabular presentation.

The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader may not even be able to grasp the .uantitative relationships of the data presented. The reader may even s$ip some statements.

Ta'ular Prese"tatio" of Data

Statistical ta"le defined. ' statistical table or simply table is defined as a systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses are given each a column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable form or forms. 'urpose of a ta"le. The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpretation, the ma$ing of inferences and implications of the relationships of statistical data. Table construction for data presentation is a part of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according to class or category.

'dvantages of tabular over textual