UNIVERSITY OF WAH. DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY.

RESEARCH ARTICLE. TOPIC: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE. SUBMITTED BY: SANA ANWER GULL. SUBMITTED TO: MAM SAIMA ARZEEN. COURSE TITLE: PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING. COURSE CODE: PSY-504. BS (h !"# PSYCHOLOGY (V#.
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Emotional Intelligence - EQ - is a relatively recent behavioural model, rising to prominence with Daniel Goleman's 199 !oo" called 'Emotional Intelligence'# $he early Emotional Intelligence theory was originally developed during the 19%&'s and '&'s by the wor" and writings o( psychologists )oward Gardner *)arvard+, ,eter -alovey *.ale+ and /ohn 0ayer *1ew )ampshire+#

Emotional Intelligence is increasingly relevant to organi2ational development and developing people, because the EQ principles provide a new way to understand and assess people's behaviors, management styles, attitudes, interpersonal s"ills, and potential# Emotional Intelligence is an important consideration in human resources planning, 3ob pro(iling, recruitment interviewing and selection, management development, customer relations and customer service, and more#

Emotional Intelligence lin"s strongly with concepts o( love and spirituality4 bringing compassion and humanity to wor", and also to '0ultiple Intelligence' theory which illustrates and measures the range o( capabilities people possess, and the (act that everybody has a value#

$he EQ concept argues that IQ, or conventional intelligence, is too narrow5 that there are wider areas o( emotional intelligence that dictate and enable how success(ul we are# -uccess re6uires more than IQ *Intelligence Quotient+, which has tended to be the traditional measure o( intelligence, ignoring essential behavioural and character 2

elements# 7e've all met people who are academically brilliant and yet are socially and inter-personally inept# 8nd we "now that despite possessing a high IQ rating, success does not automatically (ollow#

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$his is the essential premise o( EQ4 to be success(ul re6uires the e((ective awareness, control and management o( one's own emotions, and those o( other people# EQ embraces two aspects o( intelligence4

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Goleman identi(ied the (ive 'domains' o( EQ as4 7. 9. :. 4. 8! 0&!* . /- )$ %& !". M'!'*&!* . /- 0! )$ %& !". M %&6'%&!* . /. R)+ *!&;&!* '!2 /!2)-"%'!2&!* %h)- 1) 1()<" )$ %& !". 5. M'!'*&!* -)('%& !"h&1"4 &.).4 $'!'*&!* %h) )$ %& !" 3 %h)-".

Emotional Intelligence embraces and draws (rom numerous other branches o( behavioural, emotional and communications theories, such 3

as 19, *1euro-9inguistic ,rogramming+, $ransactional 8nalysis, and empathy# !y developing our Emotional Intelligence in these areas and the (ive EQ domains we can become more productive and success(ul at what we do, and help others to be more productive and success(ul too#

$he process and outcomes o( Emotional Intelligence development also contain many elements "nown to reduce stress (or individuals and organi2ations, by decreasing con(lict, improving relationships and understanding, and increasing stability, continuity and harmony#

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E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) *EI+, o(ten measured as an E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) ,/ %&)!% *E,+, describes an ability, capacity, or s"ill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions o( one's sel(, o( others, and o( groups# It is a relatively new area o( psychological research# $he de(inition o( EI is constantly changing#

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$he most distant roots o( Emotional intelligence can be traced bac" to Darwin:s early wor" on the importance o( emotional e;pression (or survival and adaptation# In the 19&&'s, even though traditional de(initions o( intelligence emphasi2ed cognitive aspects such as memory and problem-solving, several in(luential researchers in the intelligence (ield o( study had begun to recogni2e the importance o( the non-cognitive aspects# <or instance, as early as 19=&, E# 9# $horndi"e at >olumbia ?niversity used the term social intelligence to describe the s"ill o( understanding and managing other people#

-imilarly, in 19@& David 7echsler described the in(luence o( nonintellective (actors on intelligent behavior, and (urther argued that our models o( intelligence would not be complete until we can ade6uately describe these (actors# In 19% , )oward Gardner's Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea o( 0ultiple Intelligences which included both Interpersonal intelligence *the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires o( other people+ and Intrapersonal intelligence *the capacity to understand onesel(, to appreciate one's (eelings, (ears and motivations+# In Gardner's view, traditional type:s intelligence, such as IQ, (ail to (ully e;plain cognitive ability# $hus, even though the names given to the concept varied, there was a common belie( that traditional de(initions o( intelligence are lac"ing in ability to (ully e;plain per(ormance outcomes#

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$here are a lot o( arguments about the de(inition o( EI, arguments that regard both terminology and operationali2ations# $he (irst published attempt toward a de(inition was made by -alovey and 0ayer *199&+ who de(ined EI as Athe ability to monitor one's own and others' (eelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this in(ormation to guide one's thin"ing and actionsB

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$he EI model introduced by Daniel Goleman C1DE (ocuses on EI as a wide array o( competencies and s"ills that drive managerial per(ormance, measured by multi-rater assessment and sel(-assessment *!radbury and Greaves, =&& +# In Working with Emotional Intelligence *199'+, 5

Goleman e;plored the (unction o( EI on the 3ob, and claimed EI to be the strongest predictor o( success in the wor"place, with more recent con(irmation o( these (indings on a worldwide sample seen in !radbury and Greaves, F$he Emotional Intelligence Quic" !oo"F *=&& +# Goleman's model outlines (our main EI constructs4

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$he ability to read one's emotions and recogni2e their impact while using gut (eelings to guide decisions#

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Involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances# 3.

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$he ability to sense, understands, and reacts to other's emotions while comprehending social networ"s# 4.

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$he ability to inspire, in(luences, and develops others while managing con(lict#

Goleman includes a set o( emotional competencies within each construct o( EI# Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be wor"ed on and developed to achieve outstanding per(ormance# Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential (or learning emotional competencies#

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0easurement tools based on Goleman:s model o( emotional intelligence include the Emotional >ompetency Inventory *E>I+ and the Emotional Intelligence 8ppraisal, which can be ta"en as a sel(-report or DG&-degree assessment *!radbury and Greaves, =&& + *EI8+#

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8le;ithymia (rom the Gree" words HIJKL and MNOPL *literally Flac" o( words (or emotionsF+ is a term coined by ,eter -i(neos in 19%D to describe people who appeared to have de(iciencies in understanding, processing, or describing their emotions# Qiewed as a spectrum between high and low EI, the 8le;ithymia construct is strongly inversely related to EI, representing its lower range# $he individual's level o( 8le;ithymia can be measured with sel(-scored 6uestionnaires such as the $oronto 8le;ithymia -cale *$8--=&+ or the !ermond-Qorst 8le;ithymia Questionnaire *!Q8Q+ or by observer rated measures such as the Rbserver 8le;ithymia -cale *R8-+#

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Rne o( the arguments against the theoretical soundness o( the concept suggests that the constant changing and broadening o( its de(initionwhich has come to encompass many unrelated elements - had rendered it an unintelligible concept4

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Goleman's early wor" has been critici2ed (or assuming (rom the beginning that EI is a type o( intelligence# Eysenc" *=&&&+ writes that Goleman's description o( EI contains unsubstantiated assumptions about intelligence in general, and that it even runs contrary to what researchers have come to e;pect when studying types o( intelligence4

FGoleman e;empli(ies more clearly than most the (undamental absurdity o( the tendency to class almost any type o( behavior as: intelligence:### I( these (ive 'abilities' de(ine 'emotional intelligence', we would e;pect some evidence that they are highly correlated5 Goleman admits that they might be 6uite uncorrelated, and in any case i( we cannot measure them, how do we "now they are relatedS -o the whole theory is built on 6uic"sand5 there is no sound scienti(ic basisF#

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9andy *=&& + has claimed that the (ew incremental validity studies conducted on EI have demonstrated that it adds little or nothing to the e;planation or prediction o( some common outcomes *most notably academic and wor" success+# 9andy proposes that the reason some studies have (ound a small increase in predictive validity is in (act a methodological (allacy - incomplete consideration o( alternative e;planations4

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Rne criticism o( the wor"s o( 0ayer and -alovey comes (rom a study by Toberts:s et#al# *=&&1+, which suggests that the EI, as measured by the 0->EI$, may only be measuring con(ormity# $his argument is rooted in the 0->EI$'s use o( consensus-based assessment, and in the (act that scores on the 0->EI$ are negatively distributed *meaning that its scores di((erentiate between people with low EI better than people with high EI+

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<urther criticism has been o((ered by !rody *=&&@+, who claimed that unli"e tests o( cognitive ability, the 0->EI$ >%)"%" ?! 0()2*) 3 )$ %& !" 5/% ! % !)+)""'-&(. %h) '5&(&%. % 1)-3 -$ %'"?" %h'% '-) -)('%)2 % %h) ?! 0()2*) %h'% &" '"")"")2>. $he main argument is that even though someone "nows how he should behave in an emotionally laden situation, it doesn:t necessarily (ollow that he could actually carry out the reported behavior# Emotional Intelligence is e;tremely crucial#

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0ore (ormally termed socially desirable responding *-DT+, (a"ing good is de(ined as a response pattern in which test-ta"ers systematically represent themselves with an e;cessive positive bias *,aulhus, =&&=+# $his bias has long been "nown to contaminate responses on personality inventories *)oltgraves, =&&@5 0c<arland U Tyan, =&&&5 ,eebles U 0oore, 199'5 1ichols U Greene, 199%5 Verbe U ,aulhus, 19'%+, acting as a mediator o( the relationships between sel(-report measures *1ichols U Greene, 199%5 Ganster et al#, 19'D+#

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9andy distinguishes between the 'commercial wing' and 'the academic wing' o( the EI movement, basing this distinction on the alleged predictive power o( EI as seen by the two currents# 8ccording to 9andy, the (ormer ma"es e;pansive claims on the applied value o( EI, while the later is trying to warn users against these claims#

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7henever a new assessment tool is proposed (or hiring purposes, the concern arises that it might lead to un(air 3ob discrimination# $he use o( EI tests, whose validity has not been established, may lead to arbitrary discrimination practices

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H 1?&!"4 M. M.4 @ B&(&$ -&'4 D. (900A#. S +&'( '!2 )$ %& !'( + $1)%)!+&)" 1-)2&+%&!* "/++)"" 3 - $'() '!2 3)$'() )=)+/%&6)". Journal of Management Development, 27(1), 7:-:5.

$his study e;amined the relation between emotional and social intelligence competencies, as measured by the DG&-degree version o( the E>I =#&, and organi2ational success, as determined by annual per(ormance and potential ratings# ,articipants were 1& top-level e;ecutives in one (inancial services organi2ation# $he results showed no signi(icant di((erences between male and (emale leaders in their demonstration o( emotional and social intelligence competencies# $he most success(ul men and women were also more similar than di((erent in their competency demonstration# )owever, gender did moderate the relationship between the demonstration o( these competencies and success# 0ale leaders were assessed as more success(ul even when the male and (emale leaders demonstrated an e6uivalent level o( competencies# <inally, (our competencies signi(icantly separated the most success(ul male and (emale leaders (rom their typical counterparts4 -el( >on(idence, 8chievement Rrientation, Inspirational 9eadership and >hange >atalyst#

8 $'!4 E. S.4 @ W (334 S. B. (900A#. E$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+) + $1)%)!+&)" &! %h) %)'$ '!2 %)'$ ()'2)-: A $/(%&-()6)( )='$&!'%& ! 3 %h) &$1'+% 3 )$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+) ! %)'$ 1)-3 -$'!+). Journal of Management Development, 27(1), 55-B5.

$his study e;amines the relationships among team leader EI competencies, as measured by the E>I =#&, team level EI, as assessed using the Group Emotional Intelligence measure, and team per(ormance which was determined using a sub3ective measure *i#e, 11

as"ing upper level o((icers to evaluate multiple teams within the command over time+ and ob3ective measures *i#e#, percentage o( raw material waste5 number o( accidents5 and percentage o( (light ob3ectives met+# 8 total o( D@9 aircrew and maintenance military team members participated representing '1 aircrew and maintenance teams# Tesults revealed that team leader EI is signi(icantly related to the presence o( emotionally competent group norms *E>G1+ on the teams they lead, and that E>G1 are related to team per(ormance# Tesults provide three main implications (or practice4 1+ employing leaders with developed EI competencies increases both their own personal per(ormance as well as that o( the teams they lead, =+ one means through which organi2ations can develop emotionally competent groups is to develop or hire emotionally competent managers who purpose(ully (ocus on developing E>G1s, and D+ in addition to developing emotionally competent (irst line leaders, organi2ations should develop emotionally competent e;ecutive leaders because each individual on the e;ecutive management team in(luences the development o( E>G1s on the teams he or she leads#

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!y4 C'-. Ch)-!&"" Graduate -chool o( 8pplied and ,ro(essional ,sychology *G-8,,+ Tutgers ?niversity Email4 chernissWrci#rutgers#edu ,ublication date4 =&&&, ,aper presented at the 8nnual 0eeting o( the -ociety (or Industrial and Rrgani2ational ,sychology, 1ew Rrleans, 98, 8pril 1 , =&&& Ever since the publication o( Daniel Goleman:s (irst boo" on the topic in 199 , emotional intelligence has become one o( the hottest bu22words in corporate 8merica# <or instance, when the )arvard !usiness Teview published an article on the topic two years ago, it attracted a higher percentage o( readers than any other article published in that periodical in the last @& years# 7hen the >ER o( /ohnson U /ohnson read that article, he was so impressed that he had copies sent out to the @&& top e;ecutives in the company worldwide# 12

Given that emotional intelligence is so popular in corporate 8merica, and given that the concept is a psychological one, it is important (or IXR psychologists to understand what it really means and to be aware o( the research and theory on which it is based# -o in my presentation today, I:d li"e to brie(ly lay out the history o( the concept as an area o( research and describe how it has come to be de(ined and measured# I also will re(er to some o( the research lin"ing emotional intelligence with important wor"-related outcomes such as individual per(ormance and organi2ational productivity#

Even though the term has been misused and abused by many populari2es, I believe it rests on a (irm scienti(ic (oundation# 8lso, while there are aspects o( the concept that are not new, some aspects are# <inally, emotional intelligence represents a way in which IXR psychologists can ma"e particularly signi(icant contributions to their clients in the (uture# -o let:s begin with some history#

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7hen psychologists began to write and thin" about intelligence, they (ocused on cognitive aspects, such as memory and problem-solving# )owever, there were researchers who recogni2ed early on that the non-cognitive aspects were also important# <or instance, David 7echsler de(ined intelligence as Fthe aggregate or global capacity o( the individual to act purpose(ully, to thin" rationally, and to deal e((ectively with his environmentF# 8s early as 19@& he re(erred to FnonintellectiveF as well as FintellectiveF elements, by which he meant a((ective, personal, and social (actors# <urthermore, as early as 19@D 7echsler was proposing that the non-intellective abilities are essential (or predicting one:s ability to succeed in li(e# )e wrote4

$he main 6uestion is whether non-intellective, that is a((ective and conative abilities, are admissible as (actors o( general intelligence# *0y contention+ has been that such (actors are not only admissible but necessary# I have tried to show that in addition to intellective there are also de(inite non-intellective (actors that determine intelligent behavior# I( the (oregoing observations are correct, it (ollows that we 13

cannot e;pect to measure total intelligence until our tests also include some measures o( the non-intellective (actors C7echsler, 19@D YD1G, p# 1&D+#

7echsler was not the only researcher who saw non-cognitive aspects o( intelligence to be important (or adaptation and success# Tobert $horndi"e, to ta"e another e;ample, was writing about Fsocial intelligenceF in the late thirties # ?n(ortunately, the wor" o( these early pioneers was largely (orgotten or overloo"ed until 19'D when )oward Gardner began to write about Fmultiple intelligence#F Gardner proposed that FintrapersonalF and FinterpersonalF intelligences are as important as the type o( intelligence typically measured by IQ and related tests#

1ow let us switch our historical lens to IXR psychology# In the 19@&s, under the direction o( )emphill, the Rhio -tate 9eadership -tudies suggested that FconsiderationF is an important aspect o( e((ective leadership#

0ore speci(ically, this research suggested that leaders who are able to establish Fmutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapportF with members o( their group will be more e((ective# 8t about the same time, the R((ice o( -trategic -ervices developed a process o( assessment based on the earlier wor" o( 0urray that included the evaluation o( non-cognitive, as well as cognitive, abilities#

$his process evolved into the Fassessment center,F which was (irst used in the private sector at 8$U$ in 19 G# 0any o( the dimensions measured in assessment centers then and now involve social and emotional competencies such as communication, sensitivity, initiative, and interpersonal s"ills#

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I could cite other strands o( research and theory, but I thin" it is clear that by the early 199&s, there was a long tradition o( research on the role o( non-cognitive (actors in helping people to succeed in both li(e and the wor"place# $he current wor" on emotional intelligence builds on this (oundation#

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0artin -eligman has developed a construct that he calls Flearned optimismF # It re(ers to the causal attributions people ma"e when con(ronted with (ailure or setbac"s# Rptimists tend to ma"e speci(ic, temporary, e;ternal causal attributions while pessimists ma"e global, permanent, internal attributions#

In research at 0et 9i(e, -eligman and his colleagues (ound that new salesmen who were optimists sold D% percent more insurance in their (irst two years than did pessimists# 7hen the company hired a special group o( individuals who scored high on optimism but (ailed the normal screening, they outsold the pessimists by =1 percent in their (irst year and % percent in the second# $hey even outsold the average agent by =% percent#

In another study o( learned optimism, -eligman tested && members o( the (reshman class at the ?niversity o( ,ennsylvania# )e (ound that their scores on a test o( optimism were a better predictor o( actual grades during the (reshman year than -8$ scores or high school grades#

$he ability to manage (eelings and handle stress is another aspect o( emotional intelligence that has been (ound to be important (or success# 8 study o( store managers in a retail chain (ound that the ability to 15

handle stress predicted net pro(its, sales per s6uare (oot, sales per employee, and per dollar o( inventory investment#

Emotional intelligence has as much to do with "nowing when and how to e;press emotion as it do with controlling it# <or instance, consider an e;periment that was done at .ale ?niversity by -igdal !arsade # )e had a group o( volunteers play the role o( managers who come together in a group to allocate bonuses to their subordinates# 8 trained actor was planted among them#

$he actor always spo"e (irst# In some groups the actor pro3ected cheer(ul enthusiasm, in others rela;ed warmth, in others depressed sluggishness, and in still others hostile irritability# $he results indicated that the actor was able to in(ect the group with his emotion, and good (eelings led to improved cooperation, (airness, and overall group per(ormance#

In (act, ob3ective measures indicated that the cheer(ul groups were better able to distribute the money (airly and in a way that helped the organi2ation# -imilar (indings come (rom the (ield# !achman (ound that the most e((ective leaders in the ?- 1avy were warmer, more outgoing, emotionally e;pressive, dramatic, and sociable#

$hus (ar I have been describing research suggesting that Femotional intelligenceF is important (or success in wor" and in li(e# )owever, this notion actually is somewhat simplistic and misleading# Goleman and 0ayer, -alovey, U >aruso have argued that by itsel( emotional intelligence probably is not a strong predictor o( 3ob per(ormance# Tather, it provides the bedroc" (or competencies that are# Goleman has tried to represent this idea by ma"ing a distinction between emotional intelligence and emotional competence# Emotional competence re(ers to the personal and social s"ills that lead to superior per(ormance in the world o( wor"# F$he emotional competencies are lin"ed to and based on emotional intelligence# 16

8 certain level o( emotional intelligence is necessary to learn the emotional competencies#F <or instance, the ability to recogni2e accurately what another person is (eeling enables one to develop a speci(ic competency such as In(luence# -imilarly, people who are better able to regulate their emotions will (ind it easier to develop a competency such as Initiative or 8chievement drive# ?ltimately it is these social and emotional competencies that we need to identi(y and measure i( we want to be able to predict per(ormance#

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8ssuming that emotional intelligence is important, the 6uestion o( assessment and measurement becomes particularly pressing# 7hat does the research suggest about the measurement o( emotional intelligence and competenceS In a paper published in 199', Davies, -tan"ov, U Toberts concluded that there was nothing empirically new in the idea o( emotional intelligence# $his conclusion was based solely on a review o( e;isting measures purporting to measure emotional intelligence at the point in time when they wrote that paper# )owever, most o( those measures were new, and there was not yet much "nown about their psychometric properties# Tesearch now is emerging that suggests emotional intelligence, and particularly the new measures that have been developed to assess it, is in (act a distinct entity# )owever, there still is not much research on the predictive validity o( such measures, and this is a serious lac"# 9et me brie(ly summari2e what we really "now about the most popular ones#

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$he Emotional Quotient Inventory *EQ-i+, EQ-DG& and EQ-i4 .Q were developed to assess the !ar-Rn model o( emotional-social intelligence# $he EQ-i is a sel(-report measure designed to measure a number o( constructs related to EI# $he EQ-i consists o( 1DD items and ta"es appro;imately D& minutes to complete# It gives an overall EQ score as well as scores (or the (ollowing (ive composite scales and 1 subscales *!ar-Rn, =&&G+#

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8ges4 1G and older 8dministration4 -el( - report 8dministration $ime4 D& 0inutes Quali(ication 9evel4 ! 8dditional In(ormation

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S)(3-R)*'-24 $o accurately perceive, understand and accept onesel( E$ %& !'( S)(3-A0'-)!)""4 $o be aware o( and understand one:s emotions A"")-%&6)!)""4 $o e((ectively and constructively e;press one:s emotions and onesel( I!2)1)!2)!+)4 $o be sel(-reliant and (ree o( emotional dependency on others S)(3-A+%/'(&;'%& !4 $o strive to achieve personal goals and actuali2e one:s potential

Interpersonal (" +&'( '0'-)!)"" '!2 &!%)-1)-" !'( -)('%& !"h&1#

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E$1'%h.4 $o be aware o( and understand how others (eel S +&'( R)"1 !"&5&(&%.4 $o identi(y with one:s social group and cooperate with others I!%)-1)-" !'( R)('%& !"h&14 $o establish mutually satis(ying relationships and relate well with others

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S%-)"" T ()-'!+)4 $o e((ectively and constructively manage emotions I$1/(") C !%- (4 $o e((ectively and constructively control emotions

A2'1%'5&(&%. *change management+

R)'(&%.-T)"%&!*4 $o ob3ectively validate one:s (eelings and thin"ing with e;ternal reality F()=&5&(&%.4 $o adapt and ad3ust one:s (eelings and thin"ing to new situations P- 5()$-S (6&!*4 $o e((ectively solve problems o( a personal and interpersonal nature

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O1%&$&"$4 $o be positive and loo" at the brighter side o( li(e H'11&!)""4 $o (eel content with onesel(, others and li(e in general

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Z<rom A$he !ar-Rn 0odel o( Emotional--ocial Intelligence *E-I+, T# !arRn, =&&G, Psicothema, 1 , supl!, p# =1# Teprinted with permission o( the author#

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$he Genos Emotional Intelligence 8ssessment * GEI8 + is a DG&-degree measure o( emotionally intelligent wor"place behavior# It measures how o(ten individuals display emotionally intelligent wor"place behavior according to a ta;onomic seven-(actor model o( emotional intelligence identi(ied by Dr !en3amin ,almer and ,ro(essor >on -tough (rom -winburne ?niversity# $he GEI8 is identical to, and o(ten re(erred to, as the -winburne ?niversity Emotional Intelligence $est *or -?EI$+# $he GEI8 can be completed online, consists o( %& items and ta"es appro;imately 1 minutes to complete# $he table below presents a de(inition o( each emotional intelligence s"ill measured, and wor"place outcomes that can be achieved (rom displaying each s"ill e((ectively at wor"#

B'"&+ I!3 -$'%& !

A2$&!&"%-'%& !4 0ulti - Tater A2$&!&"%-'%& ! T&$)4 1 0inutes ,/'(&3&+'%& ! L)6)(4 >erti(ication Te6uired

8). A-)'" M)'"/-)2

20

EI -"ill

De(inition

E$ %& !'( S)(3-A0'-)!)""

$he s"ill o( perceiving and understanding one:s own emotions#

7or"place Rutcomes $he capacity to identi(y and understand the impact one:s own (eelings is having on thoughts, decisions, behavior and per(ormance at wor" Greater sel(-awareness >reating greater understanding amongst colleagues about yoursel( >reating trust and perceptions o( genuineness amongst colleagues Greater understanding o( others, how to engage, respond, motivate and connect with them Interpersonal e((ectiveness Enhanced decision-ma"ing where more in(ormation is considered in the process Greater buy-in (rom others into decisions that are made Improved 3ob satis(action and engagement Improved ability to cope with high wor" demands Greater interpersonal e((ectiveness Enhanced productivity and per(ormance $he capacity to generate greater productivity and per(ormance (rom others $he capacity to generate a positive and satis(ying wor" environment (or others $he capacity to e((ectively deal with wor"place con(lict Emotional well-being $he capacity to thin" clearly in stress(ul situations 21 $he capacity to deal e((ectively with situations that cause strong emotions

E$ %& !'( E=1-)""& !

$he s"ill o( e((ectively e;pressing one:s own emotions#

E$ %& !'( A0'-)!)"" O%h)-"

$he s"ill o( perceiving and understanding others: emotions#

E$ %& !'( R)'" !&!*

$he s"ill o( utili2ing emotional in(ormation in decision-ma"ing#

E$ %& !'( S)(3M'!'*)$)!%

$he s"ill o( e((ectively managing one:s own emotions#

E$ %& !'( M'!'*)$)!% O%h)-"

$he s"ill o( in(luencing the moods and emotions o( others#

E$ %& !'( S)(3-C !%- (

$he s"ill o( e((ectively controlling strong emotions e;perienced#

Th) T-'&% E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) ,/)"%& !!'&-) (TEI,/)#

$he $rait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire *$EIQue+ is an integral part o( the scienti(ic research program on trait emotional intelligence# 8ll $EIQue measures are underpinned by an international scienti(ic research programmer aiming to integrate the various non-traditional intelligences into mainstream models o( personality and di((erential psychology#

8ll $EIQue measures are available, (ree o( charge, (or academic and clinical research# $ranslations and adaptations o( the various (orms currently e;ist in =& languages

Th) T-'&% E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) ,/)"%& !!'&-) (TEI,/)# - S+'()"C

TEI,/)-L !* F -$

$he $EIQue 9< is a sel(-report inventory that covers the sampling domain o( trait EI comprehensively# It comprises 1 D items, measuring 1 distinct (acets, @ (actors, and global trait EI *,etrides, U <urnham, =&&D+#

TEI,/)-Sh -% F -$

$his is a D&-item 6uestionnaire designed to measure global trait emotional intelligence *trait EI+# It is based on the long (orm o( the 22

$EIQue# $wo items (rom each o( the 1 subscales o( the $EIQue were selected (or inclusion, based primarily on their correlations with the corresponding total subscale scores *,etrides U <urnham, =&&G+#

Th) A2/(% S'$1(&!* D $'&! 3 T-'&% E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+)

F'+)%" 1)-+)&6) %h)$")(6)" '"D

H&*h "+ -)-"

[(le;ible and willing to adapt to [(orthright, (ran", and willing to [clear about their own and other [capable o( communicating their [capable o( in(luencing other [capable o( controlling their [re(lective and less li"ely to give [capable o( having (ul(illing [success(ul and sel(-con(ident# [driven and unli"ely to give up [accomplished networ"ers with [capable o( withstanding [capable o( ta"ing someone [cheer(ul and satis(ied with their [con(ident and li"ely to Aloo" on

"dapta#ility new conditions# "sserti$eness stand up (or their rights# Emotion perception %self and others& people:s (eelings# Emotion e'pression (eelings to others# Emotion management %others& people:s (eelings# Emotion regulation emotions# Impulsi$eness %low& in to their urges# (elationships personal relationships# )elf*esteem )elf*moti$ation in the (ace o( adversity# )ocial awareness e;cellent social s"ills# )tress management pressure and regulating stress# Trait empathy else:s perspective# Trait happiness lives# Trait optimism the bright sideB o( li(e#

23

ZTeprinted with permission (rom \# Q# ,etrides#

E$ %& !'( C $1)%)!+) I!6)!% -. 9.0 E$ %& !'( @ S +&'( C $1)%)!+. I!6)!% -.

$he E>I =#& is a DG&-degree tool designed to assess the emotional and social competencies o( individuals in organi2ations# $he test is based on emotional competencies identi(ied by Dr# Daniel Goleman in Working with Emotional Intelligence *199'+# $he use o( the E>I and the E->I is limited to accredited users who can demonstrate their ability to give accurate, comprehensive (eedbac" to their clients# $he instruments are designed (or use only as development tools, not (or hiring or compensation decisions *7ol((, =&&G+#

B'"&+ I!3 -$'%& !

A2$&!&"%-'%& !4 0ulti - Tater A2$&!&"%-'%& ! T&$)4 D& - @ 0inutes ,/'(&3&+'%& ! L)6)(4 >erti(ication Te6uired A22&%& !'( I!3 -$'%& !

E$ %& !'( C $1)%)!+) I!6)!% -. :E0 F S+'()"

$he E>I measures 1' competencies organi2ed into (our clusters4 -el(8wareness, -el(-0anagement, -ocial 8wareness, and Telationship 0anagement# 24

S)(3-A0'-)!)"" concerns "nowing one's internal states, pre(erences, resources, and intuitions# $he -el(-8wareness cluster contains three competencies4

E$ %& !'( A0'-)!)""4 Tecogni2ing one's emotions and their e((ects A++/-'%) S)(3-A"")""$)!%4 \nowing one's strengths and limits S)(3-C !3&2)!+)4 8 strong sense o( one's sel(-worth and capabilities

S)(3-M'!'*)$)!% re(ers to managing ones' internal states, impulses, and resources# $he -el(-0anagement cluster contains si; competencies4

E$ %& !'( S)(3-C !%- (4 \eeping disruptive emotions and impulses in chec" T-'!"1'-)!+.4 0aintaining integrity, acting congruently with one:s values A2'1%'5&(&%.4 <le;ibility in handling change A+h&)6)$)!%4 -triving to improve or meeting a standard o( e;cellence I!&%&'%&6)4 Teadiness to act on opportunities O1%&$&"$4 ,ersistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbac"s

S +&'( A0'-)!)"" re(ers to how people handle relationships and awareness o( others: (eelings, needs, and concerns# $he -ocial 8wareness cluster contains three competencies4

E$1'%h.: -ensing others' (eelings and perspectives, and ta"ing an active interest in their concerns 25

O-*'!&;'%& !'( A0'-)!)"": Teading a group's emotional currents and power relationships S)-6&+) O-&)!%'%& !: 8nticipating, recogni2ing, and meeting customers' needs

R)('%& !"h&1 M'!'*)$)!% concerns the s"ill or adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others# $he Telationship 0anagement cluster contains si; competencies4

D)6)( 1&!* O%h)-": -ensing others' development needs and bolstering their abilities I!"1&-'%& !'( L)'2)-"h&1: Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups Ch'!*) C'%'(."%: Initiating or managing change I!3(/)!+): 7ielding e((ective tactics (or persuasion C !3(&+% M'!'*)$)!%: 1egotiating and resolving disagreements T)'$0 -? @ C (('5 -'%& !: 7or"ing with others toward shared goals# >reating group synergy in pursuing collective goals#

Th) E$ %& !'( (ESCI#

'!2

S +&'(

C $1)%)!+.

I!6)!% -.

$he E->I is the latest DG&-(eedbac" tool based on E>I 1#&, E>I =#&, and E>I-?niversity Edition# $he E->I o((ers a way to assess the strengths and wea"nesses o( individuals, giving them precise, (ocused in(ormation on e;actly which competencies they will want to improve on in order to meet their career goals# $he E->I covers the (ull spectrum o( the emotional competencies that matter most (or outstanding and e((ective per(ormance *!oyat2is, =&&%+#

B'"&+ I!3 -$'%& !

26

A2$&!&"%-'%& !4 0ulti - Tater A2$&!&"%-'%& ! T&$)4 D& - @ 0inutes ,/'(&3&+'%& ! L)6)(4 >erti(ication Te6uired A22&%& !'( I!3 -$'%& !

Th) E$ %& !'( (ESCI# - S+'()"C

'!2

S +&'(

C $1)%)!+.

I!6)!% -.

$he E->I measures 1= competencies organi2ed into (our clusters4 -el(8wareness, -el(-0anagement, -ocial 8wareness, and Telationship 0anagement#

S)(3 A0'-)!)""

E$ %& !'( S)(3-A0'-)!)""4 Tecogni2ing one:s emotions and their e((ects

S)(3 M'!'*)$)!%

E$ %& !'( S)(3-C !%- (: \eeping disruptive emotions and impulses in chec" A2'1%'5&(&%.: <le;ibility in handling change A+h&)6)$)!% O-&)!%'%& !: -triving to improve or meeting a standard o( e;cellence P "&%&6) O/%( ?: ,ersistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbac"s

S +&'( A0'-)!)""

27

E$1'%h.: -ensing others: (eelings and perspectives, and ta"ing an active interest in their concerns O-*'!&;'%& !'( A0'-)!)"": Teading a group:s emotional currents and power relationships

R)('%& !"h&1 M'!'*)$)!%

C '+h '!2 M)!% -: -ensing others: development needs and bolstering their abilities I!"1&-'%& !'( L)'2)-"h&1: Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups I!3(/)!+): 7ielding e((ective tactics (or persuasion C !3(&+% M'!'*)$)!%: 1egotiating and resolving disagreements T)'$0 -?: 7or"ing with others toward shared goals# >reating group synergy in pursuing collective goals

ARTICLES:C -) C $1)%)!+&)" &! C '+h&!* O%h)-" % D."3/!+%& !'( B)h'6& !y4 Tichard E# !oyat2is, ,h#D# >ase 7estern Teserve ?niversity O-&*&!'( R)3)-)!+) R)1-&!%)2 W&%h P)-$&""& ! !oyat2is, T#E# *=&& +# >ore competencies in coaching others to overcome dys(unctional behavior# In Qanessa Drus"at, Gerald 0ount, U <abio -ala, *eds#+# Emotional Intelligence and Work Performance# Erlbaum# '1-9 #

O6)-+ $)

>oaching, or more accurately e;ecutive coaching, is one o( the (ew rapid growth industries o( the last (ew years# <irst accepted as a practice in e;ecutive development, it has spawned tens o( thousands o( practitioners# 8s a measure o( its popularity, a Goggle web search on 28

December 1=, =&&= revealed over 99,@&& web sites using the phrase Fe;ecutive coaching#F )TD and RD internal and e;ternal consultants, psychotherapists, psychologists, social wor"ers, teachers, and other pro(essionals *e#g#, lawyers, accountants, and nurses+, have had business cards printed and promote themselves as e;ecutive or li(e coaches#

Even in countries where management training and e;ecutive development are aw"ward because they threaten the public image o( a person's competence and authority, such as in Italy *8ltomare, =&&=+, -pain *-erlavos, =&&=+, and /apan *Qoigt, =&&=+, coaching is the (astest growing sector o( the human resource development business#

>oaching is not a new resource (or people# In the past, we had pro(essionals to help people develop, but it was hard to get access to them and o(ten had a stigma attached, especially i( it was a psychotherapist# 1ow even $ony -oprano, the (ictional head o( a crime F(amilyF in the )ome !o; R((ice series o( the same name, goes to a psychotherapist#

In the past, we had (riends as well as others to whom we could turn (or the type o( personal advice and counsel now provided by e;ecutive coaches# 0aybe we are too busy to e((ectively sustain (riendships that once (illed this void# Rr, perhaps, we have become more sensiti2ed to the need (or developing our managerial and leadership talent# $here(ore, we see" out more help and more speci(ic help than ever be(ore#

8lthough the practice o( e;ecutive coaching has e;panded dramatically, the writing about it has only e;panded at a modest pace# 0ost o( the literature is anecdotal (rom practitioners or wisdom (rom those who have provided such services (or years *\ilburg, 199G5 \ilburg, =&&&5 \ampa-\o"esch and 8nderson, =&&1+# E;cept (or the use o( multi-source (eedbac" *i#e#, DG&+, there has not been a stream o( empirical research in any o( the aspects o( e;ecutive coaching# 29

Wh'% C $1)%)!+&)" M&*h% M'?) ' D&33)-)!+)G

Togers *19 1, 19G1+ articulated a troi"a o( characteristics that seemed critical (or e((ective FhelpingF behavior emerging (rom his wor" on psychotherapy4 empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness# $rua; and >ar"hu(( *19G%+ and >ar"hu(( *19G9+ continued to e;pand, clari(y, and develop these concepts and methods# 8lthough developers or proponents o( various approaches to psychotherapy would advocate modi(ications to this list *e#g#, ,erls emphasi2ed giving voice to the unspo"en and Ellis emphasi2ed pragmatism+, the 6uest (or e((ective helping behavior always returned to characteristics o( the helper# 9ater research on psychotherapy and counseling would suggest that the characteristics o( the helper was more important in determining di((erences in e((ectiveness than di((erences in approach to psychotherapy or schools o( thought in which the person was trained *Emric", 19%@+#

M)%h 2"

7. P-)2&+%&!* C(&)!% W -? P)-3 -$'!+)

<or an alcoholism counselor in the ?- 1avy, the most ob3ective measure o( their e((ectiveness is the wor" per(ormance o( their clients (ollowing treatment# 8 wor" per(ormance measure can be considered conservative *i#e#, more di((icult on which to show change+ and a more di((icult treatment goal than abstinence because it re6uires changes in the client's behavior, ways o( dealing with others, as well as changes in hisXher drin"ing behavior# 30

!oyat2is and !urruss *19%9+ collected the wor" per(ormance data independently o( the counselor competency data# $heir method and results will be reviewed in depth in this chapter# <irst, a list o( all clients admitted to ?- 1aval alcohol rehabilitation (acilities in the continental ?nited -tates was produced# $he clients were listed by (acility# -econd, the list was sent to each (acility#

Every counselor currently wor"ing at each (acility was as"ed to complete a (orm# I( they had wor"ed as a counselor at the (acility, they would circle the name o( each client with whom they had wor"ed# Each client spent a substantial amount o( time with a particular counselor in individual and group therapy, meetings, and other activities#

9. D&"+ 6)-&!* 8). C $1)%)!+&)"

!oyat2is and !urruss *19%9+ used a two-step process to identi(y the competencies o( counselors in the (irst study# In the (irst step, an e;treme case design was used to inductively discover the competencies that were li"ely to have an impact on client wor" per(ormance (ollowing treatment# 1ominations o( those viewed as FoutstandingF were collected about counselors who had wor"ed more than = years in the system and were available (or interviews and testing# 8 sample o( FoutstandingF counselors was identi(ied as those receiving multiple nominations# 8 comparable sample o( people not nominated by anyone was randomly chosen (rom the remaining counselors#

$he !ehavioral Event Interview *!oyat2is, 19'=5 -pencer and -pencer, 199D+, a variation on the critical incident interview *<lanagan, 19 @+, was conducted with =G counselors# Eight competencies were (ound to di((erentiate the outstanding (rom the FaverageF counselors# $hey were4 31

(7# O1%&$&"$ '5 /% 1) 1()<" '5&(&%. % +h'!*)4 + !"&2)-)2 1'-% 3 %h) S)(3-M'!'*)$)!% C(/"%)- 3 EI + $1)%)!+&)"H (9# I!&%&'%&6) (+'(()2 )33&+'+. &! %h) -&*&!'( "%/2&)"#4 + !"&2)-)2 1'-% 3 %h) S)(3-M'!'*)$)!% C(/"%)3 EI + $1)%)!+&)"H (:# P'%%)-! R)+ *!&%& !4 + !"&2)-)2 1'-% 3 + $1)%)!+&)"H 3 ' C *!&%&6) C(/"%)3 %h) S +&'(

(4# C(&)!% A0'-)!)""4 + !"&2)-)2 ' 1'-% A0'-)!)"" C(/"%)- 3 EI + $1)%)!+&)"H

(5# A++/-'%) S)(3-A"")""$)!% (+'(()2 ' 2)"&-) 3 - 1)-" !'( *- 0%h &! %h) -&*&!'( "%/2&)"#4 + !"&2)-)2 1'-% 3 %h) S)(3A0'-)!)"" C(/"%)- 3 EI + $1)%)!+&)"H (E# E* M'%/-&%.4 + !"&2)-)2 ' 1'-% C(/"%)- 3 EI + $1)%)!+&)"H (B# E$1'%h.4 + !"&2)-)2 ' 1'-% C(/"%)- 3 EI + $1)%)!+&)"H '!2 3 %h) S)(3-M'!'*)$)!% 3 %h) S +&'( A0'-)!)""

(A# E$ %& !'( S)(3-A0'-)!)"" (+'(()2 *)!/&!)!)"" &! %h) -&*&!'( "%/2&)"#4 + !"&2)-)2 1'-% 3 %h) S)(3-A0'-)!)"" C(/"%)3 EI + $1)%)!+&)".

$ests were selected or developed (or each o( these competencies# -ince several o( the competencies were thought to e;ist within a person at multiple levels *i#e#, trait and s"ill levels o( the competency+, several tests were chosen to assess Initiative, 8ccurate -el(8ssessment, and Empathy#

O1%&$&"$ '5 /% 1) 1()<" '5&(&%. %

+h'!*):

32

$he -cenarios $est was designed speci(ically (or this study# It consisted o( eight scenarios o( counseling situations adapted (rom actual events in the interviews# $he person is as"ed to imagine himsel( in each situation and to select, in order o( pre(erence, two o( ten possible responses that they would be li"ely to ma"e# 8 subset o( responses (or each category was theoretically designed to assess Rptimism, Initiative, and 8ccurate -el(-8ssessment# $hese were weighted by multipliers o( = and 1 according to whether they were (irst or second choices respectively# $his test re6uired appro;imately @& minutes to administer#

I!&%&'%&6):

8 trait level o( the initiative competency was assessed with an operant test by coding >ognitive -el(-De(inition (rom the ,icture -tory E;ercise according to the coding system developed by -tewart and 7inter *19%%+ to re(lect whether a person habitually thin"s o( themselves in terms o( causes and outcomes or whether a person sees the sel( as an ine((ective victim o( events which have an un"nown cause# $he ,icture -tory E;ercise is a modi(ied version o( the $hematic 8pperception $est *$8$+ originally developed by 0urray *19@D+# 8 person is as"ed to spend about (ive minutes writing a story in response to each o( si; pictures# ,eople coding this measure had reliability with e;pert scorers above the 9& percent level#

$o address possible method variance issues, a second trait level measure o( Initiative was selected# $he 1owic"i--tric"land 9ocus o( >ontrol -cale is a (orced-choice5 respondent measure consisting o( @& 6uestions was also used as another trait level respondent measure o( Initiative# 8 high score indicates an e;ternal orientation *1owic"i and -tric"land, 19%D+#

$o assess the s"ill level o( the Initiative, a scale in the -cenarios $est was developed *see above description o( the -cenarios $est+# 33

P'%%)-! R)+ *!&%& !:

$he $est o( $hematic 8nalysis is a measure o( the cognitive competency called ,attern Tecognition *!oyat2is, >owen, and \olb, 199 +# $his is thought to be essential in diagnosing problems and understanding others# ,resented with two di((erent groups o( in(ormation, the test-ta"er is as"ed to describe the di((erences and similarities in any manner that heXshe li"es# $he two groups o( in(ormation used in this study were si; counseling situations derived (rom the interviews# 8 person can receive a score (rom -D to ]G# $he more a person demonstrates critical diagnostic thin"ing, the more positive the score will be *7inter and 0c>lelland, 19%'+#

C(&)!% A0'-)!)"":

In addition to one scale in the -cenarios $est, the ,rogrammed >ase was also used to assess >lient 8wareness# It is a series o( =1 episodes o( a true li(e history# Each episode is accompanied by a set o( (our alternative (uture episodes o( which only one actually happened# $he person being tested is as"ed to guess which o( the (our alternatives occurred# 8 specially designed answer sheet indicates whether he is right or wrong a(ter each guess and they are instructed to "eep guessing until heXshe (inds the correct alternative# 8n important aspect o( this instrument is that the person has more in(ormation as a result o( each guess and, there(ore, should have a better understanding or F(eeling (orF the biographical character#

$o assess >lient 8wareness, a counselor's responses on the programmed case were scored according to their overall ,er(ormance *i#e#, the standardi2ed score o( =1 minus the number o( guesses made be(ore (inding the correct one+# 34

A++/-'%) S)(3-A"")""$)!%:

!esides a scale (rom the -cenarios $est, the )elping Tesources Inventory was used to assess a counselor's willingness and resource(ulness in using help to wor" with clients# $he )elping Tesources Inventory was adapted (rom the 8ctivities Questionnaire used by 0c>lelland *19% +# $he respondent was as"ed to rate, on a scale o( ten, Fhow li"elyF he would be to consult each o( 11 di((erent sources o( help *e#g#, minister, psychologist, 88 sponsor, (riend, supervisor, etc#+# $he mean response per source was then ta"en to be an inde; o( the person's 7illingness to -ee" )elp# $he person was then as"ed to indicate whether he has actually sought help (rom each o( those same 11 sources within the past month, si; months, or year# $he mean response to this 6uestion, weighted in the direction o( recency, was used as an indicator o( the person's actual ?se o( )elp# $his 6uestionnaire re6uired appro;imately ten minutes to administer#

E*

M'%/-&%.:

$o assess ego maturity, the ,icture -tory E;ercise was also scored (or -tages o( Ego Development, developed by 8bigail -tewart and appeared in 0c>lelland *19% +# ,ersons coding the stages have reliability with e;pert scorers above the 9& percent level# $he stories were scored (or imagery in (our stages# $hese stage scores were then combined into a single measure with the (ollowing (ormula *as described in 0c>lelland, 19% +4 C-tage I]=*-tage II+]D*stage III+ ]@*stage IQ+E divided by C-tage I ] -tage II ] -tage III ] -tage IQE#

E$1'%h.:

35

$he ,icture -tory E;ercise was also used to code a trait level o( the Empathy competency# $he stories were scored by trained scorers, who have scoring reliability with e;pert scorers above the 9& percent level, according to the system described in 8t"inson *19 '+ (or 1eed (or 8((iliation, and that developed by 7inter *19%D+ (or 1eed (or ,ower and 8ctivity Inhibition *0c>lelland, et# al#, 19%%+# $hese three scores were ad3usted (or number o( words written with a correction (actor developed by 7inter *19%9+#

$he standardi2ed power score was subtracted (rom the standardi2ed a((iliation score and the di((erence was multiplied by the s6uare root o( the 8I score plus one to construct a single variable# $he variable, called the >aring 0otive ,ro(ile, re(lects a greater concern (or close relationships to people than (or having impact on them, while having a high degree o( impulse control#

$o assess the s"ill level o( the Empathy competency, the ,rogrammed >ases was used in a di((erent way than earlier described# 8n Improvement -core was calculated as the increase or decrease in the accuracy o( their guesses on the later hal( o( the episodes versus the (irst hal( *see above description o( the ,rogrammed >ase test+# $he Improvement score was ad3usted (or level o( accuracy o( early responses#

E$ %& !'( S)(3-A0'-)!)"":

8 modi(ied version o( the <ocusing 8bility, as originally designed by Gendlin, !eebe, >assens, \lein, and Rberlander *19G'+, was used to assess Emotional -el(-8wareness# ,rerecorded instructions as"ed the person to (irst rela; (or a moment and then (ocus on some meaning(ul personal problem# $he instructions continued at brie( intervals to guide the person through an e;ploration o( hisXher (eelings concerning that problem over a ten minute period# 8t the end o( the ten minutes, the person was 36

as"ed to answer, into an individually held tape recorder, speci(ic 6uestions about the e;perience# $wo 3udges independently rated @D o( the @% recordings on a (our-point scale (rom FDe(initely Did 1ot <ocusF on (eelings to FDe(initely Did <ocusF with an interrater reliability o( r ^ #%9# *$he (irst (our recordings were used to establish initial agreement on the scale de(initions#+

Disagreements were discussed and the (inal score was agreed# $his score is re(erred to in this report simply as <ocusing 8bility# It was intended to be a measure o( Emotional -el(-8wareness because the F(ocusingF a person may demonstrate during this e;ercise is one o( identi(ying their (eelings and delving deeper into what they are and describing them# $his instrument re6uired appro;imately =& minutes to administer#

V'-&'5()" O%h)- %h'! C $1)%)!+&)"

In addition to the above measures o( counselor characteristics, the 7ard 8tmosphere -cale *78-+ was administered to assess the climate o( the treatment (acility# $his instrument, developed by 0oos *19%@+, is a 1&&-item 6uestionnaire concerning important characteristics o( the social environment# $he ten subscales were combined by summing eight o( them and subtracting F8nger and 8ggressionF and F-ta(( >ontrolF, which were scored in the opposite direction# $he resultant variable, >limate, was intended to account (or impact o( treatment (acility on client outcome#

R)"/(%"

>ounselors were classi(ied as FsuperiorF or FaverageF on the basis o( a median split on the mean wor" per(ormance rating o( the clients with whom they wor"ed# $he FaverageF counselors had mean client wor" per(ormance ratings ranging (rom =#=& to =# G5 the percentage o(

37

clients with a rating o( FDF ranged (rom G@ percent to %' percent with an average o( %&# percent# $he FsuperiorF counselors had mean client wor" per(ormance ratings ranging (rom =#G& to D#&&5 the percentage o( clients with a rating o( FDF ranged (rom % percent to 1&& percent *one o( the FsuperiorF counselors had a percentage o( % percent5 the rest had '& percent or better+ with an average o( '%#= percent#

$-tests were computed on each o( the measures comparing average and superior counselors# $he results, shown in $able 1 *$able = (rom !oyat2is and !urruss, 19%9, page = + are that superior counselors had signi(icantly higher scores on the $hematic 8nalysis score, the ,rogrammed >ase4 Improvement score, and the <ocusing score# $hey also had near signi(icantly higher scores on the >aring 0otive ,ro(ile, >ognitive -el(-De(inition score, and the ,rogrammed >ase4 ,er(ormance score# $he ?se o( Tesources was statistically signi(icant, but opposite to the predicted direction5 average counselors showed higher scores than superior counselors# 8ll other di((erences were nonsigni(icant#

T'5() 7. C $1'-&" ! C /!")( -" V'-&'5() O1%&$&"$: -cenariosXRpt

3 75 S/1)-& - '!2 74 A6)-'*) A6)-'*) S/1)-& C /!")( - C /!")( - % " " =#=9 =# D #D= S&*. L)6)( ns

I!&%&'%&6): >ognitve -el(-De(# -G#G 1owic"i--tric"land 1G#'G -cenariosXInitiative # % P'%%)-! R)+ *!&%& !: $hematic 8nalysis #@D

-@#D& 1 #G% #'& #9D

1# G #&GG -1#& ns ' ns #D% =#&1 #&=

38

C(&)!% A0'-)!)"": ,rogrammed >aseX,er(.

#DG

#' #D= 1 #%G #&& G# D =#@= =#@@ =#G@

1#@

#&%9

E$1'%h.4 >aring 0otive -#9= ,rogrammed >aseXImp# =#D@ A++/-'%) A"")""$)!%: -cenariosX8-8 )TIX-ee"ing )TIX?sing )elp E* E$ %& !'( A0'-)!)""4 <ocusing S)(3 %#=9 G#&' )elp =#=D =#@D 1#%1

1#GD #& ' 1#G' #& @ -=#1 #&= G ns #%= ns #G9 #&' =# ns #&&

M'%/-&%.4 Ego Dev# S)(3-

ZRne-tailed signi(icance levels are reported

Rn the basis o( these t-tests, the si; measures indicated that (our o( the EI competencies and the cognitive competency could be considered valid di((erentiators o( superior versus average counseling per(ormance# $hey were4 (7# E$1'%h. '% 5 %h %h) %-'&% '!2 "?&(( ()6)(" '" $)'"/-)2 5. %h) C'-&!* M %&6) P- 3&() '!2 %h) P- *-'$$)2 C'"): I$1- 6)$)!% "+ -)4 -)"1)+%&6)(.H (9# I!&%&'%&6) '" $)'"/-)2 5. C *!&%&6) S)(3-D)3&!&%& !H (:# P'%%)-! R)+ *!&%& ! '" $)'"/-)2 5. %h) Th)$'%&+ A!'(."&" "+ -)H (4# C(&)!% A0'-)!)"" '" $)'"/-)2 5. %h) P- *-'$$)2 C'"): P)-3 -$'!+) "+ -)H '!2 (5# E$ %& !'( S)(3-A0'-)!)""4 '" $)'"/-)2 5. %h) F +/"&!* A5&(&%.#

39

$he (indings reveal that one or more competencies (rom each o( the (our clusters assessed were needed (or e((ectiveness# $hese competencies were (rom the -el(-8wareness, -el(-0anagement, and -ocial 8wareness >lusters o( EI and the ,attern Tecognition o( the >ognitive >luster#

8 discriminant (unction analysis *D<8+ was run on the si; measures and the derived (unction used to assign counselors by groups# It was chosen as the multivariate statistical routine to per(orm this (unction due to the categorical nature o( the client outcome data# $he results are shown in $able = *$able @ (rom !oyat2is and !urruss, 19%9, page =9+# $he combination o( the si; measures yielded a high canonical correlation *r^#G%%+ and correctly classi(ied 'D percent o( the counselors *correctly classi(ied '% percent o( the superior counselors+# 8 D<8 was also run on the sum o( the standardi2ed scores on each o( the measures, yielding an even higher canonical correlation *r^#'9'+ and correctly classi(ied 'D percent o( the counselors *correctly classi(ied '& percent o( the superior counselors+# 8 third D<8 was run on the number o( competencies possessed by a counselor# $his was computed by giving a counselor a ]1 (or each measure on which his standardi2ed score was positive, and & (or each measure on which his standardi2ed score was negative# $he sum was computed as the number o( competencies possessed by the counselor# $his D<8 yielded a high canonical correlation *r^#GDD+ and correctly classi(ied 'D percent o( the counselors *correctly classi(ied '% percent o( the superior counselors+#

T'5() 9. D&"+-&$&!'!% F/!+%& ! A!'(."&" %h) M 2)( I C'! !&+' C /!")( ( " C --)('% C --)+%(. ) C('""&3&)2 (!J9K# I S/1)-& C /!")( " C --)+%(. C('""&3&)2 (!J75#

V'-&'5()"

40

>aring 0otive ,ro(ile ,rogrammed >ase4Improv# U ,er(# #GG% <ocusing $hematic 8nalysis >ognitive -el(-De(# -um o( -tandard -cores on all #'9' G Qariables 1umber o( >ompetenice #GDD s ,ossessed

'D_

'%_

'D_

'&_

'D_

'%_

Th) I$1'+%

3 S&%/'%& !'( V'-&'5()"

-ince the counselors wor"ed in di((erent treatment (acilities, it was possible that organi2ational climate o( the (acility may a((ect their per(ormance# $he correlation between the 0oos >limate score and client outcome *mean per(ormance rating+ was not signi(icant *r^-#1&G, n^=9+# 8 t-test o( the climate in which superior counselors wor"ed versus the average counselors wor"ed was also not signi(icant, means o( &#&& and @9#9D respectively *t^#&D, n^=9+# 8nother situational characteristic which could possibly have an impact on counselor e((ectiveness was the age o( their clients# $he correlation o( mean wor" per(ormance rating with the percent o( clients over = years old was not signi(icant *r^-#&D', n^=9+# 8verage counselors had a mean o( 1#&G percent o( their clients over = , while superior counselors had a mean o( @9#GG percent o( their clients over = # $his di((erence is not signi(icant *t^-#D9, n^=9+# 41

8s a (urther chec", correlations were computed o( the 0oos >limate score and percent clients over = against each o( the competency measures# 1one o( the correlations with percent clients over = was signi(icant# 1one o( the correlations with the 0oos >limate score was signi(icant#

P-)2&+%&!* C(&)!% W -? P)-3 -$'!+)

8 multiple-regression was conducted with the average client wor" per(ormance rating per counselor as the criterion available *7or" ,er(ormance+ and the si; competency test scores as the predictor variables# -ince days o( a client's active service a(ter treatment and the wor" per(ormance measure were related *r ^ #D%'5 d( ^@D5 p`#&1+, it was decided to control (or the con(ounding e((ects o( une6ual time periods between treatment-discharge and service-discharge dates# 8 seventh independent variable was included, representing the average number o( days between treatment and discharge (rom the service (or each counselor's sample o( clients#

$he multiple regression showed a signi(icant multiple correlation *T^# G=+ in predicting 7or" ,er(ormance (rom the competencies, as shown in $able D *$ables 1 and D (rom !urruss and !oyat2is, 19'1, page 9 and 1=+# 8 test o( curvilinear *<^#@%@5 p^ns+ demonstrated no signi(icant deviation (rom linearity#

8 detailed analysis o( the individual contribution o( each variable revealed, however, that the primary contributors to that relationship were Days o( -ervice, Empathy as measured by the ,rogrammed >ase4 Improvement score, and Emotional -el(-8wareness, as measured by the <ocusing measure# -ince Days o( -ervice was stepped into the 42

e6uation (irst to eliminate its contaminating e((ects on predicting 7or" ,er(ormance, the data suggest that two competencies, Empathy and Emotional -el(-8wareness, are more important than others in predicting the e((ectiveness o( counselors#

T'5() :. P-)2&+%&!* W -? P)-3 -$'!+): S/$$'-. T'5() (!J45# A!'(."&" DF Tegressio % n Tesidual D% S/$ 3 M)'! SL/'-) SL/'-) F " " #@=G #9=@ #&G1 #&= R9 S&$1( B Ch'!*) ) R )%' #1@D #&&1 #&&& #11= #&&& #& & #&&9 #D%' -#&= -#&= #D&% #19= #1%@ -#& D =#@D%

0ultiple T^ G=, T= ^ #D1G, -tandard error ^ #1 ' V'-&'5() M/(%&1( R9 )R #1@= #1@@ #1@@ #= G #= % #D&G #D1G F

Days o( #D%' -ervice >aring 0otive #D'&

#@ 9 9# G% -#&1 #&11

,rog#>ase #D'& 4 ,er(# ,rog#>ase # &G 4 Impr# >og#-el(De(# <ocusing # &% # @

-#&& #&&& = #DD1 #11%

-#&@ #&9@ 9 #= @ D#11D -#1& #@9 1

$hematic # G= 8nalysis

D&"+/""& !

3 R)"/(%"

43

$he superior counselors appeared di((erent (rom the average counselors# $his does not imply any di((erence in the dedication or compassion o( the individual counselors, but re(lects a di((erence in their e((ectiveness# Given the relatively high e((ectiveness o( the 1avy alcoholism treatment programs as a whole *!uc"y, 19%%+, the di((erences discussed do represent the di((erence between superior and average counselors and not between ade6uate and inade6uate counselors#

$wo competencies, Empathy and Emotional -el(-8wareness, distinguished e((ective counseling and predicted wor" per(ormance# 8nother competency, ,attern Tecognition, appeared to contribute to the overall e((ectiveness o( a counselor, but did not add uni6ue or distinctive capability as re(lected in the regression analysis# $wo others, Initiative and >lient 8wareness, also appeared to contribute to the overall e((ectiveness, but not as strongly and did not add uni6ue variance in the regression analysis#

8pplication o( these results to e;ecutive coaching would con(irm what most coaches, and their clients, "now-- Empathy or sensitivity to the client is the "ey characteristic o( the e((ective coaches# >oaching, li"e counseling, cannot proceed without listening to and understanding the client, hisXher issues, problems, and situation at wor" and at home# I( the client is viewed as merely a Fproblem bearing plat(orm,F the coach will (ocus on the problems and tas"s not the person# In the process, heXshe may miss underlying issues or (actors contributing to sustaining current behavior and impact# $he coach must be sensitive to changes in the client and their process o( change to tailor their comments and suggestions to that person's needs at that point in time#

44

S/$$'-. '!2 I$1(&+'%& !"

$he results showed that two competencies appeared to have a substantial and signi(icant impact on a counselors' e((ectiveness# $o be e((ective as a counselor, and by e;tension an e;ecutive coach, a person must be sensitive to others# $o be sensitive to others, heXshe must be sensitive to themselves# $hese critically important competencies were4 Emotional -el(8wareness (rom the -el(-8wareness >luster o( EI competencies5 and Empathy (rom the -ocial 8wareness >luster o( EI competencies# !oth o( these were signi(icant at the s"ill level# $his implies that training or developing these competencies may be more (easible than i( they were at the trait or motive level o( personality#

Tegardless o( the organi2ational climate o( the various (acilities in which they wor"ed, type o( training received to prepare (or their role, and the age demographics o( their clients, these characteristics, these competencies e;plained why some counselors were more e((ective than others#

$o e;tend these (indings into the arena o( e;ecutive coaching, we can in(er that a similar set o( competencies would help us to understand why some coaches are more e((ective than others#

-peci(ically, we can also hypothesi2e that the most critical competencies will come (rom a wide variety o( the clusters, and that Emotional -el(-8wareness and Empathy are most li"ely to be two o( the competencies critical to coaching e((ectiveness#

7e need a parallel study to those reviewed here conducted with e;ecutive coaches and their clients to determine the precise

45

competencies and their impact# 7e need to e;pand the sample si2e to generali2e to all (orms o( e;ecutive and li(e coaching#

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE4 RELIGIOSITY AND SELFEFFICACY AS PREDICTORS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL ADOLESCENTS IN OGBOMOSO4 NIGERIA

8deyemo, D# 8#, ,h#D# and 8deleye, 8# $#, 0#Ed# Department o( Guidance and >ounseling ?niversity o( Ibadan, Ibadan#

ABSTRACT

$he study investigated emotional intelligence, religiosity and sel(e((icacy as predictors o( psychological well-being among secondary school adolescents# $he study made use o( strati(ied random sampling in selecting =9= adolescents (rom ten *1&+ secondary schools in Rgbomoso, Ryo -tate, 1igeria# $he sample age ranged between 1D -=& years# <our instruments were used, namely4 General -el(-E((icacy -cale, 7ell-being 0ani(estation 0easurement -cale5 $he 7ong and 9aw Emotional Intelligence -cale *79EI-+5 and Teligiosity -cale# Data analysis involved the use o( multiple regression and ,earson ,roduct 0oment correlation# $he results indicated that the three independent variables as a bloc" were e((ective in predicting psychological well-being o( adolescents# Rn the basis o( the (inding, it was suggested that teachers should endeavor to teach rudiments o( emotional intelligence to the students 46

while school counselors and psychologists should develop programmes to (oster emotional intelligence and sel(-e((icacy#

8).0 -2": 1# =# D# @# # Emotional intelligence, Teligiosity, -el(-e((icacy, ,sychological 7ell-being, 8dolescents#

INTRODUCTION

8dolescence as a developmental period is (illed with many challenges# Early developmental theorists, particularly Eric"son *Eric"son, 19 9+ have de(ined the period o( adolescence as one o( identity versus role con(usion, in which adolescents must determine who they are, combining their sel(-understanding and social roles into a coherent identity#

$oday, 8dolescents live in a society which has become multi-comple;, thus ma"ing the roles o( adolescents very di((use and con(using# $he roles o( adolescents and their developmental tas"s are no longer well de(ined and prescribed# \nowledge e;plosion, material wealth pursuit, plurality o( the society and estrangement (rom the e;tended (amily system, the hypocrisy o( adult standards, the (allacy o( physical maturity all present a great battle (or the adolescent to (ight with the dilemma o( inde(inite status#

>oupled with this comple;ity are the multi(arious needs *biogenic, psychogenic, sociogenic and psychogenic+ that the adolescent has to 47

satis(y# )e has got e;uberant energy with which to pursue his needs but perhaps not the logical rationale with which to estimate the balance between degrees o( (reedom and the threshold o( danger# $hus, adolescent engages in activities that pose real threat to hisX her psychological well-being#

8dolescence is (ull o( challenges# $he change is (ast, everywhere and hard to "eep up with4 the body changes in response to increasing levels o( se; hormones5 the thin"ing process changes as the child is able to thin" more broadly and in abstract ways5 the social li(e changes as new people and peers come into scope# .et the child needs to deal with every single one o( these changes, all at the same timea $hus, ma"ing the issue o( psychological well-being, that o( adolescence#

,sychological well-being is a multi-dimensional concept# >heer(ulness, optimism, play(ulness, sel(-control, a sense o( detachment and (reedom (rom (rustration, an;iety and loneliness had been accepted as dimensions o( psychological well-being *-inha U Qerma, 199=+# 0c>ulloch *1991+ has shown that satis(action, morale, positive a((ect and social support constitute psychological well-being# ,sychological well-being is a point o( much emphasis in society today# 7hereas insurance companies and society in general once thought o( a person:s health mainly in physical terms, in modern society personal wellness has come to re(er to a more thorough de(inition that includes psychological well-being# In regard to psychological well-being, within the literature, happiness has generally been viewed as the outcome variable *Ty((, 19'9+#

$raditionally, psychological research has (ocused on negative states, their determinants and conse6uences *-hehan, 19'@, >hang, 199'+# -tudies on depression, separation, alienation and similar topics (ocus on people:s su((ering and its deleterious e((ects on their psychological and physical states until relatively recently, when (ew studies have been conducted on sub3ective moods or (eelings o( well-being and their determinants *>roc"er, 9uthertanen, !aline, U !roadna;, 199@+# 48

,erhaps, due to the (act that psychological well-being is a sub3ective term which means di((erent things to di((erent people, earliest literature (ocused on short-term a((ective well-being *happiness+ at the e;pense o( enduring e((ects# Ty(( *19'9+ operationally de(ined psychological well-being as4 sel(-acceptance, and personal growth# $he theory behind this view aimed at measuring all aspects o( this (orm o( well-being and created a broader, more accurate de(inition#

)owever, there are remar"able di((erences in the abilities o( adolescents to cope with the challenges which con(ront them# -ome adolescents have great di((iculty in dealing with problems which (or others would be minor# 7hen these young people are not able to cope with stresses in an adaptive manner they may develop problem behaviors and are at ris" o( developing mental health problems#

Rther adolescents with ma3or problems seem to be able to emerge (rom stress(ul encounter not only success(ully, but also with increased abilities and resources *-eo((ge-\rea"e, 199 +#

It is worthy to note that contemporary studies undoubtedly show that higher (unctions in no small measure develop under the in(luence o( social and cultural (actors#

,erhaps the reason why emotional intelligence though adopted as a relatively new concept, has always, even i( largely unac"nowledged, been a part o( humanity#

It is a novel area with regard to research, especially with regard to testing emotional intelligence and establishing the role o( emotional intelligence during the adolescence#

49

8dolescence is in and o( itsel( a di((icult challenge in the realms o( emotions# $he adolescent is (aced with new relationships and atmosphere where proper social integration is o( utmost importance (or success#

8s the adolescent travels on this 3ourney to the time o( graduation and engages in the progression towards adulthood, being emotionally competent is not only important, it is a necessary ingredient (or success(ul 3ourney#

Goleman *199 + stated that students who have emotional competency can better deal with the pressure o( peer politics, the higher demands re6uired (or academics, and the temptations o( alcohol, drugs and se;#

A++ -2&!* % S'( 6). '!2 M'.)- (7KK0#4 )$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+) &!6 (6)" '5&(&%&)" %h'% $'. 5) +'%)* -&;)2 &!% 3&6) 2 $'&!":

i+ S)(3-A0'-)!)"" - observing onesel( and recogni2ing a (eeling as it happens#

ii+ M'!'*&!* )$ %& !" - handling (eelings so that they are appropriate5 reali2ing what is behind a (eeling5 (inding ways to handle (ears and an;ieties, anger and sadness#

iii+ M %&6'%&!* !)")(3- >hanneling emotions in the service o( a goal5 emotional sel(-control5 delaying grati(ication and sti(ling impulses#

50

iv+ E$1'%h.- -ensitivity to others: (eelings and concerns and ta"ing their perspective, appreciating the di((erence in how people are (eeling about things#

v+ H'!2(&!* -)('%& !"h&14 managing emotions in others5 social competence and social s"ills#

8 loo" at the domains summari2ed above, shows that they have a wide range o( use(ul implications (or adolescents in secondary schools# 7hen (aced with the struggle o( bro"en (amilies, abuse, the temptation o( drugs, alcohol and se; as well as other struggles all (ive (actors o( emotional intelligence can contribute to an adolescent being true to himsel( or hersel(# <urthermore, these domains can assist in (ostering a strong (orm o( development in body, mind and spirit (or each adolescent#

8ccording to 0ayer and >obb *=&&&+, the current de(inition o( emotional intelligence as de(ined by 0ayer, -alovey, and >aruso *=&&&+, includes the capacity to perceive, understand and manage emotionsB# 8 student high in emotional intelligence based on the above de(inition should have some o( the elements re6uired (or also being high in psychological well-being such as sel(-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in li(e and personal growth#

Emotional intelligence has been theoretically related to several important human values including li(e satis(action, the 6uality o( interpersonal relationships, and success in occupations that involve considerable reasoning with emotional in(ormation such as those involving creativity, leadership, sales and psychotherapy *!ar-Rn, 199%5 Goleman, 199 5 ,almer, 7alls, !urgess, U $ough, =&&15 -alovey 51

U 0ayer, 199&+# It was noted in the (indings o( ,almer, Donaldson and -tough *=&&1+ that emotional intelligence was moderately correlated with psychological well-being and signi(icantly e;plained some o( the variance in psychological well- being#

Teligiosity includes having or showing belie( in and reverence (or God or a deity, as well as participation in activities pertaining to that (aith such as attending servicesXworship regularly and participating in other social activities with one:s religious community# Teligiosity has been lin"ed to a greater sense o( well-being in late adulthood as well as to the ability to better cope with stress(ul events in middle adulthood C\oenig, -miley, U Gon2ale2, 19995 -antroc" =&&=E#

Teligious practices and belie(s o(ten play a role in understanding onesel( and the world especially when given meaning and value (or the relation between onesel(, others, surrounding environment and e;istence *>anda, 19'9+# Teligious belie(s become more abstract, more principled, and more independent during the adolescence years# -peci(ically, adolescents: belie(s become rituals, practices and strict observance o( religions customs *-teinberg, =&&=+#

Generally spea"ing, the stated importance o( religion- and especially o( participation in an organi2ed religion - declines somewhat during the adolescence years# .ounger adolescents than older adolescents attend church regularly, and, not surprisingly, more o( younger adolescents state that religion is important to them *!enson, Donahue U Eric"son, 19'95 /ohnson, R:0alley, U !achman, 19'G+#

-ome, but not all, researches suggest that religious adolescents are less depressed than other adolescents, signi(icantly less li"ely than peers to engage in premarital se;ual intercourse, and somewhat less li"ely to engage in deviant behavior, *!enson et al5 19'95 Donahue, 199@5 9itch(ield, $homas, U 9i 199%5 7right, <rost, U 7isecarver, 199D+# 1ot only does religious participation a((ect other aspects o( adolescents: behavior, but certain behavior themselves also a((ect religious participation# 52

$he implications o( religion and spirituality (or individual well-being had captured the attention o( many (oundational social theorists, Ce#g# 0ar;, 1'@@, <reud, 19='5 /ames, 191=5 7eber, 19 '5 U 0aslow, 19 @E# )owever, there has been renewed interest in systemically e;ploring the inter(ace between religi-spirituality and psychological well-being# Drawing across studies (rom this body o( research, several recent review articles have concluded that there is a modest salutary association between various aspects o( religi-spirituality and psychological well-being *)ac"ney U -anders, =&&D5 \oenig U 9arson, =&&15 -awat2"y, Tatner, U >hiu =&& +#

Earlier classic theori2ing *Dur"heim, 19 1+ on the importance o( social integration (or individual well-being suggests how religious participation might lead to individual:s better psychological well-being noting that engagement with institutions li"e religion can serve to temper individuals: desire and thereby help them to achieve better psychological well-being# -cholars have suggested that religious involvement promotes individuals well-being by providing them access to social support, a source (rom which to cultivate soul identity, as well as a (actor that encourages individuals to avoid negative health behaviors *George, Ellison, U 9arson =&&=+#

<indings (rom previous studies that simultaneously have e;amined multiple dimensions o( psychological well-being suggest that di((erent patterns o( association between religiosity, spirituality, and well-being are li"ely to emerge across diverse dimensions o( psychological wellbeing *e#g# <rasier, 0int2, U 0obley =&& 5 0asel"o U \ub2ans"y, =&&G+#>orroborating earlier researchers, Green(ield and 1adine *=&&%+, noted that associations between more (re6uent (ormal religious participation and psychological well-being were largely contingent upon the dimension o( psychological well-being under consideration#

-el(-e((icacy theory *!andura, 19%%+ provides insight into the components o( human motivation and behaviour# $he theory posits the importance o( perceived sel(-e((icacy as the primary stimulus (or 53

pursuing a behavior# -el(-e((icacy is one:s belie( in his or her ability to per(orm a speci(ic behavior to achieve an outcome#

-el(-e((icacy is usually thought to in(luence behaviour in speci(ic domains o( action and is considered to be a universal construct, which applies to all individuals regardless o( race, gender or culture# -el(e((icacy belie(s determine an individuals: resiliency to adversity and her vulnerability to stress and depression *!andura, >aprara, !arbaranelli, Gerbino U ,astorelli, =&&D+#General sel(-e((icacy aims at a broad and stable sense o( personal competence to deal e((ectively with a variety o( stress(ul situations *-cherer et al#, 19'=5 -chwar2er, 199@+# Tesearch reported that general sel(-e((icacy was related to physical and mental health *7ang U 9iu, =&&&+#

P/-1 ")

3 %h) S%/2.

Due to the increasing malad3usted behaviour mani(ested by many adolescents and against the proven empirical (acts that adolescence is not necessarily inherently stress(ul, it is necessary to have a loo" at the (actors that contribute to psychological well-being o( adolescents# -peci(ically the study e;amined emotional intelligence, religiosity and sel(-e((icacy as predictors o( psychological well-being#

R)")'-+h L/)"%& !"

!ased on articulated ob3ectives o( the study, the (ollowing research 6uestions were addressed in the wor"# 7. A-) %h)-) "&*!&3&+'!% -)('%& !"h&1" '$ !* )$ %& !'(

54

&!%)((&*)!+)4 -)(&*& "&%. '!2 ")(3-)33&+'+. '!2 1".+h ( *&+'( 0)((-5)&!*G 9. Wh'% &" %h) M &!% )33)+% 3 )$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+)4 -)(&*& "&%. '!2 ")(3-)33&+'+. ! 1".+h ( *&+'( 0)((-5)&!*G :. Wh'% &" %h) ")1'-'%) )33)+% 3 )$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+)4 -)(&*& "&%. '!2 ")(3-)33&+'+. ! 1".+h ( *&+'( 0)((-5)&!*G

METHODOLOGY

R)")'-+h D)"&*!
$he descriptive survey research design was adopted (or the study# In this type o( design, the researchers are interested in "nowing the in(luence o( the independent variables on the dependent variables without necessarily manipulating the independent variables#

P'-%&+&1'!%"
$en secondary schools were randomly selected (rom the (ive local government areas in Rgbomoso# -trati(ied random sampling was employed where each local government (ormed a stratum# In each o( the local governments, two schools were randomly selected and D& students were selected (rom each school# $he age o( the respondents ranges between 1D and =& years, with a mean age o( 1 #9& and -D o( D#@# $here were 1G1 * #1_+ males and 1 1 *@@#9_+ (emales# $here were =D& *%'#'_+ >hristians and G= *=1#=+ 0uslims#

55

I!"%-/$)!%'%& !

<ive instruments were used to collect the data (or the study# $he description o( the instruments is given below4

1.

Th) G)!)-'( S)(3-E33&+'+. S+'():

$he scale was developed by 0atthias /erusalem and Tal( -chwarger in 19%9 with German version which was later revised# It was developed to assess a general sense o( perceived sel(-e((icacy (or adult population, including adolescents# Tesponses are made on a @-point scale and summing up the responses to all ten items to yield the (inal composite score ranging (rom 1& to @&# In samples (rom =D nations, >ronbach:s alpha ranged (rom #%G to #9&, with the ma3ority in the high #'&# $he scale is one-dimensional# >riterion - related validity is documented in numerous correlations studies# $he response (ormat is 1 ^ 1ot at all true, = ^ )ardly true, D ^ moderately true, @ ^ e;actly true#

9. W)((-5)&!* M'!&3)"%'%& ! M)'"/-)$)!% S+'():

$his scale was developed by 0asse, ,oulin, Dassa, 9ambert, !elair and !attalion *199'b+# $he need (or a scale which is shorter and easy to administer in(ormed the choice o( this scale# $he scale contains = items with si; (actors# $he si; (actors are control o( sel( and event, happiness, social involvement, sel(-esteem, mental balance, and sociability# 0asse et al *199'a+ (ound an overall >ronbach alpha o( &#9D ^ #' and a range o( #%1 on the subscales# $hey also (ound that the item e;plained =_ o( the variance in psychological well-being#

56

:. W !* '!2 (WLEIS#:

L'0

E$ %& !'(

I!%)((&*)!+)

S+'()

$he scale was designed by 7ong and 9aw *=&&=+ based on the (our dimensions o( emotional intelligence as proposed by Davis et al 199'# It consists o( 1G items in which @ items were drawn (rom each dimension#

4. S)(3-E$ %& !'( A11-'&"'( (SEA#: -

Rther Emotional 8ppraisal *RE8+, ?se o( Emotional *?RE+ and Tegulation R( Emotion *TRE+# Emotional intelligence scale yield coe((icient alpha o(4 -el( Emotion, &#'9, Tegulation o( Emotion &#'9, ?se o( Emotion &#'&, and Rthers Emotion &#'9#

5. R)(&*& "&%. S+'():

$his scale was developed by the researchers in the course o( the research wor"# $he scale is made up o( 1= items# Tesponses are made on a - point 9i"ert (ormat i#e# -trongly 8gree, 8gree, ?ndecided, Disagree# It has a reliability coe((icient o( &#'' determined by testretest method#

P- +)2/-)
$he 6uestionnaires were administered on the participants in their various schools (ollowing the approval o( the school authorities# $he administration o( the instruments too" one wee"# 8s a result o( the (act that the participants had to respond to (our instruments, it was not possible to retrieve them on the very day o( administration# $his 57

necessitated (urther visits by the researchers# R( the three hundred distributed, two hundred and ninety-two were retrieved# $his represents a response rate o( 9%#D_#

D'%' A!'(."&"
Data were analy2ed using ,earson product moment correlation and multiple regression analysis#

RESULTS

T'5() 7: M)'!4 S%'!2'-2 D)6&'%& ! C --)('%& ! '$ !* %h) V'-&'5()"

T'5() 7 "h 0" %h'%:

58

1# Emotional intelligence, religiosity and sel(-e((icacy have signi(icant relationship with psychological well-being *,`&#& + =# Teligiosity has a signi(icant relationship with emotional intelligence *,`&#& + but not with sel(-e((icacy *,b&#& +# D# -el(-e((icacy has a signi(icant relationship with emotional intelligence *,`&#& + but not with religiosity *,b&#& +# @# Emotional intelligence has a signi(icant relationship with religiosity and sel( - e((icacy *,`&#& +#

T'5() 9: R)*-)""& ! A!'(."&" "h 0&!* %h) M &!% )33)+% 3 )$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+)4 -)(&*& "&%. '!2 ")(3-)33&+'+. ! %h) 1".+h ( *&+'( 0)((-5)&!* 3 %h) -)"1 !2)!%".

59

<rom table =, it was (ound that the linear combination o( religiosity, sel(-e((icacy and emotional intelligence had signi(icant e((ect on the psychological well-being o( the respondents *< *D,=''+ ^ GD#=1', ,`&#& +# $he independent variables also yielded a coe((icient o( multiple regressions *T+ o( &#D9%, and multiple Tegressions -6uare *T=+ ad3usted o( &#D91# $his means that D9#1_ o( the total variance in psychological well-being o( the participants could be e;plained by the combination o( religiosity, sel(-e((icacy and emotional intelligence#

$able D4 R)('%&6) + !%-&5/%& !"

3 %h) &!2)1)!2)!% 6'-&'5()" ! 1".+h ( *&+'( 0)((-5)&!* 3 %h) -)"1 !2)!%"

$able D shows (or each independent variable, the unstandardised regression weight *c+, the standard error o( estimate *-Ec+, the standardi2ed coe((icient, the t-ratio and level at which the $-ratio is signi(icant# Emotional intelligence made the highest contribution *c ^ # @@, t^ 1&# 9', ,`&#& +# $his is (ollowed by sel(-e((icacy which contributed *c ^ #1%9, t ^ D#GG, ,`#& + and then religiosity *c^#&&D, t^#&G , ,b #& +#

60

D&"+/""& !

Tesults as shown in table = indicate that the three independent variables *emotional intelligence, religiosity and sel(-e((icacy+ as a bloc" seem to be e((ective in predicting psychological well-being o( secondary school adolescents# $he observed <-ratio is signi(icant *< *D,='' ^ GD#=1', ,`&#& +#

$he multiple regression s6uare *T=+ value o( *&#D9%+ suggested that about D9#%_ o( the total variation in the adolescents: psychological well-being is accounted (or by a linear combination o( the three independent variables#

Tesults (rom table D show the e;tent to which each o( the independent variables contributed to the prediction and the value o( t-ratio associated with respective variables# It indicates that emotional intelligence and sel(-e((icacy contributed signi(icantly to the prediction o( psychological well-being o( the adolescents while religiosity did not#

$he values o( the standardi2ed regression weights associated with these variables indicate that emotional intelligence made the greatest contribution (ollowed by sel(-e((icacy and then religiosity# $he results corroborate the (inding o( De 9a22ari *=&&&+ that emotional intelligence was moderately correlated with psychological well-being and that it e;plained some o( the variance in psychological well-being#

$he signi(icant contribution o( emotional intelligence to the prediction o( the psychological well-being o( the adolescent is e;plicable

61

considering the central role emotion - *its understanding and use+ plays in the psychological well-being o( people# >onsidering the de(inition o( emotional intelligence by 0ayer, -alovey and >aruso *=&&&+, as Athe capacity to perceive, assimilate, understand and manage emotionB, a student high in emotional intelligence based on the above de(inition should have some o( the elements re6uired (or also being high in psychological well-being such as sel(-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in li(e, and personal growth#

>ombining the concept o( social perspective ta"ing with emotional intelligence (rom a developmental perspective, one might come to recogni2e the impact o( emotional intelligence on psychological wellbeing#

8 variety o( in(erences can be drawn as to why adolescents who are high in emotional intelligence also score high in psychological wellbeing# Rne e;planation is that adolescents with high scores in emotional intelligence have a good "nowledge o( their emotions and this is characteri2ed by sel(-awareness which is critical to sel(acceptance which has been operationalised as a domain o( psychological well-being#

8wareness o( ones emotion is also crucial to autonomy *sel(determination, independence and ability to regulate ones behavior+ and personal growth, both o( which are domains o( psychological wellbeing#

-el(-e((icacy signi(icant contribution to the prediction o( psychological well- being is consistent with the assertion o( 7ang and 9iu, *=&&&+ that general sel(-e((icacy was related to physical and mental health# 8lso, sel(-e((icacy aims at a broad and stable sense o( personal competence to deal e((ectively with a variety o( stress(ul situations #8gain5 sel(-e((icacy belie(s determine an individual resiliency to adversity and vulnerability to stress and depression# 62

$he (inding that religiosity did not contribute signi(icantly to psychological well- being o( the adolescents is inconsistent with previous studies which have suggested that increased religious participation leads to enhanced well-being over time *-trawbridge, -hema, U >ohen, =&&1+# )owever, this is e;plicable using the assertions o( Green(ield and 1adine *=&&%+, that associations between more (re6uent (ormal religious participation and psychological well-being were largely contingent upon the dimension o( psychological well-being# <urthermore, (indings (rom previous studies that simultaneously have e;amined multiple dimensions o( psychological well-being suggest that di((erent patterns o( association between religiosity and well-being are li"ely to emerge across diverse dimensions o( psychological well being *e#g# 0asel"o U \ub2ans"y,=&&G +# !ased on these empirical evidences it is plausible that religiosity could only predict certain aspects o( psychological well-being and not psychological well-being per se and hence the inability o( religiosity to predict psychological well-being in this wor"#

I$1(&+'%& !

3 %h) 3&!2&!*"

$he result o( this study has implication (or educational settings# $he (act that emotional intelligence and sel(-e((icacy are strong predictors o( psychological well-being demands that schools should begin to develop programmes to (oster emotional intelligence and sel(-e((icacy among adolescents# 8s emotional intelligence is teachable and learnable, teachers should endeavor to teach rudiments o( emotional intelligence to students# -chool counselors and psychologists could also develop emotional intelligence and sel(-e((icacy programmes and use them to enhance psychological well-being o( adolescents#

63

M/(%&-R'%)- - :E0-2)*-)) E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) A"")""$)!% B)!M'$&! R P'($)- @ C ! S% /*h O-*'!&;'%& !'( P".+h ( *. R)")'-+h U!&%4 C)!%-) 3 N)/- 1h."& ( *. S0&!5/-!) U!&6)-"&%. 3 T)+h! ( *.

A5"%-'+%
In this paper we discuss the potential utility o( multi-rater or DG&degree measured EI over sel(-reported and ability measured EI# 7e then discuss the development o( a wor"place DG& measure o( emotional intelligence designed speci(ically (or development purposes#

-everal research studies testing wor"place samples are presented which e;amine the internal consistency reliability o( the rater (orms o( the DG& instrument5 compare the means and standard deviations o( sel(- and other-rated EI5 and the relationship between how people rate themselves on the instrument and how they rate others# $he research (indings demonstrate the utility o( multi-rater DG&-degree EI assessment instruments, which is discussed speci(ically in terms o( leadership development#

Th) 1".+h $)%-&+ 1- 1)-%&)" 3 %h) :E0-2)*-)) S0&!5/-!) U!&6)-"&%. E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) T)"%

0ulti-rater or DG&-degree assessment instruments are very popular development tools amongst organisational psychologists and managerial consultants, particularly as a medium (or enhancing leader:s "nowledge o( how others perceive their per(ormance andXor behaviour at wor" *-ala, =&&D+# -uch assessment instruments typically comprise behaviorally based declarative statements *as items+ and 64

9i"ert-type response scales that are systematically scored by a set o( so-called AratersB#

Taters can include the sub3ect themselves *or Asel(-ratingsB+, and manager*s+, peers and direct reports ratings thus the term DG&-degree# !esides typical psychometric research studies on the reliability, and (actor structure o( multi-rater assessment instruments, research in this area has also (ocused on the level o( congruence between rater:s scores# $he comparative predictive validity o( di((erent rater groups *i#e#, sel(-scores vs# peer-rated scores5 -ala U Dwight, =&&=+5 and the e((icacy o( multi-(actor (eedbac" on per(ormance andXor behavioural improvement *>hurch, =&&&5 -ala, =&&D+#

>ollectively this research has demonstrated that multi-rater assessment instruments can provide superior per(ormance data, promote participant sel(-awareness, and (acilitate behavioural change# Indeed multi-rater assessment instruments are widely utili2ed (or these reasons amongst the corporate sector, with mar"et research suggesting that all <ortune && companies have used multi-rater assessments in some (orm#

E6ually as popular o( late is the construct o( emotional intelligence *EI5 -alovey U 0ayer, 199&+ and associated assessment and development methodologies# Indeed when the )arvard !usiness Teview published an article on this topic in 199' *7hat ma"es a leaderS Goleman, 199'a+, it 6uic"ly became the reviews most re6uested reprint (or the last @& years# EI re(ers to abilities to do with emotions including *but not limited to+, the ability to perceive, understand, utili2e and manage one's own and others emotions#

$he rise in popularity o( EI and its application as a medium (or managerial development similarly stems (rom a growing body o( research that has demonstrated that EI underlies or predicts e((ective leadership5 and associated popular literature that suggests that EI can be developed and that doing so may lead to enhanced interpersonal s"ills and leadership per(ormance# Tesearch in this area has also seen 65

the development o( DG&-degree multi-rater EI assessment scales that have been designed speci(ically as developmental tools#

0ulti-rater measures o( EI may prove to be one o( the most valuable methods o( measuring leaders EI in the wor"place# >ritics o( the multirater method (or measuring EI have argued that multi-rater measures may never provide a AtrueB inde; o( one's actual EI ability *0ayer et al#, =&&&+# 0ayer et al# *=&&&+, have argued that sel(-ratings *in a multirater paradigm+ are (iltered through the individuals sel(-concept and as such provide an indication o( their belie(s about their EI, *or perceived EI+, rather than their actual capacity# -imilarly, 0ayer et al# *=&&&+ have also argued that ratings (rom others *in a multi-rater paradigm, e#g#, peers, managers andXor direct reports+ simply re(lect di((erent rater groups' perceptions o( the sub3ects EI as opposed to their actual EI ability#

Indeed research with multi-rater assessment instruments has shown that di((erent rater groups o(ten report di((erent *and sometimes incongruent+ perceptions o( sub3ects' per(ormance andXor behaviour at wor" *!ecton U -chraeder, =&&@+# )owever, as noted by 9ondon and -mither *199 +, A[in the socially constructed world in which employees wor", others' 3udgements about them *no matter how biased they may be+ constitute an important realityB, which in the case o( multi-rater EI assessment results, may not re(lect one's actual EI ability, but rather the e;tent to which the sub3ect demonstrates emotionally intelligent behaviour in the wor"place# $he 6uestion that remains unanswered here is what is more important in terms o( leadership e((ectiveness andXor success and the prediction thereo(, the leaders actual EI ability, or the e;tent to which they demonstrate emotionally intelligent behaviour at wor"S

In the conte;t o( using an EI assessment (or leadership development purposes, it is conceivable that a leader may have high levels o( EI and achieve high scores on an ability-based assessment o( EI yet either5

*a+ 1ot be e((ectively using their EI at wor" (or whatever reason5 66

*b+ >hoose not to act in an emotionally intelligent way with the people they wor" with5 or

*c+ Indeed choose to use their EI in a manipulative and interpersonally maladaptive (ashion#

In this conte;t the ability assessment results may show high EI and little insight is provided to both the practitioner and sub3ect into their leadership e((ectiveness (rom an EI standpoint# In contrast, i( a multirater assessment instrument was utilised and the same leader was provided ratings o( their EI (rom the people they wor" with *e#g#, direct reports, peers, managers+ it is hard to imagine the person achieving high scores (rom others#

In this latter case it is logical to anticipate that the leader who has high EI but does not demonstrate emotionally intelligent behaviours at wor", will be rated as low in EI by others and much more valuable insight may be provided to both the practitioner and leader in the conte;t o( DG&-degree (eedbac" and development# In this sense it could be argued that multi-rater measures o( EI may be as valuable i( not more valuable than ability based measure as a means o( providing the basis o( development#

Despite this potential utility and the advent o( multi-rater EI assessment scales very little has been published on the psychometric properties and developmental utility o( them# $his paper describes a multi-rater EI assessment scale developed at -winburne ?niversity, namely, the Genos DG& EI 8ssessment -cale or Genos-DG&5 ,almer U -tough, =&&1+# -ome preliminary psychometric analyses o( the Genos DG& are presented and the (indings are discussed in terms o( the potential utility o( the instrument and other DG&-EI assessment instruments in leadership development programs#

67

$he Genos-DG& assesses (ive de(initive (acets o( the EI construct determined via a large (actor analytic study that involved si; o( the predominant scales o( EI available at the time including4 (7# %h) M'.)-4 S'( 6).4 C'-/" E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) %)"% (MSCEITH M'.)-4 S'( 6). @ C'-/" 4 7KKK#H (9# %h) B'--O! E$ %& !'( ,/ %&)!% I!6)!% -. (B'--O!4 7KKB#H (:# %h) T-'&% M)%'-M 2 S+'() (S'( 6). )% '(.4 7KK5#H A()=&%h.$&' S+'()-II (TAS-90H

(4# %h) %0)!%.-&%)$ T - !% B'*5.4 T'.( - @ P'-?)-4 7KK4#H

(5# %h) "+'() 5. S+h/%%) )% '( (7KKA#H '!2 3&!'((.4 (E# %h) "+'() 5. T)%% )% '(.4 (7KKB#. <rom this study *,almer et al#, =&&1+ (ive common or de(initive (acets o( the EI construct were determined including5

*1+ Emotional Tecognition and E;pression, the ability to perceive and e;press one's own emotions5

*=+ ?nderstanding Emotions E;ternal, the ability to perceive and understand the emotions o( others and those inherent in wor"place environments *e#g#, sta(( meetings, board rooms etc+ 5

*D+ Emotions Direct >ognitio, the e;tent to which emotions and emotional in(ormation are incorporated into reasoning and decision ma"ing 5

*@+ Emotional 0anagement, the ability to manage both positive and negative moods and emotions within onesel( and others 5 and

68

* + Emotional >ontrol, the ability to e((ectively control strong emotional states e;perienced at wor" such as anger, stress, an;iety and (rustration # $hese (ive common dimensions represent our empiricallybased model o( emotional intelligence which we designed the GenosDG& to assess#

$he Genos-DG& comprises both sel(-report and DG&-degree rating (orms that as" people to rate the e;tent to which the sub3ect demonstrates emotionally intelligent behaviour at wor" according to the (ive (acets o( EI previous mentioned# $he test itsel( comprises G@ declarative statements and a (ive-point rating scale and ta"es around 1=-1 minutes to complete#

$here are a balanced number o( positively and negatively phrased items that help determine inconsistent response patterns and illogical responding# In summary, the test provides insight into cross-situational consistencies in emotionally intelligent behaviour in the wor"place and hence one's underlying level o( EI#

In this paper we report the internal consistency o( the rater (orms o( the Genos-DG& instrument using a relatively large sel(-other rater sample comprising managers direct reports and peers and the relationship between how people rate themselves *on the sel(-rating (orm+ and how they rate others *on the rater (orms+# 7e do not report on the congruency between sel(-ratings and ratings (rom others, that is, the relationship between how people perceive themselves and how others rate them on the Genos-DG&#

Tesearch has consistently demonstrated a general lac" o( congruence between sel(-ratings and ratings made by others, although direct reports, peers and manager ratings have been shown to moderately correlate at times *e#g#, r ^ #D 5 -ala U Dwight, =&&=+# 8 general consensus amongst the multi-rater literature is that di((erent rater groups typically observe di((erent (acets o( the ratees' behaviour and that this is re(lected in the typical di((erences (ound between rater groups *!orman, 19%@+# Indeed according to contingency theories o( 69

leadership, e((ective leaders typically ad3ust their behaviour and leadership style according to the situation andXor individual they are leading *!ecton U -chraeder, =&&@+#

In contrast a 6uestion we argue is more relevant to EI multi-rater measures is4 to what e;tent does one's own EI *or perceived EI+ in(luence the way you rate other peoples EIS I( there were moderate to high relationships between how people rate their own EI and other peoples' EI, this may have broader practical rami(ications (or the use o( the instrument# -uch a (ind may suggest that you need high perceived andXor actual EI to rate other peoples' EI and there(ore raters would need to be care(ully chosen# 8lternatively i( little relationship e;isted between how people rate themselves and others this may indicate that you do not need EI to rate someone else's EI on the instrument#

M)%h 2

P'-%&+&1'!%":

$he sample comprised @ sub3ects *@= males and 1= (emales ranging in age (rom D& to years5 -D ^ G#= years+, and @&G raters comprising @ managers, 19@ peers and 1 % direct reports# Rn average each sub3ect had appro;imately seven raters, one manager, three direct reports and D peers# $he sub3ects were senior level 8ustralian managers (rom a broad range o( industries across both private and public sector organisations within the state o( Qictoria # $he annual salaries o( the sub3ects ranged (rom a low o( dG9,&&&#&& to a high o( dD&&,&&&#&& *0 ^ d1G&,&&&5 -D ^ d %,%%9+#

M)'!" '!2 S%'!2'-2 D)6&'%& !"

70

$he means, standard deviations, and internal consistency reliability *coe((icient alpha e+ (or each o( the dimensions o( the test pertaining to the sample are presented in $able 1# <or comparative purposes, $able = shows the means, standard deviations, and internal consistency reliability *coe((icient alpha e+ (or each o( the dimensions o( the sel(-test *sel(-Genos+ pertaining to a second normative population sample#

T'5() 7

0eans, -tandard Deviations, and Teliability >oe((icients (or the GenosDG& -cale Y items 0ean -tandard Deviation ==@# D ==#91 D9#91 # D %@#'G D1# % @D#G1 D@# G 9#@1 G#GD G#1= @#@% a #9@ #%9 #9D #%9 #' #'&

$otal EI G@ Emotional Tecognition U11 E;pression ?nderstanding o( Emotions=& E;ternal Emotions Direct >ognition 1= Emotional 0anagement 1= Emotional >ontrol 9

8s shown in $able 1, (ull-scale reliability is high as is the reliability (or each o( the sub-scales with the rater sample#

T'5() 9

0eans, -tandard Deviations, and Teliability >oe((icients (or the normative population sample on the sel(-Genos

71

-cale

Y items 0ean

$otal EI G@ Emotional Tecognition U11 E;pression ?nderstanding o( Emotions=& E;ternal Emotions Direct >ognition 1= Emotional 0anagement 1= Emotional >ontrol 9

-tandard Deviation == #D% =&#1@ D'#%& #D@ %G# @ D #19 @=#=@ D=#%1 %#%' G#1@ #G9 @#GG

a #91 #%' #'G #'1 #'1 #'&

8s shown in $able 1, (ull-scale reliability is high as is the reliability (or each o( the sub-scales (or the normative population sample on the sel(Genos# $he general sample consists o( 1 == individuals *9'@ <emales, @'% 0ales, 1 did not nominate their se;+, the ages o( individuals who completed the sel(-Genos ranged (rom 1' f %= *0ean4 @&#@D, -D4 1&#D9+# R( the people who supplied their level o( education *ng@ &+4 1&_ had completed their high school certi(icate, D1_ had completed a tertiary certi(icate, D&_ had completed an undergraduate degree, and =9_ had completed a postgraduate degree# 8s can be seen by comparing and contrasting $able 1 and = the means, standard deviations and internal consistency reliability o( the rater sample and normative population sample are relatively comparative indicating some consistency between how people rate themselves and how rater:s rate sub3ects EI#

9. :E0-D)*-)) R'%&!* C !*-/)!+)

$able D details the rating congruence between DG& degree and sel(ratings o( 1%1 people having underta"en the Genos-DG&# $his analysis was underta"en to assess (or instance i( somebody has low sel(reported understanding o( emotions *?E+ o( others, is that person more li"ely to rate others low on this dimension and visa versa# $his analysis was underta"en (or every one o( the (ive dimensions o( the Genos-DG&, ie i( I was low in Emotional >ontrol, would I then be li"ely to rate others low on Emotional >ontrolS 72

T'5() :

I!%)-+ --)('%& !" 5)%0))! E$ %& !'( I!%)((&*)!+) ")(3 '!2 :E0 2)*-)) -'%&!*"

Taters Intelligence ETE ?E ED> E0 E>

-el( Tated Emotional Intelligence EmotionalETE ?E ED> E0 E> &#@&@ZZ &#=9'ZZ &#1'@Z &#1D -&#& ' &#DD= &#D GZZ -&#&=' &#1@ &#&1' &#19@Z &#==%ZZ &#&@ &#&G@ -&#1=D &#& % &#1DG -&#1 1Z &#1%%Z &#=D'ZZ -#&&9 &#11' -&#1 DZ &#19'ZZ &#='&ZZ

1ote4 Z p ` &#& , ZZ p ` &#&1 ETE ^ Emotional Tecognition and E;pression5 E? ^ ?nderstanding Emotions E;ternal5 ED> ^ Emotions Direct >ognition5 E0 ^ Emotional 0anagement5 E> ^ Emotional >ontrol#

!ased on the random sample o( 1%1 people ta"en (rom the Genos database a small e((ect is evident, accounting (or not more than about &-1G_ o( the variance *relationship+# $o summari2e4 S)(3 -)1 -% ERE + --)('%)" '% 0.40 0&%h -'%&!*" (7EI# S)(3 -)1 -% UE + --)('%)" '% 0.:E 0&%h -'%&!*" S)(3 -)1 -% EDC + --)('%)" '% 0.05 0&%h -'%&!*" 3 %h)-" ERE

3 UE (7:I# 3 UE (.95I# 73

S)(3 -)1 -% EM + --)('%)" '% 0.7A 0&%h -'%&!*" S)(3 -)1 -% EC + --)('%)" '% 0.9A 0&%h -'%&!*"

3 EM (9.0I# 3 EC (B.AI#

$he highest correlation between how someone rates them and how they rate other people was (ound between the variables that you would e;pect, Emotional Tecognition and E;pression *ETE+ and ?nderstanding Emotions *?E+# Despite this, there seems to be no systematic pattern related to ones own EI sel(-ratings and their ratings o( others#

C !+(/"& !:

$he (indings presented in this study show that EI can be reliably rated by others and that the means and standard deviations o( a rater sample are similar to those o( a sel(-rating sample# $he (indings also show that little relationship e;ists between how people rate themselves and how they rate others# $hus people with sel(-rated low EI can typically rate others as high or visa versa#

$his (inding suggests that one does not need insight into EI or indeed perhaps actual EI in order to provide a valid perception o( how they perceive someone else's emotionally intelligent behaviour in the wor"place# 7hile this data provides some initial insight into the how people rate other peoples emotionally intelligent behaviors in the wor"place many 6uestions remain unanswered and need to be (urther addressed#

$hese 6uestions include5 what is the relationship between sel( and other ratings5 are higher levels o( congruence between sel( and other ratings associated with various management and leadership outcomes *such as per(ormance and leadership e((ectiveness as has been shown in other multi-rater research+5 what are better predictors o( leadership e((ectiveness and per(ormance, that is, sel(-rated, direct-report rated, 74

peer-rated or management rated EI5 and when compared with sel(ratings only, can ratings (rom others enhance sel(-awareness and behavioural change andXor emotional development as has been previously shown in research *e#g#, >hurch, =&&&+#

Tesearch with multi-rater assessment instruments has shown that *a+ sel(-ratings are typically poor predictors o( per(ormance *>hurch, =&&&5 )arris U -chaubroech, 19''5 -ala U Dwight, =&&=+5 *b+ sel(-ratings are typically positively biased *>hurch, 199%5 ,odsa"o(( U Rrgan, 19'G5 -ala, =&&D+5 and *c+ that ratings (rom others can serve an important role in providing insights into the e;tent to which others perceive certain behaviors andXor levels o( per(ormance associated with a leader *-ala, =&&=+#

8t the outset we argued that multi-rater or DG& degree measures o( EI may play an important role in providing development practitioners and the leaders they wor" with, with additional insight into the e;tent to which others perceive them to be displaying emotionally intelligent behaviors in the wor"place# 8n important ne;t step in this area will be to demonstrate the e((icacy o( this approach over and above simply sel(-rated insight in EI leadership development programs#

CASE HISTORY.

Th) E$ %& !'( I$1)-'%&6) P".+h %h)-'1&"%" C'!! % A33 -2 T I*! -) Th) P-&$'+. O3 Th) L&$5&+ B-'&! (C 6)- "% -. 3 - %h) N/(.OA/*/"% 7KKK &""/) 3 %h) F'$&(. Th)-'1. N)% 0 -?)-#
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B-)!% N. A%?&!" !4 Ph.D.

Rn a humid evening last -eptember, -usan and /ames burst into our o((ice loo"ing li"e two high schoolers in the grip o( a classroom giggle (it# ?sually serious and reserved, /ames, DG, e;plained between chuc"les that he had been telling -usan a story about his boss's ga((e at a meeting earlier that day# -till chortling as she landed on our o((ice so(a, =%-year-old -usan ran her (ingers through her cropped, blond hair and tried to compose hersel(, then eyed her glee(ul husband and began hooting all over again#

I glanced at my wi(e and cotherapist, 9isa, (or a microsecond and gave her a raised-eyebrow version o( a high (ive4 $his had all the earmar"s o( an easy session# 8(ter a bit more banter, we steered the conversation to the main order o( business-- the state o( their si;year marriage# -usan began to recount an incident that had occurred a (ew days be(ore, when /ames had volunteered -usan to drive his daughter to a birthday party so that his e;-wi(e wouldn't be inconvenienced# FI (elt used,F -usan said bluntly# -o (ar, so good, I thought -- she is simply stating her (eelings# $hen loo"ing directly at her husband, she continued4 F!ut what upset me even more was your reaction when you saw that I was unhappy# .ou started de(ending heraF

7ith these words, -usan's voice began to sha"e and she duc"ed her head, starting at the (lowered pattern o( the \leene; in her (ist# 7hen she loo"ed up her eyes were narrowed and her (ace (lushed a deep, mottled crimson# F.ou are so (ull o( crapaF she spit out# F.ou're too wea" to stand up to her then you loo" at me as i( I'm the one with the problem# God, what a suc"er I am to stay with youaF /ames rolled his eyes and sighed elaborately, then turned toward us# F.ou see what I have to deal with hereSF he as"ed beseechingly# It was as though he had lit a match to his wi(e's innards# FRh, that's 76

good /amesaF sneered -usan# F!lame me againa $his is classic# .ou're such a (uc"ing wimpaF /ames didn't respond# In (act, I wasn't even sure he had heard her# )is whole body seemed to contract as he turned toward the o((ice picture window and stared unseeing through it, his mouth a taut line# $hough he sat very still, I could hear the ragged sounds o( his breathing# $he rela;ed, a((able man who had entered our o((ice 1& minutes earlier had simply vanished# 9oo"ing bac", I reali2e it was pure wish(ul thin"ing to e6uate this couple's initial good cheer with an easy session# In (act, over the years I have o(ten been struc" by how swi(tly and dramatically the moods o( intimate partners can change in the midst o( an interaction, as though some internal switch gets (lipped that compels each partner to react in a particular, almost predetermined way# In a previous session, /ames had 3o"ingly called -usan F-ibyl,F noting that whenever she became deeply upset, she entered Fthe 2one,F a place (rom which she could only react with white-hot wrath#

8t times, that rage turned physical4 during one particularly savage (ight, she "noc"ed /ames unconscious by pushing him into a wall# .et, in my observation, -usan was not the only partner prone to meteoric mood shi(ts# /ames's predictable response to -usan's ragef a lightning-(ast retreat into his own 2one o( tuned-out, protective distancefwas every bit as sudden and intense as his wi(e's# In the past, the goal o( our therapy with a couple li"e -usan and /ames would have been to teach them new habits o( thin"ing and behaving that they could call into play whenever con(lict arose# 7e would have coached them to listen to each other more attentively, (ight more (airly, and give each other more bene(it o( the doubt#

!ut over the years, we have noticed that the progress couples made in these areas tended to be disturbingly short lived# -everal years 77

ago, we in(ormally (ollowed up with a number o( our couples and (ound that within months o( (inishing therapy, many had reverted bac" to their old, well-honed tango o( attach and withdraw, storm and stonewall# <or some, it was as though they had never been in therapy at all# 7ere we doing something wrongS 0y honest response is yesfand we have loads o( company# >ontrolled studies o( marital therapy outcome show that (ollowing a stint o( treatment, only & percent o( couples signi(icantly improve# !ut even among those couples who do ma"e progress, a big chun"fD& to @& percentfrelapse within two years# 8 close reading o( this outcome research reveals a still more dispiriting reality4 many o( the so-called Fsuccess(ulF couples reported still (eeling unhappy with their marriages at a two-year (ollow-up# In the course o( therapy, they had merely progressed (rom Fhighly distressed4F to 3ust plain Fdistressed#F Wh. '-) 0) 2 &!* "/+h ' ( /". M 5 3 h)(1&!* + /1()"G

1umerous (actors have been identi(ied4 couples come in too late to be helped5 reimbursed sessions are too (ew5 many clinicians are undertrained in marital therapy# !ut one possibility that we haven't yet con(ronted is that many o( our most respected and widely used models (or helping couples may be based on badfor at least badly outdatedfin(ormation# 0ost couples therapy today is geared toward teaching partners to thin" and act di((erently toward each other, on the assumption that cognitive and behavioral strategies such as re(raming, active listening, doing more o( the wor"s and so on can short-circuit e;plosive emotions and promote renewed intimacy and trust# !ut all o( the (oregoing assumes that our rational brains are in charge o( our emotions, that what distinguished )omo sapiens (rom so-called FlowerF animals is our capacity to reason be(ore we react#

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B/% 0h'% &3 %h) h/$'! 5-'&! &"!<% '+%/'((. 0&-)2 %h'% 0'.G 7hat i( our neural circuitry programs us instead to rage and cower and collapse in grie( in a nanosecond, be(ore we ever get a chance to (ashion an FIF statement or otherwise thin" things throughS 7ith the help o( ever more re(ined imaging techni6ues that generate highly precise portraits o( the brain in action, a new generation o( neurobiologists is in the process o( documenting that our cerebral topography actually (avors (laming emotionality, not sweet reason# $hin"ing still counts, but not nearly as much as we've always assumed# -o doctrine shattering is this mounting evidence (or the hegemony o( the Femotion brain,F or more (ormally, the limbic brain, that /aa" ,an"sepp, a pioneering neurobiologist at Rhio's !owling Green -tate ?niversity, has called it a genuine Fneuroscience revolution#F !ut while the lay public appears (ascinated by this new loo" at our emotional brains, catapulting boo"s such as Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence and -teven ,in"er's +ow the Mind Works onto the bestseller lists, thus (ar, clinicians have seemed curiously unmoved# In our pro(essional 3ournals and con(erences, we have done little grappling with the implications (or psychotherapy o( this ma3or new strand o( emotion research even though it stri"es at the very marrow o( the wor" we do# ,erhaps our (ield has hesitated to seriously con(ront the core tenets o( the new, a((ective neuroscience because i( we did, we might (ind out that we are heading down a ha2ardous road# <or i( our very brain circuits are primed to (avor our most volatile emotions over reason, we may need to call into 6uestion our (ield's predominant tilt toward therapeutic models that rely on the sovereignty o( rational thought to engender change# 8s economic pressures spur us to move increasingly toward ever brie(er, more cognitive-oriented models, we may unwittingly be investing enormous energy in approaches that are, to a large e;tent, at odds with our brain's most (undamental (unctions#

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9et me say clearly that at this 3uncture, almost nothing about the brain's role in emotion can be stated with absolute authority# !ehavioral neuroscience is still an in(ant (ield, which means that many conclusions are still in the realm o( correlation and possibility# 8nd high-tech tools notwithstanding, the tas" o( mapping the emotional brain is simply a staggeringly comple; underta"ing# Each human brain houses up to 1&& billion neurons, each o( which is capable o( ma"ing, literally, thousands o( connections with other neurons#

8ttempting to relate this intricate, electrochemical mesh to emotion, a concept that itsel( encompasses an enormously comple; set o( phenomena, is a truly daunting tas"#

1onetheless, as the Fblac" bo;F beneath our craniums is slowly and painsta"ingly being pried open, its contents deserve our close inspection# <or while the latest (indings about the primacy o( emotion may be dis6uieting, they also hold the promise o( more potent and e((ective ways o( doing therapy# $his new "nowledge is already trans(orming my own wor", spurring me to develop a clinical approach that empowers emotion and thought to wor" in common cause, rather than at cross-purposes, to help people manage their most volatile (eelings#

8nd whatever a therapist's current orientationfbe it cognitive, behavioral, a((ective or some blend thereo(fI believe that the newly charted lin"s between our neural circuitry and our most primitive passions merit an open-minded and thought(ul response# <or i( we discover that we are, in (act, traveling down the wrong road, we will need to plot a power(ul mid-course correction# $he conventional view o( how the brain processes emotion is highly appealing to us humans, who love to (antasi2e that we're 80

(irmly in control# $his com(orting theory holds that in(ormation about the world is transmitted via our eyes, ears and other sensory organs to the thalamus, the brain's central relay station, which, in turn, ships it directly to the neocorte; or Fthin"ing brain#F $here, the incoming signals are e((iciently recogni2ed, sorted and assigned meaning, then (erried downstream to the limbic system or Femotional brain,F which triggers the appropriate visceral response# In this tidy, reassuring scenario, emotion is the duti(ul servant o( the rational brain# $hought proposes, emotion disposes# 8nd much o( the time, this is indeed how things wor"# !ut here's the catch4 not always# /oseph 9eDou;, a neuroscientist at the >enter (or 1eural -cience at 1ew .or" ?niversity, recently discovered a second, parallel pathway that acts as a supersonic e;press route to the brain's emotional centers# $his neural bac" alley, which appears to be reserved (or emotional emergencies, bypasses the neocorte; entirely, routing in(ormation (rom the thalamus directly to the amygdala, a tiny, almond-shaped structure in the limbic system that has recently been identi(ied as the brain's emotional alarm center# $he amygdala scans the in(ormation (or potential danger4 Is this badS >ould it hurt meS I( the in(ormation registers as dangerous, the amygdala broadcasts a distress signal to the entire brain, which in turn, triggers a cascade o( physiological responsesf(rom a speeded-up heart rate to 3ac"ed-up blood pressure to mobili2ed muscles to the release o( the F(ight or (lightF hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline# 7ithin milliseconds, we e;plode with rage or (ree2e in (ear, well be(ore our conscious mind can even grasp what is happening, much less persuade us to ta"e a (ew deep breaths and maintain our cool# $his cranial ta"eover can occur because neuroanatomically spea"ing, our thin"ing brain is simply out-matched by the competition# 8t the same time that emotion-laden signals are 2ooming down our neurological e;press routefwhat 9eDou; calls the Flow roadFfthe same data is being transported via the customary, well-trodden Fhigh roadF (rom thalamus to neocorte; to amygdala# 81

!ut because the shorter, subterranean pathway transmits signals twice as (ast as the more circuitous route involving the neocorte;, the thin"ing brain simply can't intervene in time# !y the time the neocorte; gets into the act, the damage has been donefyou have already called your late-to-dinner partner an inconsiderate 3er", shrie"ed at your smart-mouthed child, snapped at your critical colleague or simply shut down, sha"ing inside, in the (ace o( someone else's rage# $o ma"e matters worse, by this time, amygdala-triggered emotional in(ormation has invaded the neocorte; itsel(, overwhelming its centers (or logic and 3udgement# 8s a result, your emotion-(looded thoughts about the situation are apt to (eel entirely accurate and 3usti(iable# 7haddya mean, I'm overreactingS -o much (or the doctrine that rationality rules# $his telling new glimpse at the topography o( the brain helps to e;plain those moments in the consulting room when you can see that couples are honestly struggling to thin" and behave di((erently, but simply can't ma"e the shi(t# .ou watch your client trying to listen empathetically to his wi(e, but when she lets him "now that she is sic" and tired o( his shir"ing the housewor", bama !e(ore you can say Fre(rame that thought,F the amygdala is sounding its sirens and suddenly he's yelling that she's the slob, not him, in (act, she's let hersel( go big-time and is goddam (ata 8nd as he's shouting all this, his (ace is turning the color o( boiled lobster, his heart is practically leaping out o( his chest and he is sweating gallons#

Depending on your theoretical orientation, you might say this man had 3ust contacted his Fwounded child,F or that he had been sabotaged by his Fproblem storyF or that he was reenacting a hurt(ul, (amily-o(-origin script# !ut at the level o( brain wiring, his neocorte; 3ust got hi3ac"ed by his amygdala# 8nd as we shall see, understanding this neural ta"eover isn't 3ust some "ind o( intellectual e;ercise that e;plains our clients' reactivity4 we can use it to help clients arm themselves against (uture cranial abductions#

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!ut (irst, we need to understand a bit more about the tiny sliver o( cerebral tissue that can so readily commandeer the brainfthe amygdala# 7hile neuroscientists are only 3ust beginning to understand this comple; little emotional sentry, they are reasonable certain that it is a ma3or player in producing (ear and anger, the particular "inds o( emotions that (re6uently push people into therapists' o((ices# In one set o( studies, when researches implanted electrodes in individuals' brains and stimulated a particular circuit originating in the amygdala, sub3ects responded with heart-racing terror# 7hen a di((erent, amygdala-driven neural circuit was stimulated, individuals erupted in rage# In one study by Tobert )eath o( $ulane ?niversity -chool o( 0edicine, a man whose amygdala-based rage circuit had been stimulated (uriously tore his hospital robe and lashed out at the physician who was standing nearby, threatening to "ill him# -o much (or lab-induced passions# !ut in our real lives, what ma"es our emotional brain "ic" into gearS 1euroscientists believe that in most instances, the amygdala ma"es its snap 3udgments based on the similarity o( a current situation to past events that once enraged or terri(ied us# In short, the amygdala seems to be the repository o( the very raw material o( psychotherapyfemotional memory# ?ntil very recently, it was widely believed that the hippocampus, a sea-horse-shaped structure in the limbic brain, was our emotional memory ban"# !ut research by 9eDou; and other neuroscientists now suggests that the hippocampus is actually more concerned with registering (actual and conte;tual data, while the amygdala is the repository o( primitive (eelings lin"ed with those (acts and situations# -o while the hippocampus will remember what your e;-partner loo"s li"efthe 3er" who dumped you (or a new loverfthe amygdala is responsible (or the surge o( (ury that (loods your body when you see someone who loo"s even vaguely li"e your (ormer mate# 8nd FvaguelyF is the operative word here# <or when the amygdala tries to 3udge whether a current situation is ha2ardous, it compares 83

that situation with its motley collection o( past emotionally charged events# I( any "ey elements are even crudely similarfthe sound o( a voice, the e;pression on a (acefit instantaneously unleashes its warning sirens and accompanying emotional e;plosion# 1o doubt, this 6uic"-and-dirty assessment method had tremendous evolutionary utility#

<or our early ancestors, it was (ar better to react to a (alse alarm than to miss an under(ed saber-toothed tiger lur"ing in the tall grasses# !ut (or modern-day relationships, the amygdala's penchant (or sloppy generali2ations can e;act a steep price# $o the amygdala, it may ma"e no di((erence that it is your spouse who is angry with you and not your (ather, who regularly too" out his wrath on your helpless body some D& or @& years age# $he emotional state triggered by the hyper vigilant amygdalafshuddering (ear or unholy ragefis apt to be e;actly the same# !ac" in our o((ice, when -usan so suddenly turned on /ames, the volcanic eruption o( her (ury suggested to us that her amygdala had made some lin" between the triggering eventfher perception that /ames had been disloyal to herfand a pain(ul situation in her past# .ears ago, we might have invested considerable energy trying to help her become aware o( these early events, so that she could learn to disentangle them (rom her current interactions with her husband# !ut recent brain investigations suggest that in some cases, this "id o( trolling (or early trauma may simply be a well-meaning waste o( time# <or while the amygdala is (ully mature at birth, the hippocampusf our memory ban" (or (actual datafdoesn't (ully develop until a child is at least = years old# $his means that during early childhood, when relationships with care givers have such pro(oundly li(e-shaping impact, the amygdala is busy ma"ing emotion-charged associations about events that the embryonic hippocampus never even records# 8n adult, then, can be plagued by chronic, debilitating emotional 84

out-bursts lin"ed to a past event that he or she neither remembers nor has any way o( recovering, since one cannot recover a memory that has never been recorded# ,erhaps this is one reason why many clients seem so unwilling to relin6uish their convictions that their e;plosive reactions to current spousal behaviorfa wi(e's propensity to (lirt at parties, a husband who (orgets to call when he's going to be latefis entirely appropriate# $here is no early memory, even a repressed, deeply buried one, to trace it bac" to# !ut this bewildering amputation o( emotion (rom its triggering event may ta"e place at any point in our lives# -tudies by !ruce 0cEwen, a researcher on the biology o( stress at 1ew .or"'s Toc"e(eller ?niversity, indicate that even in a mature hippocampus, severe stress can cause a shriveling o( dendrites, the stringy, branching ends o( neurons that are largely responsible (or the initial phases o( long-term memory (ormation# Tecent studies have shown that in trauma survivors, such as victims o( chronic childhood abuse and Qietnam veterans with ,ost-$raumatic -tress Disorder, the hippocampus is measurably shrun"en# In star" contrast, stress seems to enhance the (unctioning o( the amygdala# 8s blood levels o( stress hormones shoot up, the amygdala seems to "ic" into overdrive, thereby (acilitating e;tremely potent learned (ear# -o i( a person endures a severely stress(ul situation, he or she may (orget the distressing incident itsel(, yet become emotionally hyperactive to (uture events that are unconsciously reminiscent o( the original, triggering situation a client may have (orgotten that she was raped repeatedly by her uncle, yet become panic"y and tear(ul whenever her husband approaches her (or se;# Rr a man may verbally attac" his wi(e whenever he perceives that she is being FdistantF (rom him, having altogether (orgotten that as a small child, his depressed mother regularly retreated to her loc"ed bedroom, leaving him utterly alone (or hours at the time# $he idea that a person's current emotional reactions can be 85

embedded in past events is nothing newf<reud (igured that out long be(ore the neurobiology techno-wi2ards on the scene# !ut the gradually emerging portrait o( our Femotional brainF gives us an illuminating window on why many clients (ind it so horrendously di((icult to contain their reactivity in committed love relationships# I( the amygdala's original purpose was to act as our emergency alert system, leaping into action in response to li(e-or-death threats (acing our ancestors, it is apt to activate with particular vigor in our intimate partnerships, which are so thoroughly tangled in primal need# Rnce, in our helpless in(ancy, our need to stave o(( abandonment truly was a matter o( survival# -o when our partner says or does something that telegraphs This person doesn,t lo$e me- This person is lea$ing me- our amygdala scrambles blindly, (rantically to the rescue# $he central role o( this hair-trigger brain mechanism in creating marital misery is persuasively suggested by the now (amous Flove labF research o( ?niversity o( 7ashington psychologist /ohn Gottman# !y hoo"ing up couples to a battery o( physiological sensors while they discussed sensitive sub3ects, Gottman has documented that during highly to;ic arguments, partners' bodies become (looded by a virtual tidal wave o( brain-mediated bodily changes, including a 6uic"ened heart rate stepped-up sweat production, tensed-up muscles and the release o( a torrent o( stress hormones# $he splitsecond nature o( these changesfan angry spouse's heart rate can accelerate 1& to D& beats per minute in the space o( a single heartbeatfstrongly indicates a cranial coup d-etat originating in the amygdala# 8nd li"e most coups, this one can wrea" ugly conse6uences# <or Gottman (urther (ound that these classic bodily signs o( an emotional hi3ac"ing were highly correlated with speci(ic "inds o( con(lict behaviorsfcriticism, contempt, de(ensiveness, and stone-wallingf that, in turn, strongly predicted later divorce# In his observation, the tra3ectory o( divorce originates with (re6uent, nasty arguments that eventually cause both partners to develop a "ind o( bioemotional hypersensitivity to each other# In this state, observes Gottman, Fyou react to your spouse li"e an animal conditioned to (ear a shoc"

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whenever it sees the color red#F In an ideal world, o( course, couples would show up at a therapist's door long be(ore this "ind o( "nee-3er" hostility seeped into their marriage# .et, research indicates that couples typically battle each other (or a good si; years be(ore they (inally (ind their way to a clinician's o((ice# !y this time, many couples have become so sensiti2ed to each other that each partner may be only a spouse's caustic comment or a dismissive glance away (rom an emotional mugging# In view o( what we are learning about the hard-wired basis o( these eruptions, it may be time to (orthrightly con(ront our pro(ession's gradual but unmista"able retreat (rom the whole arena o( emotion# 0ight there by a lin" between our (ield's growing inattention to clients' internal emotional processes and our undeniably mediocre trac" record in helping couplesS $here is little doubt that in psychotherapy today, the neocorte; is where the action is# 7hile a (ew emotion-centered approaches are still holding their own, they hardly represent the (ield's dominant direction# Instead, pressured by increasingly meager third-party reimbursements, clinicians have been scurrying to get trained in therapy models that promise the speediest possible results# 8nd by and large, the brie(est models tend to be those that 2ero in on retooling belie(s and behavior, based on the premise that changing thoughts and actions will, domino-style, cause (eelings to change# In short, these models ta"e (or granted that the neocorte; is (irmly in charge o( the limbic system# 8nd in some cases, they're right on target# !rain-mapping studies suggest that in emotion-tinged situations that aren't perceived as allout emergencies, our thoughts do indeed play a central role in in(luencing (eelings# I( you are con(ronting a situation that is emotionally salient but not perceived by you as a li(e-or-death matterflet's say, you've noticed a worrisome drop-o(( in client hoursf that in(ormation would travel (irst to the discerning neocorte;, which would mull over the situation and decide on the appropriate 87

emotional response# I( you were to apply a solution-(ocused approach to this matter, your neocorte; might be enlisted to ma"e a mental list o( ways you've success(ully bee(ed up your practice in the past and secure a commitment to try those strategies# 8 narrative model, meanwhile, might urge your thin"ing brain coolly consider how <ear is trying to sabotage it# 7ithin a traditional cognitive model, your neocorte; might be encouraged to battle any rumination about imminent pro(essional disaster with a tough-minded counter argument# Given the right conditions, each o( these interventions would li"ely spur your rational brain to signal the amygdala to respond with, perhaps, mild an;iety leavened with a strong, motivating shot o( hope# In short, when the neocorte; has a chance to use its muscle, Fthin" therapiesF can be power(ul agents o( change# $he trouble is, o( course, that the neocorte; can be so swi(tly hi3ac"ed# 8s we have seen, when we do deem a situation an emotional emergency, the amygdala lights up the entire brain and body with bioemotional (irewor"s be(ore the neocorte; ever gets into the act# It is in precisely these "inds o( volatile, (elt-crisis situationsf which intimate partnerships, in particular, seem so readily to createf that thin"ing-brain therapies are at a serious disadvantage# 0any clinicians, including mysel(, have spent untold sessions trying to get (uming couples to engage in some "ind o( well-established communications techni6ue, such as Factive listening,F only to watch the whole thing (ly apart when one partner says something seemingly reasonablefFI (eel that the "ids don't get enough o( your attentionFfwhich (eels, to the other, li"e a poison arrow to the heart# F-crew thataF the FlistenerF shrie"s, whereupon the partner (lings bac" that this is 3ust so typical, isn't it, you're too narcissistic to even listen to me, always have been, what's the damn useS 8nd in those moments, when your o((ice vibrating with (ury and you (eel more li"e a roo"ie re(eree at a mud-wrestling match than an authoritative, multidegreed pro(essional, your bulging bag o( re(ramings, 88

restoryings and other sweet-reason techni6ues is worse than useless# -weet reason 3ust got clobbered# $he amygdala is "ing# -o where does the bad-news tale o( limbic mayhem leave therapistsS I( an element o( our humanity as unalterable as brain architecture (avors blind emotion over rationality, why even bother to try to help clients master their most volatile and disabling reactionsS In my e;perience, this wor" remains not only critical, but eminently possible# <or while the amygdala may run the neural show at times it is by no means an entrenched, power-mad despot# Instead, I have (ound it to behave more li"e an over-protective parent who, i( approached in the right way, can be persuaded to rela; its nervous grip on its child# $his neural Frela;ation responseF is possible because it turns out that our brains are wired not only (or de(ense, but also (or connection# In a related and (ar more heartening realm o( neuroscience researchers have begun to chart paths (or a number o( discrete brain circuits that reliable activate speci(ic emotions, along with associated thought and behaviors# 7hile circuits (or (ear and rage have been most thoroughly mapped thus (ar, the neurological terrain o( intimacy-arousing emotionsfmost notable sorrow and nurturefhave very recently been identi(ied# Electrically stimulate an individuals' sorrow circuit, researchers have (ound, and that person will report (eeling sad or lonely and e;press the need (or com(ort# 8ctivate the nurture pathway, and an individual will e;perience a surge o( tender, generous (eelings and voice the urge to care (or someone# 7hen I (irst encountered this realm o( research, I (elt a ripple o( hope4 ,erhaps there was some way to help clients move (rom a connection-brea"ing circuit, such as (ear o( anger, to one that promoted emotional vulnerability and intimacy# !ut howS 8s I was trying to penetrate this pu22le, I recalled perusing recent research by ?niversity o( 7isconsin psychologist Tichard Davidson that suggested that the le(t pre(rontal lobes, the wedge o( neocorte; 89

located 3ust behind the (orehead, played a critical role in moderating emotional reactivity# 7hile it appeared that this sector o( the brain could not "eep the amygdala (rom spa22ing out in the (irst place, in some cases it seemed able to reduce the longevity and intensity o( neural hi3ac"ings and thereby to limit the (allout# $his made sense to me4 It seemed all but inevitable that we would need to use a slice o( our orderly neocorte; to guide us out o( the motional swamps# .et, both my clinical e;perience and my growing (amiliarity with the wor"ings o( the brain told me that in the grip o( a FsurvivalF emotion, clients could rarely simply thin" themselves into a more tran6uil state# $hen, suddenly, I was struc" by one o( those unbidden, FahaF e;periences# It occurred to me that i( the amygdala is, indeed, a vestige o( our primeval survival arsenal, perhaps it will notfsimply cannotf6uiet its wailing sirens until it gets a clear signal that its urgent, li(epreserving clamor has been heard# $his would e;plain why new cognitions or behaviors are rarely su((icient to in(luence FemergencyF emotional situations, (or those interventions see" to override, rather than attend to, the amygdala's (rantic distress calls# !ut what might happen instead, I wondered, i( we helped our clients use their rational brains to (ully ac"nowledge and soothe their primordial limbic systemsS <rom this core idea, I have developed a clinical model that puts the thin"ing brain unreservedly at the service o( the emotional brain# $he goal o( this approach, which I call ,ragmatic-E;periential $herapy, is to help clients shi(t (rom the de(ensive, isolating brain circuits that control rage and (ear to the connecting, healing circuits that mediate nurture and sorrow#

Giving immediate and thorough attention to clients' up-and-running, de(ensive neural systems, we coach clients to sympathetically and respect(ully interact with those brain states until they (eel sa(e

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enough to switch to more vulnerable states# In our e;perience, this internal sense o( sa(ety is the linchpin o( change (or couples# <or only when an individual (eels no longer threatened by his or her partnerfthreatened, at bottom, by the terri(ying, annihilating prospect o( abandonmentfwill the amygdala shut o(( it internal alarm system, (reeing the individual to authentically shi(t to an intimacy-promoting neural state# -o, unli"e therapeutic models that 2ero in immediately on changing thin"ing or behavior we don't as" clients to change how they thin" about, or behave with, their partners until they (eel sa(e enough to interact in a more vulnerable way# $his is not suggest that cognitive and behavioral strategies are unimportant to e((ective therapy# In our clinical wor", the rational brainfparticularly the pre(rontal corte;fis an absolutely central player# $he "ey di((erence between our approach and e;plicitly cognitive models is that rather than using the thin"ing brain to try to dominate the emotional brain, we put it to wor" helping the ancient amygdala to gradually rela; its de(ense# $o do anything less, we believe, is to paddle against our neural currents# 8s 9isa and I sat with /ames and -usan in our consulting room, we well "new that Fhelping the amygdala to rela;F was the last thing they had in mind# 7hat was clear, however, was that each partner was (ar too stuc" in his or her respective emotional circuitf-usan in rage, /ames in (earfto ma"e any immediate shi(t to a more intimacypromoting state# !e(ore that could happen, each partner would need to get on much better terms with the (eelings that had so violently sei2ed him or her# 7e responded, there(ore, as we customarily do when couples encounter e;tremely FhotF emotional statesfby calling a temporary time-out on con3oint wor" to conduct some one-on-one emotional e;ploration#

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9eaving 9isa and -usan to wor" together in our o((ice, I as"ed /ames to 3oin me in a consulting room down the hall# $here, I suggested that i( he was willing to e;plore his inner e;perience a bit, he might be able to learn to respond to -usan in a way that helped her to treat him well in return# )e agreed to try, warning me, however, that sel(-awareness wasn't his Fthing#F

9i"e many men I wor" with, /ames had done a good 3ob o( numbing his body to the telltale, physiological signs o( an emotional hi3ac"ingf the "notted muscles, the racing heart, the 6ueasy stomachfand conse6uently, during his (ights with -usan, he o(ten had trouble "nowing what he (elt at all# )is li(elong stance, he admitted, was to "eep a Fsti(( upper lipF in the (ace o( troublefhe saw no other options# F1oneSF I in6uired# F7ho taught you thatSF 8(ter a (ew moments o( silence, he began to tal" o( his 3unior high (ootball coach, whom he remembered as single-mindedly intent on (orcing him and his teammates to per(orm endless calisthenics until their bodies screamed (or relie(# $he coach would then stride up to the player with the most tortured e;pression, get right in his (ace and shout4 F7hat do you (eelSF Rn cue, the player would yell bac"4 F1othing, siraF to the loud cheers o( his teammates# Rn one broiling a(ternoon on the (ootball (ield, /ames heard those rousing cheers (or himsel(, and he recalled no how curiously proud he (elt o( his stoic denial o( his own body# -ha"ing his head, he admitted4 FI guess I learned the lesson well#F I assured him that it would be possiblefnecessary, in (actfto relearn to recogni2e his (eelings# In an important way, I e;plained, the body was the voice o( the emotions, elo6uently communicating critical in(ormation about our current emotional state#

$ightened muscles and a sic" sensation in the gut, (or e;ample, 92

typically accompany (ear, while rage is characteri2ed by an upsurge in aggressive energy and increased body temperature# 9earning to readily identi(y an FemergencyF brain state via its characteristic physiological signals is the (irst, crucial step o( our approach, because brain studies suggest that the moment you become aware o( your internal state, you activate the pre(rontal lobes, which in turn, can begin to moderate your response# I suggested to /ames that the ne;t time he and -usan begin arguing, he simply try to notice any changes happening in his body# 8t the ne;t session, -usan and /ames camefor rather stal"edfinto our o((ice, their signature brain states already activated# -usan was (urious at /ames (or (orgetting to buy her (lowers (or their anniversary5 /ames, already withdrawn, slumped sullenly into his corner o( the so(a# 8s soon as 9isa ad I got the gist o( their current con(lict, /ames and I too" o(( again (or a private tete-a-tete# !e(ore I had even closed the door behind us, /ames reported that he was (eeling an uncom(ortable tightness both in his stomach and his lower 3aw, sensations he had noticed several times over the past wee" whenever -usan had become angry with him# 8t my suggestion, he chec"ed his current pulse rate and was stunned to (ind it had soared to ' beats per minute, in contrast to his usual, resting rate o( G' bpm# In (act, the dramatic 3ump in heart rate closely mirrors that o( e;perimental animals in the F(ree2eF state a(ter their (ear systems have been electrically stimulated# /ames, whose clenched-3aw, stonewalling response to -usan's (ury had a distinctly (ro2en 6uality, was clearly in the midst o( a (ull-(ledged, brain-mediated (ear response# I encouraged him to notice how his state o( mind seemed to "ic" in all at once, as i( a part o( him 3ust stepped (orward and too" over# )e replied that he had already noticed this happening a (ew days earlier, when -usan was ragging at him about the state o( their (inances# FI actually tried to respond to her, you "now, say something sympathetic about the bad day I "new she'd had,F he reported# F!ut somewhere inside, I'd 3ust gone cold#F I suggested that he might 93

thin" o( that (ro2en, steely part o( himsel( as a little guy within him whose 3ob it was to de(end him against -usan's attac"s# In our e;perience, personali2ing emotional states is a power(ul way o( helping people to accept their survival-driven emotions, which prepares them to interact respect(ully with them# <or this personali2ing strategy, we are indebted to Dic" -chwart2's Internal <amily systems model, which conceptuali2es con(licting behaviors as inner (amily members, each with its own distinctive personality and (unction# In our wor", we personali2e particular bodily responses, such as a constricted throat or a nauseated stomach, that correspond to a client's emotional state# 7hile I was encouraging /ames to view his "notted stomach as a di((icult but (anatically loyal (riend, 9isa, two doors down the hall, was similarly helping -usan to understand her rage responsef particularly a characteristic throbbing sensation behind her templesf as a desperate, love-hungry little "id inside her who was (rantically trying to get her husband's attention# $he ne;t step would be to help each o( them consult with these inner de(enders about the possibility o( letting down their respective guards# 8t this point, proponents o( systems therapy may well be raising their collective eyebrows, thin"ing4 $his is couples wor"S 0y response is that while we do a lot o( individual wor" with intimate partners, we are very de(initely doing couples therapy# In our e;perience, the hair-trigger de(ense system o( the emotional brain is such that (or many couples, learning to regulate brain states is all but impossible in each other's presence5 nobody can calm down long enough to do the "ind o( 6uiet, deeply (ocused wor" that is necessary to allow an emotional system to shi(t# ,articularly early in therapy, each partner is (ar more li"ely to chronically trigger the other's already hyper aroused limbic system than help to soothe it, a pattern that may lead many couples to prematurely 6uit therapy, convinced that theirs is a Fhopeless case#F >onse6uently, our customary modus operandi is to do a lot o( individual wor" during the (irst several sessions, until each partner 94

develops enough s"ill in shi(ting brain states to re3oin his or her partner in the consulting room# 8t that point, couples begin to practice ma"ing these shi(ts in Freal time,F in the midst o( authentic interactions# In this way, wor" on the internal system o( brain states power(ully supports wor" on the e;ternal system o( a relationship in action# Rver the ne;t several sessions, 9isa and I stepped up our roles as personal coaches, helping -usan and /ames learn to shi(t their sel(protective brain states to those mediating nurture and sorrow# 7e "new that when the sorrow neural system is electrically stimulated in animals, they emit distress vocali2ations signaling a "ind o( mammalian separation an;iety, which in turn, triggers a Fmoving towardF response (rom nearby animals# $his is, o( course, the same primal dance we endlessly try to choreograph in our therapy o((ices4 i( he would only drop his 9one Tanger mas", we would bet the rent that she would reach out to him# $he catch, o( course, is that nobody wants to go (irst# !y being more aware o( the conditions that allow the brain to rela; su((iciently its de(enses, we hope to more e((ectively support our clients in ma"ing this leap out o( (ear and into connection# $o that end, I spent several sessions coaching /ames through conversations with his stonewalling Fde(ender,F in an e((ort to help it to (eel sa(e enough to let down its guard# ,rogress was gradual and halting# $hen, toward the end o( one particularly slow-moving session, I brought up how /ames's typical response to -usanfsullen stonewallingfhad not managed to blunt her (ury so (ar# )e nodded, admitting that, in (act, his icy withdrawal seemed to aggravate his wi(e even more# I suggested that /ames notice how his inner sentry reacted when I as"ed4 Fwhat have you got to lose by trying something newfli"e reaching out to -usanSF $his was a delicate moment4 I was as"ing /ames to engage his pre(rontal corte; to entertain a new thought, without as"ing him to will(ully redirect his current thin"ing# )is hand on his stomach, /ames closed his eyes and (ocused his attention within# ,erhaps 1 seconds passed be(ore he opened his eyes and

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loo"ed at me# FIt's o"ay,F he so(tly said# F.ou're sure it's o"ay with himSF I as"ed, pointing in the direction o( his stomach# F.eah, he's o"ay,F nodded /ames# )e loo"ed rela;ed and younger, somehowfless de(ended# )is inner watchdog, he told me, had ac"nowledged that shutting down had only gotten him a redoubled dose o( -usan's rage, the terri(ying e;perience o( all out attac" that had activated his de(ense system in the (irst place# I( there were a better way to stave o(( these assaults, his de(ender told him, it would do its best to stand aside# FI'm ready,F /ames said 6uietly# -usan was on her way to being ready, too# 7hile /ames and I had been doing our wor", 9isa and -usan had been ma"ing steady progress in helping -usan's inner de(ender (eel sa(e enough to e;pose the intense yearning (or love that hid behind her (ury# 8s each partner's neural de(ense system gradually rela;ed its hold, we began spending less time on one-on-one coaching and more time in con3oint sessions, helping them to practice real-world interactions without (lipping into their respective (ury and (ear states# $hen one evening, -usan and /ames wal"ed into our o((ice in utter silence# $hey had had a violent argument two days be(ore and had barely spo"en to each other since# $he issue at hand was /ames' relationship with his younger brother, -am, and his sister-in-law, >laire, who lived only a (ew streets away (rom them# -usan had long (elt resent(ul toward -am, whom she (elt too" advantage o( /ames's help(ul nature, but even more hostile toward >laire, a stunningly beauti(ul local (ashion model# /ames denied (eeling attracted to >laire, but -usan had not believed him since the night she had seen /ames (lipping through the pages o( her modeling port(olio, which included some nude pictures# -usan was (urious now because, on the (irst day o( a recent, heavy snow-storm, /ames had called to say he was stopping on his way home (rom wor" to help -am and >laire dig out their driveway be(ore coming home to help -usan shovel out so she could attend an

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evening yoga class# 8n hour later, when -usan wal"ed the hal(-mile to her in-laws' house to drag her husband home, she was incensed to (ind /ames and >laire wor"ing in the driveway and laughing companionably together, with -am nowhere in sight# $hat evening -usan never made it to her yoga class5 instead, she raged hard and long at /ames, accusing him o( caring more about his brother's long legged, e;otic-loo"ing wi(e than about her# 8s our session began, -usan warned that this was a horribly pain(ul issue (or her# 8s she began to recount the incident, within seconds she was breathing so hard and (ast that I thought she might start hyperventilating# F/ames,F she managed between 3agged breaths, Fdo you have any clue what you're li"e when you get within sni((ing distance o( >laireSF I 6uic"ly loo"ed at /ames, who had turned his ga2e downward and was sitting stoc"-still# I (eared he was shi(ting into a (ull-scale shutdown# !ut a(ter a long moment he loo"ed up again at his wi(e# F-usan,F he began so(tly, FI don't give a damn about >laire#F 7hen -usan hooted bitterly at this, /ames shoo" his head in (rustration# !ut he didn't (old# F7hen -am called me to help out, I 3ust didn't thin",F he went on# FI should have#F 7hen -usan turned away in disgust, /ames loo"ed suddenly desperate# F9oo", -usan,F he said pleadingly, Fwhen you get mad at me li"e this, it's aw(ul#F -he loo"ed bac" at him, clearly surprised# FIt ma"es me (eel sic" inside,F he admitted to her# FI (eel "ind o( lost#F 8s -usan continued ga2ing at him, he touched her arm# F!ut whatever I did, I'm sorry I hurt you#F 8t this, -usan's (ace began to crumple# F.ou did hurt me, /ames,F she cried out# $ears spilling down her chee"s, she 3umped up and (led the room# <or a moment, /ames loo"ed stunned and disoriented4 8 tear(ul -usan was not what he had e;pected# $hen he, too, abruptly rushed out into the hallway, where his wi(e was weeping# FGod, -usan, I really didn't "now what a big deal this was to you,F we 97

could hear him say# F7ill you help me understandSF 8s she continued to sob, we stepped out into the hall in time to witness /ames enveloping his wi(e in a bear hug and whispering into her hair4 FIt's you I want#F It was a moment o( great tenderness, on o( those e;changes o( na"ed need and open-hearted nurture that remind a couples therapist why he or she has chosen this wor"# .et ultimately, the melting moment o( bonding that we had 3ust witnessed was not what made us (eel optimistic about /ames and -usan's (utures# <or we "new that such 3olting shots o( connectedness, however real and deep, would inevitable (ade5 stinging disappointments and misunderstandings would arise again# 7hat encouraged us most was that in the midst o( this highly charged interaction, /ames had demonstrated the ability to shi(t (rom a reaction o( (ear(ul withdrawal to a warmly empathetic state that, in turn, allowed -usan to shi(t (rom her own state o( (ury to one o( sorrow(ul hurt# 7e "new that i( they were to construct an intimate bond that could truly sustain themfand not remain on a neural roller coaster o( endless highs and lowsfthey would need to continue the di((icult and delicate wor" they had begun# 9ittle by little, they were teaching their brains to trust# $o imagine ourselves this wayfas beings whose deepest passions are rooted in the pushing and pulling o( neurons along the electrochemical trac"s o( our brainsfis, at best, a disturbing e;perience# $o therapists, especially, all this tal" o( neural circuitry and amygdalian imperatives may seem distaste(ully cold and mechanistic (or a phenomenon as warm-blooded and mysterious, even sacred, as emotion# .et, what may be (inally most dis6uieting about this e;ploration o( the emotional brain is not that it separates us (rom the pulsing core o( our (eeling selves, but rather that it brings us so uncom(ortably close# 8ny serious e;amination o( the ancient, neural bases o( emotion (orces us to con(ront our essential "inship with other mammalsfthose instinctual beasts who seem all bared tooth and bloody claw, so (undamentally di((erent (rom our proudly cerebral

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human selves# 7e get ourselves into (ar more trouble than it's worth, suggests neurobiologist /aa" ,an"sepp in his ground-brea"ing boo" "ffecti$e .euroscience, through Four strangely human need to aspire to be more than we arefto (eel closer to the angels than to other animals#F -o deeply uneasy are we with the 6uivering, (eral (orces that can, in an eye-blin", burst through our sur(aces that we ris" encasing ourselves in a "id o( protective cognitive supremacy, identi(ying much too thoroughly with our city-building, boo"-writing, resolutely right-minded selves#

R( course, our rational brains are potent, indispensable human e6uipment# !ut the parado; is that these impressive cerebral capacities can only guide us to sa(ety i( we ac"nowledge and honor, too, the primeval responses that still lur" in the lattices o( our neural wiring# <ar (rom dehumani2ing us, they are the elements o( our humanity that we most urgently need to welcome#

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>urrent interest in Femotional intelligenceF has raised the 6uestion o( whether it is possible to improve the social and emotional competence o( adult wor"ers# Tesearch in training and development, sports psychology, and behavior change suggests that it is possible, but the typical approach used in corporate training programs usually is (lawed# -ocial and emotional learning is di((erent (rom cognitive and technical learning, and it re6uires a di((erent approach to training and development#

$his report presents == guidelines (or developing emotional intelligence in organi2ations, based on the best "nowledge available on how to promote social and emotional learning# 7e have estimated that 8merican business each year loses between #G and 1G#' billion dollars by not consistently (ollowing these guidelines# $he basis (or this estimate can be (ound in the last section o( the report#

Tesearch (or this report was conducted under the auspices o( the >onsortium (or Tesearch on Emotional Intelligence in Rrgani2ations# $he >onsortium is made up o( nine individuals (rom academia, government, and the corporate sector# 8ll o( the individuals are recogni2ed e;perts with considerable e;perience in both research and consulting# $he >onsortium has been (unded by the <et2er Institute, a private (oundation located in \alama2oo, 0ichigan

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7hen the boo", Emotional Intelligence, appeared in 199 , many business leaders agreed with the basic message that success is strongly in(luenced by personal 6ualities such as perseverance, sel(control, and s"ill in getting along with others#

*1+# $hey could point to Fsuper sales personsF who had an uncanny ability to sense what was most important to the customers and to develop a trusting relationship with them# $hey could point to customer service employees who e;celled when it came to helping angry customers to calm down and be more reasonable about their problems with the product or service# 8nd they also could point to brilliant e;ecutives who did everything well e;cept get along with people, or to managers who were technically brilliant but could not handle stress, and whose careers stalled because o( these de(iciencies# !usiness leaders well understood how valuable these Femotionally intelligentF employees are to an enterprise#

*=+# !ut what about the many wor"ers who lac" these important emotional competenciesS Is it possible (or adults to become more socially and emotionally competentS 0any business leaders are less certain about this 6uestion# <or instance, the dean o( a ma3or business school, when as"ed about the importance o( emotional intelligence at wor", enthusiastically agreed that it was crucial# !ut when we as"ed him how his school attempted to improve the emotional intelligence o( 0!8 students, he said, >W) 2 !Q% 2 '!.%h&!*. I 2 !Q% %h&!? %h'% /- "%/2)!%"Q )$ %& !'( &!%)((&*)!+) +'! 5) &$1- 6)2 5. %h) %&$) %h). + $) h)-). Th).Q-) '(-)'2. '2/(%"4 '!2 %h)") L/'(&%&)" '-) 2)6)( 1)2 )'-(. &! (&3).>

Rn the other hand, there are those who seem to claim that they can raise the emotional intelligence o( a whole group o( employees in a day or less# -cores o( consultants now are selling wor"shops and seminars 101

designed to help people become more emotionally competent and socially s"illed# -ome o( these programs are 6uite good, but others ma"e unrealistic claims# $he worst ones are those that involve a heavy reliance on inspirational lectures or intense, short-lived e;periences f and little else#

-o who is right f the s"eptics who believe that nothing can be done to improve emotional competence a(ter the age o( 1 , or the huc"sters who claim that they can turn emotional dunces into emotional Einsteins in an a(ternoonS 8s usual, the answer lies somewhere in between#

8 growing body o( research on emotional learning and behavior change suggests that it is possible to help people o( any age to become more emotionally intelligent at wor"# )owever, many programs designed to do so (ail to recogni2e the di((erence between two types o( learning#

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$raining and development e((orts in industry have not always distinguished between cognitive learning and emotional learning, but such a distinction is important (or e((ective practice *D+# <or instance, consider the e;ample o( the engineer whose career was stymied because he was shy, introverted, and totally absorbed in the technical aspects o( his 3ob# $hrough cognitive learning, he might come to understand that it would be better (or him to consult other people more, ma"e connections, and build relationships# !ut 3ust "nowing he should do these things would not enable him to do them# $he ability to do these things depends on emotional competence, which re6uires emotional learning as well as cognitive learning# Emotional incompetence o(ten results (rom habits deeply learned early in li(e# $hese automatic habits are set in place as a normal part o( living, as e;perience shapes the brain# 8s people ac6uire their habitual repertoire o( thought, (eeling, and action, the neural connections that 102

support these are strengthened, becoming dominant pathways (or nerve impulses# >onnections that are unused become wea"ened, while those that people use over and over grow increasingly strong *@+# 7hen these habits have been so heavily learned, the underlying neural circuitry becomes the brain:s de(ault option at any moment f what a person does automatically and spontaneously, o(ten with little awareness o( choosing to do so# $hus, (or the shy engineer, di((idence is a habit that must be overcome and replaced with a new habit, sel(con(idence#

Emotional capacities li"e empathy or (le;ibility di((er (rom cognitive abilities because they draw on di((erent brain areas# ,urely cognitive abilities are based in the neocorte;# !ut with social and emotional competencies, additional brain areas are involved, mainly the circuitry that runs (rom the emotional centers f particularly the amygdala f deep in the center o( the brain up to the pre(rontal lobes, the brain:s e;ecutive center# E((ective learning (or emotional competence has to re-tune these circuits#

>ognitive learning involves (itting new data and insights into e;isting (ramewor"s o( association and understanding, e;tending and enriching the corresponding neural circuitry# !ut emotional learning involves that and more f it re6uires that we also engage the neural circuitry where our social and emotional habit repertoire is stored# >hanging habits such as learning to approach people positively instead o( avoiding them, to listen better, or to give (eedbac" s"ill(ully, is a more challenging tas" than simply adding new in(ormation to old#

0otivational (actors also ma"e social and emotional learning more di((icult and comple; than purely cognitive learning# Emotional learning o(ten involves ways o( thin"ing and acting that are more central to a person:s identity# 8 person who is told, (or instance, that he should learn a new word processing program usually will become less upset and de(ensive than i( he is told that he should learn how to better control his temper or become a better listener# $he prospect o( needing to develop greater emotional competence is a bitter pill (or many o( us to swallow# It thus is much more li"ely to generate resistance to 103

change# 7hat this means (or social and emotional learning is that one must (irst unlearn old habits and then develop new ones# <or the learner, this usually means a long and sometimes di((icult process involving much practice# Rne-day seminars 3ust won:t do it * +# $hose who study training Fhave tended to consider all training the same, without regard to the purpose o( the training or the type o( learning involved# *G+#F -ome o( the previous thin"ing about training, based largely on cognitive learning, is valid (or social and emotional learning as well# )owever, the principles (or social and emotional learning di((er greatly (rom those that apply to purely cognitive abilities# 8 better source o( guidance comes (rom research that e;amines social and emotional change processes more directly# -uch research comes (rom many di((erent (ields, including sports psychology, psychotherapy and behavior change, and personal development# $his research suggests a set o( guidelines (or the design o( e((ective social and emotional learning# *%+# $hese guidelines point to components that are additive and synergistic5 to be e((ective, social and emotional learning e;periences need not adhere to all o( these guidelines, but the chances (or success increase with each one that is (ollowed#

G/&2)(&!)" 3 - E33)+%&6) S +&'( '!2 E$ %& !'( L)'-!&!*: A! O6)-6&)0

$he guidelines (or social and emotional training are presented schematically in <igure 1# $hey are arranged in the (orm o( a (low chart that describes the optimal process (or helping individuals to increase their emotional competence in personal and interpersonal conte;ts#

<IG?TE 1 the Rptimal ,rocess (or Developing Emotional Intelligence in Rrgani2ations

104

$he (low chart suggests that there are (our basic phases to the training process# $he (irst occurs even be(ore the individual begins (ormal training# $his initial phase, which is crucial (or e((ective social and emotional learning, involves preparation (or change# $his preparation occurs at both the organi2ational and individual levels# $he second phase, training, covers the change process itsel(# It includes the processes that help people change the way in which they view the world and deal with its social and emotional demands# $he third phase, trans(er and maintenance, addresses what happens (ollowing the (ormal training e;perience# $he (inal phase involves evaluation# Given the current state o( "nowledge about social and emotional learning, the comple;ity o( programs designed to promote such learning and the great unevenness in the e((ectiveness o( e;isting programs, evaluation always should be part o( the process#

Ph'") O!): P-)1'-'%& ! 3 - Ch'!*)

0otivation is especially important in social and emotional learning*'+# -uch learning can be challenging (or adults who already have established a way o( relating to themselves and others, and people need to be strongly committed to the change process (or an e;tended 105

period o( time# -o what can managers and trainers do to increase learners: motivation prior to the start o( the change processS $he (irst set o( guidelines addresses this 6uestion#

1. A"")"" N))2".

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O-*'!&;'%& !Q"

Good training begins with a needs assessment *9+# <or social and emotional training, there are two particular challenges that must be addressed at this point in the process# <irst, many people in the organi2ation will be s"eptical about the lin" between emotional intelligence and the bottom line# 8 systematic and rigorous study can help show that such a lin" e;ists# <or instance, in one large (inancial services company, there was considerable s"epticism about the value o( training in Femotional competenceF until top e;ecutives saw the results o( a study showing that (inancial advisors who coped better with the emotional aspects o( wor" with clients sold more li(e insurance policies# Rnce they saw the connection between this particular type o( emotional competence and the bottom line, the e;ecutives encouraged advisors to participate in an emotional competence training program#

$he second challenge in applying this guideline to social and emotional training e((orts is to identi(y all o( the particular competencies that are important (or success# -ometimes it is easy to miss crucial ones# <or instance, an initial needs assessment in one airline began with a consideration o( the airline:s business strategy# !ecause airlines are similar in price structure, a competitive advantage depends particularly on how well passengers are treated by airline personnel# 8s a result, the way in which (light attendants handled passengers became the (ocus (or training e((orts# Tesearch then indicated that superior per(ormers had two types o( competencies4 sel(-management *resilience, e((iciency, adaptability+ and interpersonal *caring (or and managing customers well, and teamwor"+# )owever, two other competencies, sel(-awareness and empathy, help support the sel(106

management and interpersonal competencies# -o the training program also needed to include these# Rnly a care(ul assessment o( the wor" situation, in(ormed by an understanding o( the nature o( emotional competence, enabled the consultant to identi(y both the sur(ace-level and deeper competencies that a((ected per(ormance#

9. A"")"" P)-" !'( S%-)!*%h" '!2 L&$&%".

$wo challenges con(ront those who wish to assess the social and emotional competence o( individuals# <irst, people usually are less aware o( s"ill wea"nesses in the social and emotional domains*1&+# $hey may reali2e, (or e;ample, that the interpersonal aspects o( leading a wor" group are di((icult and (rustrating# !ut they may not be able to pinpoint the emotional s"ills they need in order to improve their (unctioning in this area# $hey are probably even less aware o( the underlying attitudes and ways o( thin"ing that get them into trouble, or how those ways o( thin"ing trigger comple; emotional response patterns that impede their e((ectiveness in dealing with di((icult employees, customers, or cowor"ers#

-econd, these competencies are mani(ested primarily in social interaction# $here(ore, the best approach usually involves ratings by those who interact with the person# )owever, the belie(s, motives, and (eelings o( the rater in(luence ratings o( social and emotional competence# $he boss:s view o( a manager:s sel(-awareness or ability to empathi2e may be very di((erent (rom the perspective o( the manager:s peers and subordinates# $he best assessment approach (or initiating social and emotional learning thus is usually based on multiple ratings conducted (rom multiple perspectives, such as DG&degree assessments that include boss, peer, and subordinate ratings*11+#

F$hree-si;ty (eedbac"F now is used regularly in industry (or a variety o( purposes, and organi2ations vary in how well they use this tool# 7hen not managed well, it can create resistance rather than readiness# In the most e((ective development programs, the participants are helped to 107

review these ratings and then use them to identi(y the competencies that should be the (ocus o( training e((orts# ?ltimately, however, the motivating power o( an assessment is a((ected by how credible it is to the learners# $he trainees need to have (aith in the assessment method*1=+#

3. P- 6&2) F))25'+? 0&%h C'-).

0otivation (or change can be enhanced when people are given (eedbac" on the assessment results*1D+# )owever, there are many pit(alls in giving people (eedbac" on their social competence# $hese competencies are closely lin"ed to a person:s identity and sel(-esteem# It is one thing, (or e;ample, to be told that you need to wor" on the bac"-swing o( your chip shot in gol(, but it is 6uite another to be told that you need to handle stress better# I( the (eedbac" is not provided with sensitivity and s"ill, people o(ten become de(ensive#

,eople are more li"ely to respond positively to (eedbac" when they trust and respect the person who gives it# ,eople also are more li"ely to be motivated to change when they believe that the (eedbac" is constructive and accurate*1@+# and they are helped to identi(y the speci(ic steps they can ta"e to improve*1 +# ,eople also need su((icient time to thin" about the in(ormation and its implications# 8nd in social and emotional development e((orts, it is especially important that the (eedbac" occur in an atmosphere o( sa(ety#

$he understood purpose o( the (eedbac" also a((ects its motivational and emotional impact# 7hen, (or instance, it is used (or appraisal purposes, and one:s supervisor gives the (eedbac", the impact o(ten is negative# Rn the other hand, when it is used (or development purposes and the person giving the (eedbac" is viewed as a disinterested individual whose motivation is to help, then the conse6uences tend to be much more positive*1G+# <or instance, in a large computer so(tware company, an e;ecutive development specialist provides the individual 108

with the results o( a DG&-degree assessment strictly in con(idence, oneto-one# 1o copies o( the results are "ept# $he (eedbac" is used only as a development tool#

4. M'=&$&;) L)'-!)- Ch &+)#

,eople generally are more motivated to change when they (reely choose to do so*1%+# In social and emotional training, however, choice is particularly important# !ecause these competencies are so close to the essence o( what ma"es us the people we are, it is better i( we are (ree to choose whether or not to engage in such training# It also is better i( the choice is real# I( trainees are given a choice but not assigned to the training they initially chose, they will be less motivated to learn than those who were given no choice*1'+#

5.E!+ /-'*) P'-%&+&1'%& !#

!ecause social and emotional learning is viewed as Fso(tF and thus somewhat suspect, employees will tend not to choose to participate in it unless they believe that the organi2ation:s management strongly endorses it# $he words and actions o( supervisors are especially important# $rainees are more willing to participate in development activity i( their supervisors indicate that they support it# In a large (inancial services company, a training program in emotional competence was popular in part because several regional vice presidents encouraged their management groups to participate and then attended the program with them#

$he same has been true (or Fcrew resource management training,F a program that teaches airline crews the social and emotional s"ills that help them to wor" better as a team# 7hen senior management has demonstrated a real commitment to this program by providing intensive and recurrent training, there has been greater acceptance o( it among the crews# 8cceptance also has increased when chec" airmen and instructors emphasi2e concepts (rom the training during other training and chec"ing*19+#

109

E.L&!? L)'-!&!* P)-" !'( V'(/)".

G '("

,eople will be most motivated to learn and change i( they believe that doing so will help them achieve goals that they value*=&+ <or instance, in teaching airline crews how to wor" better in the coc"pit as a team, it usually is more e((ective to teach them Fhow to get a team o(( to a good start,F and Fhow to address con(licts among members constructively,F rather than to teach them about Fbehavioral stylesF*=1+#

R(ten the most salient personal values will be wor"-related, but they need not be# $rying to motivate learners by showing them that training will contribute to career success will be di((icult i( success is unimportant to them*==+# <ortunately, other incentives (or social and emotional learning are not di((icult to (ind# In one popular emotional competence program, many participants reported that the s"ills they learned were as valuable in managing relationships at home as they were at wor"#

B.A2M/"% E=1)+%'%& !".

E;pectations about per(ormance can become sel(-(ul(illing prophecies# ,eople who are con(ident that they can succeed in a training program will tend to be more motivated and, not surprisingly, more success(ul*=D+# ?n(ortunately, in the case o( social and emotional learning, many people are s"eptical that emotional intelligence can be improved# 8nd people who (ind social and emotional problems challenging will be particularly dubious about their ability to improve# $o ma;imi2e motivation, learners need to believe not only that greater emotional competence will lead to valued outcomes, but also that it can be improved# <urthermore, they need to have a realistic e;pectation o( what the training process will involve*=@+# 110

$rainers can help enhance learners: sel(-e((icacy in various ways# <or instance, in the /R!- program, an award-winning program designed to help unemployed wor"ers to overcome discouragement and (ind new 3obs, the participants observe the trainers engage in a role-play o( a 3ob interview# $he trainers intentionally ma"e several mista"es during the role-play# $he participants then provide suggestions (or improving per(ormance, and the trainers do the role-play again, incorporating the participants: suggestions# $he participants see how use(ul the suggestions are, and the trainers point out that the participants have demonstrated that they already "now most o( what the e;perts "now about how to do a 3ob interview well*= +#

A. G'/*) R)'2&!)""#
Tesearch on a wide variety o( behavior change programs suggests that people go through several stages o( readiness (or change be(ore they are ready to ma"e a true commitment*=G+# In the (irst stage, they deny that they have any need (or change# In the ne;t stage, people begin to see that they need to improve, but they are not sure that anything can be done about their problems and they put o(( ma"ing a decision# In the third stage, the individual recogni2es that there is a problem and also that there are ways o( dealing with it, but the person has not made a concrete plan to act# It is not until the (ourth stage that the person is ready to act# ,eople at this stage have a concrete plan, and they put it into action# !e(ore training begins *or toward the beginning+, the training sta(( should, ideally, assess the readiness stage o( each potential participant# $hey then would design an appropriate intervention based on that assessment, which will di((er (or people at each stage o( readiness#

Ph'") T0 : T-'&!&!*
In social and emotional learning, motivation continues to be an important issue during the training phase# $he amount o( time, e((ort, and potential threats to one:s sel(-esteem that occur during social and 111

emotional learning suggest that trainers continue to monitor the individual:s motivation and intervene to bolster it# Rne o( the most important (actors in(luencing motivation during the training phase is the relationship between the trainer and the learner#

K. F "%)- ' P "&%&6) R)('%& !"h&1 B)%0))! %h) T-'&!)- '!2 L)'-!)-.
In social and emotional learning, the relationship between the trainer and learner is critically important*=%+# <or instance, in a program designed to teach people to be more assertive, the participants were less li"ely to drop out and showed more positive change at the end o( the program i( they had a positive relationship with the trainer*='+# -everal studies have suggested that trainers who are empathic, warm, and genuine f which are, o( course, attributes o( emotional intelligence f develop more positive relationships with participants in behavior change programs, and they are more li"ely to be success(ul*=9+# $rainers who use a directive-con(rontational style only succeed in ma"ing participants more resistant*D&+#

In the /R!- program, the trainers wor" to develop a trusting relationship with the participants by engaging in a moderate degree o( sel(-disclosure# <or instance, the trainers tal" about their own e;periences in coping with 3ob loss, emphasi2ing the normal e;periences o( sel(-doubt, encounters with barriers and setbac"s, persistence in the (ace o( these barriers, and ultimate success# $his sel(-disclosure encourages the participants to identi(y with and admire the trainers, which (acilitates social and emotional learning*D1+#

70. M'=&$&;) S)(3-D&-)+%)2 Ch'!*).

,eople are more li"ely to develop emotional competence when they decide which competencies to wor" on and set their own goals# $raining (or emotional competence also bene(its when the trainer adapts the training to match the person:s needs, goals, and learning style pre(erences*D=+# <or instance, in one stress management program, the participants were taught a variety o( approaches to 112

rela;ation# $hen they were encouraged to try each one and select the best one (or them# 8nd i( none wor"ed well, they were encouraged to try other approaches to managing stress, such as improving their time management s"ills# $he basic message o( the program was that people di((er, and no one approach to managing stress will wor" well (or everyone#

77. S)% C()'- G '(".

-ocial and emotional learning bene(its (rom speci(ic, clear goals# 8 goal such as Flearn how to listen better to subordinatesF is less e((ective than Fuse active listening with at least three times each day (or three wee"s#F -peci(ic and challenging goals help support social and emotional learning because they ma;imi2e sel(-e((icacy, mastery, and motivation# $he most e((ective trainers are able to help the learners set clear and challenging goals without in(ringing on the learners: sense o( ownership (or the goals#DD

79. B-)'? S%)1"#

G '("

&!%

M'!'*)'5()

<or many people, trying to bring about even modest improvements in emotional competence can be (rustrating# 8lthough challenging goals are more motivating than simple ones, it also helps i( the goals are attainable# 7hen people reach a goal, their sel(-e((icacy increases, which leads to the setting o( new, more challenging goals*D@+# <or instance, one 0!8 student lac"ed the sel(-con(idence necessary to approach people about part-time 3obs# $he larger goal o( developing sel(-con(idence was overwhelming *and also vague+, but he was helped to brea" it into smaller, more realistic action steps# $he (irst was to update his resume, which was easy5 there was no need to approach anyone# $he ne;t steps, which were increasingly di((icult, were to call the chairman o( the <inance Department by the ne;t month to re6uest a meeting, then meet with the chairman to discuss opportunities, then do the same with his mentor, a local 113

e;ecutive# <inally, he would search the local want ads and call to apply (or promising 3obs# In this way, the goal o( increasing sel(-con(idence became attainable, and steady progress and success rather than (rustration and (ailure characteri2ed the process#

7:. M'=&$&;) P-'+%&+).

O11 -%/!&%&)"

$he relationship between practice and learning is one o( the oldest and best-established principles in psychology# In social and emotional learning, there o(ten must be more practice than in other types o( learning because old, ine((ective neural connections need to be wea"ened and new, more e((ective ones established# -uch a process re6uires repetition over a prolonged period o( time# 8nd learners need to practice on the 3ob, not 3ust in the training situation, (or trans(er to occur#

Telying on a single seminar or wor"shop is one o( the most common errors made in social and emotional learning programs# Even an intense wor"shop lasting several days usually is not su((icient to help people unlearn old, entrenched habits and develop new ones that will persist# $he most e((ective training programs include repeated sessions o( practice and (eedbac"*D +#

74. P- 6&2) F-)L/)!% F))25'+? P-'+%&+).

<eedbac" is important during the change process as a way o( indicating whether the learner is on trac"# It also can help sustain motivation, (or (eedbac" can be highly rein(orcing*DG+# <eedbac" is especially use(ul in social and emotional learning because the learners o(ten have trouble recogni2ing how their social and emotional behavior mani(ests itsel(# In (act, because sel(-awareness is a core competence, those who need the most help in emotional competence programs may

114

be particularly wea" in this area# $hus, they need even more (ocused and sustained (eedbac" as they practice new behaviors*D%+#

75. R)(.

! E=1)-&)!%&'( M)%h 2".

0ore active, concrete, e;periential methods, such as role plays, group discussions, and simulations, usually wor" better than lecturing or assigned reading (or social and emotional learning# In order to reprogram neural circuits connecting the amygdala and neocorte;, people need to actually engage in the desired pattern o( thought, (eeling, and action# 8 lecture is (ine (or increasing understanding o( emotional intelligence, but e;periential methods usually are necessary (or real behavior change#

8 study o( managerial and sales training programs o((ered in a large corporation demonstrated the superiority o( e;periential methods (or social and emotional learning# $he programs that used e;periential methods produced twice as much improvement in per(ormance, as rated by supervisors and peers, as did the other programs# <urthermore, the return on investment (or the e;periential programs was seven times greater*D'+#

8 particularly good e;ample o( e;periential learning is the teaching approach used in >oc"pit Tesource 0anagement# 0uch o( the training involves F(lying missionsF in a highly realistic (light simulator# $o learn more about how they interact with one another and the e((ects it has on their per(ormance, the crew is videotaped while they per(orm the mission, and then they view the tape with an instructor and (ocus on their interactions*D9+#

7E. B/&(2 &! S/11 -%#

115

>hange is enhanced through ongoing support (rom individuals and small groups# -uch support is especially valuable (or people who are trying to improve their social and emotional competence# >oaches and mentors, as well as individuals who are going through the same change process, can help sustain a person:s hope and motivation*@&+# -ocial and emotional training programs usually are more e((ective when they encourage the (ormation o( groups where people give each other support throughout the change e((ort*@1+#

In a stress management program designed (or a group o( middle managers in a high tech (irm, the trainers assigned the participants to a Fsupport groupF early in the (irst session# 8ll small group wor" during the course o( the program too" place in these support groups, and (acilitators included activities that helped the group members get to "now one another better# $he participants were encouraged to meet with others in their support groups in between sessions and a(ter the program (ormally ended# $he participants reported that the conversations they had in their support groups about li(e style and priorities were the most important (actors in helping them to ma"e positive changes in their wor" and personal lives#

7B. U") M 2)(".

-eeing the desired behavior modeled is particularly valuable in social and emotional learning# Rne cannot learn to solve 6uadratic e6uations by watching someone else do so, but one can learn a great deal about how to discuss a con(lict with a cowor"er by observing a model do it# 9earning is (urther enriched when trainers encourage and help learners to study, analy2e, and emulate the models*@=+#

7A. E!h'!+) I!"&*h%.

Even though e;periential interventions seem to be especially productive (or social and emotional learning, insight also can play a 116

use(ul role*@D+# Insight serves as a natural lin" between situations, thoughts and (eelings# It enhances sel(-awareness, the cornerstone o( emotional intelligence# 8nd insight o(ten paves the way (or meaning(ul behavior change*@@+# $he most e((ective training combines e;periential methods and the development o( insight# <or instance, one program taught managers to be more aware o( how their employees irritated them and to become more e((ective in setting limits with employees# $he trainer began the lesson by showing an e;cerpt (rom a popular comedy (ilm in which one character continually annoyed another one by in(ringing on his personal space in various ways# 8(ter showing the (ilm, the trainer helped the participants to shi(t the (ocus (rom the (ilm to themselves, and they began to see how they o(ten allowed some o( their employees to bother them in similarly annoying ways# 8(ter ac6uiring more insight into their own emotional reactions, the participants were ready to learn some emotional and social s"ills that could help them to deal with these annoying behaviors#

7K. P-)6)!% R)('1").

$he essence o( relapse prevention is to prepare people mentally to encounter slips, to recogni2e at the outset that setbac"s are a normal part o( the change process# Telapse prevention is especially important in social and emotional learning because participants attempting to develop these competencies are li"ely to encounter many setbac"s as they attempt to apply new behaviors on the 3ob# 7ithout preparation (or these setbac"s, they can easily become discouraged and give up be(ore the tas" o( neural relearning has reached the point where the new, learned response is the automatic one#

In relapse prevention training, people are helped to re(rame slips as opportunities to learn in order to reduce the li"elihood o( slipping again in the (uture# <or dealing with situations in which a mista"e is li"ely, they also are helped to develop practical strategies such as ta"ing a Ftime outF to consult with a mentor*@ +# $hrough relapse prevention, trainees learn how to identi(y and overcome potential obstacles to 117

applying new s"ills on the 3ob# $hey also learn to monitor their progress and use methods o( sel(-rein(orcement to maintain motivation*@G+#

<or e;ample, in one program a trainer leads the participants through a discussion about a hypothetical situation in which a participant who has (ollowed all the rules (or e((ective, supportive (eedbac" receives an angry response when tal"ing with a sta(( member# $he trainer then as"s the group to describe how they would (eel in this situation and to consider what they could do to overcome this particular obstacle# $he trainer then praises the participants (or their ideas on how to bounce bac" (rom this setbac"# 9ater, the trainer as"s the participants to write down on one side o( a sheet o( paper descriptions o( setbac"s they might encounter when they try to apply a s"ill they have learned, and to generate possible solutions (or overcoming these setbac"s on the other side o( the paper# $he participants then share these strategies with the rest o( the group*@%+#

Ph'") Th-)): T-'!"3)- '!2 M'&!%)!'!+)

$rans(er and maintenance o( learned s"ills is a particular challenge in social and emotional learning# 7hen learners return to their natural environments, there are li"ely to be many cues and rein(orcers that support the old neural pathways that training was designed to wea"en# <urther, there may be signi(icant barriers to the use o( some o( the new social and emotional competencies that still have a (ragile neural (oundation*@'+# 7ell-designed training programs cannot be e((ective i( the larger organi2ational system in which they are rooted is not supportive o( the training goals# Tecent research has pointed to several aspects o( the organi2ational environment that seem to be help(ul in (acilitating trans(er o( social and emotional learning#

118

90. E!+ /-'*) U") N 5.

3 S?&(("

! %h)

$here are many di((erent ways that supervisors, peers, subordinates, and others in the wor" environment can encourage learners to apply what they have learned# $he best methods involve either reminding people to use the s"ills or rein(orcing them when they do so*@9+#

Tein(orcement is a particularly good way to encourage trainees to apply their new s"ills on the 3ob and to continue doing so# In the wor"place, rein(orcement by one:s supervisor can be especially power(ul* &+# >onsider the di((erence in outcomes (or two supervisory training programs* 1+# In both, the participants li"ed the programs and success(ully learned the new s"ills* =+# !ut (ollow up showed that the participants (rom the (irst program applied their s"ills on the 3ob, while those in the second did not# $he biggest di((erence between the two programs was that the trainees in the (irst one were Fdirected and encouraged by their supervisors to use the new s"ills#F In (act, two o( the participants were removed (rom their 3obs (or not using the new s"ills#

-upervisors can rein(orce the use o( new s"ills on the 3ob in less drastic ways# <or instance, they can encourage trainees to use learned s"ills on the 3ob simply by cueing them to do so* D+# 8lso, a (ollow-up assessment o( s"ills learned during training can ma"e the trainees (eel more accountable and increase trans(er o( learning* @+# <or e;ample, the airlines have Fchec" pilotsF observe (light crews during (lights and then give them (eedbac" in order to encourage the crews to use the teamwor", communication, and leadership s"ills that they previously learned* +#

$he behavior o( a supervisor, or any high status person, is crucial (or the trans(er and maintenance o( new emotional and social competencies# $he models to which learners are e;posed when they 119

return to the wor" environment are even more power(ul than those they encountered during training# -ocial and emotional behavior seems to be especially sensitive to modeling e((ects, and high status persons are in(luential models (or this "ind o( behavior in the wor"place* G+# <or instance, in one supervisory training program, the participants were taught to adopt a more supportive leadership style# 8(ter they returned to their 3obs, only those trainees whose own supervisors had such a style trans(erred what they had learned to their 3obs* %+#

In addition to modeling and rein(orcement, re(lection can help learners trans(er and maintain what they have learned# It can be particularly help(ul (or supervisors to set aside some time periodically to help learners re(lect on what they have done to apply the s"ills, and to consider what have been the barriers and (acilitating (actors# !ecause sel(-awareness is a cornerstone o( social and emotional competence, re(lection can be especially valuable during the trans(er and maintenance phase* '+#

8lthough supervisors are especially salient sources o( rein(orcement and encouragement, other individuals and groups in the wor" environment can be important as well# <or instance, in a supervisory s"ills program, the supervisors: employees were trained at the same time as the supervisors* 9+# $his additional component o( the program helped create an environment that encouraged the supervisors to practice and use the new behaviors*G&+#

97. P- 6&2) '! O-*'!&;'%& !'( C/(%/-) %h'% S/11 -%" L)'-!&!*.
$rans(er and maintenance o( speci(ic s"ills seems to be a((ected by the e;tent to which the organi2ation values learning and development in general*G1+# >hallenging 3obs, social support, reward and development

120

systems, and an emphasis on innovation and competition in(luence these perceptions and e;pectations#

$he climate o( the wor" environment is particularly important (or trans(er o( social and emotional learning to the 3ob# Rne study (ound that participants in a human relations training program who returned to a supportive climate per(ormed better on ob3ective per(ormance measures and were promoted more o(ten than those in an unsupportive climate# <urthermore, these e((ects were not observed until 1' months a(ter training, highlighting the importance o( a supportive environment (or the development o( social and emotional competencies over time*G=+#

Ph'") F /-: E6'(/'%&!* Ch'!*) 99. C !2/+% -)")'-+h. !-* &!* )6'(/'%& !

Evaluation is essential (or promoting e((ective training# Tesearch suggests that many training programs do not (ul(ill their promise*GD+# Rnly through evaluation can poor programs be improved and e((ective ones retained# !y evaluation, we mean a process that (ocuses on continuous improvement rather than 3ust a Fpass-(ailF test in which individuals associated with a program win or lose credibility# 7hen an evaluation suggests that a program (alls short in achieving its goals, it should not be used to punish an individual or group# Tather, it should be used as a guide (or improving the training that is o((ered# Evaluation should be lin"ed to learning and the continual pursuit o( 6uality#

Evaluation has received increased attention o( late because o( the recognition that training departments in modern organi2ations need to be held more accountable*G@+# Instead o( cost centers, training departments now are viewed as pro(it centers# ?n(ortunately, the (ield has been slow to meet this challenge# 8n Rctober, 199% survey o( D highly regarded Fbenchmar"F companies conducted by the 8merican -ociety (or $raining and Development (ound that o( the =% companies 121

that said they tried to promote emotional competence through training and development, more than two-thirds made no attempt to evaluate the e((ect o( these e((orts# $hose that did attempt to evaluate their e((orts relied primarily on measures such as reactions to training and employee opinion surveys*G +#

Good evaluation o( social and emotional learning e((orts has been especially rare# Rne reason seems to be a widespread belie( that programs designed to promote Fso(t s"illsF cannot be evaluated# 8lthough this may have been true at one time, we now have the tools necessary to conduct rigorous evaluations o( most training programs (or social and emotional competence*GG+#

It can be di((icult to include every aspect o( the ideal evaluation design in many organi2ations, but there are e;amples o( evaluation studies that come close# Rne is a study o( eleven management training programs o((ered in a large pharmaceutical company*G%+# $he evaluators utili2ed pre- and post-assessments o( those who went through the programs, and these assessments included ratings o( the participants: per(ormance on the 3ob by bosses, peers, and subordinates#

$hey also calculated the costs and bene(its o( the programs# $hey (ound that three o( the eleven programs were worthless# Rn the other hand, (ive programs had a return-on-investment ranging (rom 1G to @9= percent, and one time management program had a return-oninvestment o( 1,9'9 percent# $he (our year study cost d &&,&&&, which was only #&= percent o( the d=@& million that the company spent on training during that period# 8s a result o( this evaluation, the company has eliminated the ine((ective programs and retained the ones that more than pay (or themselves#

8nother e;ample was an evaluation o( a supervisory training program conducted in a (orest products company*G'+# $his study used a control group and pre- and post-measures# $he program:s impact on the supervisors: competence was measured through subordinate ratings, 122

and the study also assessed the program:s impact on absenteeism, turnover, and productivity# $he results showed (irst that the trained supervisors were using all o( the interpersonal s"ills covered in the program signi(icantly more than did the controls during the si; months (ollowing training# -econd, the average daily production o( the trained supervisors: employees, relative to controls, increased over =& percent# $hird, turnover and absenteeism signi(icantly declined among the employees o( the trained supervisors, relative to the controls# $he evaluation study thus provided strong evidence that the training program had the desired e((ects on both supervisor competencies and the bottom line#

$hese two e;amples show that while it is not and emotional competence training programs, so with much greater rigor and precision than evaluation an integral part o( the process, gradually become more e((ective#

easy to evaluate social it now is possible to do ever be(ore# !y ma"ing training programs will

Wh'% A-) %h) G/&2)(&!)" W -%hG

1ot all training programs in social and emotional competence (ollow these guidelines# )ow much money currently is lost by training that does not (ollow these guidelinesS 7e estimate that the (igure is between #G and 1G#' billion dollars*G9+# 7e arrived at this estimate by starting with the commonly 6uoted (igure o( d & billion spent on training each year# 7e then assumed that the average cost per wor"er (or 1 wee" o( training is d1 &&# Dividing this (igure into the d & billion total gave us an estimate o( the total number o( wor"ers trained, which is DD million wor"ers#

7e ne;t assumed that only a 6uarter o( these wor"ers receives training related to emotional competence# *$he number probably is higher, but we wanted to be conservative in this estimate#+ $he rest receive technical and cognitive training# $hus, we estimated that adopting the guidelines should improve training (or about ' million wor"ers# 123

1e;t we computed the economic impact o( training# -everal studies have suggested that on average, training improves wor"er per(ormance by #@ to #G o( a standard deviation *-#D#+# %&# $o be on the conservative side, we used the lowest (igure, @ -#D# Rther research has suggested that (or the average wor"er, an -#D# e6uals about @& percent o( salary# %1# $he average salary o( 8merican wor"ers is about dD ,&&&# $hus the average economic impact o( training currently is #@ -#D# h #@& h dD ,&&& ^ d ,G&& per wor"er#

7e ne;t (actored in the di((erence in e((ect si2e between training programs that (ollow the guidelines and those that don:t# 7e used the data (rom a recent study o( training programs in one large corporation, which (ound that programs adhering to most o( the guidelines improved the impact o( training by about #D -#D# over those that didn:t (ollow the guidelines*%=+# $o be conservative, we then assumed that only about hal( the wor"ers who now are trained *the lower hal( o( the distribution+ would do better by that amount i( the guidelines were adopted# 7e also considered the estimated impact (or wea"er e((ect si2e di((erences o( #1 and #= -#D# $hus, we estimated that i( the guidelines were adopted uni(ormly, about @ million wor"ers would show an improvement o( #1 to #D -#D# in training impact#7e then computed the total economic impact o( training currently and compared it to the impact i( the guidelines were adopted4

C/--)!% )+ ! $&+ &$1'+% 3 %-'&!&!* J 4 $&((& ! 0 -?)-" R S54E00O0 -?)- J S99.4 5&((& !. I$1'+% &3 */&2)(&!)" 0)-) 3 (( 0)2 J 4 $&((& ! R SB4000 J S9A 5&((& ! ('""/$&!* '! &$1- 6)$)!% 3 .7 S.D.# D&33)-)!+) J S9A 5&((& ! - S99.4 5&((& ! J S5.E 5&((& !. $he di((erence (or an e((ect si2e improvement o( #= -#D# would be d11#= billion, and the di((erence (or the (ull #D -#D# improvement would be 124

d1G#' billion# $hus, using these (igures, we estimate that 8merican business currently is losing between d #G and d1G#' billion#

C !+(/"& !
It is possible (or people o( all ages to become more socially and emotionally competent# )owever, the principles (or developing this type o( competence di((er greatly (rom those that have guided much training and development practice in the past# Developing emotional competence re6uires that we unlearn old habits o( thought, (eeling, and action that are deeply ingrained, and grow new ones# -uch a process ta"es motivation, e((ort, time, support, and sustained practice, as the guidelines presented in this article ma"e clear# $he guidelines also suggest that the preparation and trans(er-and-maintenance phases o( the training process are especially important# .et too o(ten these phases are neglected in practice#

Rrgani2ations increasingly are providing training and development that is e;plicitly labeled as Femotional intelligenceF or Femotional competenceF training# )owever, the guidelines presented here apply to any development e((ort in which personal and social learning is a goal# $his would include most management and e;ecutive development e((orts as well as training in supervisory s"ills, diversity, teamwor", leadership, con(lict management, stress management, sales, customer relations, etc# Ideally, e((orts to develop emotional competence would include all the elements we have identi(ied here, but we reali2e that it o(ten will not be practical to do so# <ortunately, the e((ect o( adhering to the guidelines is multiplicative and synergistic4 the more guidelines that trainers can (ollow the greater and more lasting will be their impact#

I( the current interest in promoting emotional intelligence at wor" is to be a serious, sustained e((ort, rather than 3ust another management (ad, it is important that practitioners try to (ollow guidelines based on

125

the best available research# Rnly when the training is based on sound, empirically based methods will its promise be reali2ed#

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O-&*&!'( R)3)-)!+) R)1-&!%)2 W&%h P)-$&""& ! !ar-Rn, T# *=&&G+# $he !ar-Rn model o( emotional-social intelligence *E-I+# Psicothema, 1 , supl#, 1D-= # AEmotional intelligenceB has become a ma3or topic o( interest in scienti(ic circles as well as in the lay public since the publication o( a bestseller by the same name in 199 *Goleman+# Despite this heightened level o( interest in this new idea over the past decade, scholars have been studying this construct (or the greater part o( the twentieth century5 and the historical roots o( this wider area can actually be traced bac" to the nineteenth century# ,ublications began appearing in the twentieth century with the wor" o( Edward $horndi"e on social intelligence in 19=&# 0any o( these early studies (ocused on describing, de(ining and assessing socially competent behavior *>hapin, 19@=5 Doll, 19D 5 0oss U )unt, 19=%5 0oss et al#, 19=%5 $horndi"e, 19=&+# Edgar Doll published the (irst instrument designed to measure socially intelligent behavior in young children *19D +# ,ossibly in(luenced by $horndi"e and Doll, David 7echsler included two subscales *A>omprehensionB and A,icture 8rrangementB+ in his well-"nown test o( cognitive intelligence that appear to have been designed to measure aspects o( social intelligence# 8 year a(ter the (irst publication o( this test in 19D9, 7echsler described the in(luence o( non*intellecti$e factors on intelligent behavior which was yet another re(erence to this construct *19@&+# In the (irst o( a number o( publications (ollowing this early

126

description moreover, he argued that our models o( intelligence would not be complete until we can ade6uately describe these (actors *19@D+# -cholars began to shi(t their attention (rom describing and assessing social intelligence to understanding the purpose o( interpersonal behavior and the role it plays in e((ective adaptability *Vir"el, =&&&+# $his line o( research helped de(ine human e((ectiveness (rom the social perspective as well as strengthened one very important aspect o( 7echsler:s de(inition o( general intelligence4 A$he capacity o( the individual to act purpose(ullyB *19 ', p# %+# 8dditionally, this helped position social intelligence as part o( general intelligence# $he early de(initions o( social intelligence in(luenced the way emotional intelligence was later conceptuali2ed# >ontemporary theorists li"e ,eter -alovey and /ohn 0ayer originally viewed emotional intelligence as part o( social intelligence *199&, p# 1'9+, which suggests that both concepts are related and may, in all li"elyhood, represent interrelated components o( the same construct# 8t about the same time that researchers began e;ploring various ways to describe, de(ine and assess social intelligence, scienti(ic in6uiry in this area began to center around ale'ithymia *0ac9ean, 19@95 Tuesch, 19@'+, which is the essence o( emotional-social intelligence in that it (ocuses on the ability *or rather inability+ to recogni2e, understand and describe emotions# $wo new directions that paralleled and possibly evolved (rom ale;ithymia were psychological mindedness *8ppelbaum, 19%D+ and emotional awareness *9ane U -chwart2, 19'%+# Tesearch e;ploring the neural circuitry that governs emotional awareness *9ane, =&&&+, as well as additional emotional and social aspects o( this concept *!ar-Rn et al#, =&&D5 !echara U !ar-Rn, in press5 !echara et al#, =&&&5 Damasio, 199@5 9ane U 0cTae, =&&@5 9eDou;, 199G+, has begun to provide tangible evidence o( the anatomical (oundations o( this wider construct which some have 6uestioned as an intangiable myth *Davies et al#, 199'5 0atthews et al#, =&&D5 Veidner et al#, =&&1+# $he literature reveals various attempts to combine the emotional and social components o( this construct# <or e;ample, )oward Gardner *19'D+ e;plains that his conceptuali2ation o( personal intelligences is based on intrapersonal *emotional+ intelligence and interpersonal *social+ intelligence# 8dditionally, >arolyn -aarni *199&+ describes 127

emotional competence as including eight interrelated emotional and social s"ills# <urthermore, I have shown that emotional*social intelligence is composed o( a number o( intrapersonal and interpersonal competencies, s"ills and (acilitators that combine to determine e((ective human behavior *19'', 199%b, =&&&+# !ased on the above, it is more accurate to re(er to this construct as Aemotionalsocial intelligenceB rather than Aemotional intelligenceB or Asocial intelligenceB as I have suggested (or some time *=&&&+# $hroughout this article, I will re(er to this wider construct as Aemotional-social intelligenceB *AE-IB+# -ince the time o( $horndi"e *19=&+, a number o( di((erent conceptuali2ations o( E-I have appeared which have creating an interesting mi;ture o( con(usion, controversy and opportunity regarding the best approach to de(ining and measuring this construct# In an e((ort to help clari(y this situation, the Encyclopedia of "pplied Psychology *-pielberger, =&&@+ recently suggested that there are currently three ma3or conceptual models4 *a+ the -alovey-0ayer model *0ayer U -alovey, 199%+ which de(ines this construct as the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions to (acilitate thin"ing, measured by an ability-based measure *0ayer et al#, =&&=+5 *b+ the Goleman model *199'+ which views this construct as a wide array o( competencies and s"ills that drive managerial per(ormance, measured by multi-rater assessment *!oyat2is et al#, =&&1+5 and *c+ the !ar-Rn model *199%b, =&&&+ which describes a cross-section o( interrelated emotional and social competencies, s"ills and (acilitators that impact intelligent behavior, measured by sel(-report *199%a, 199%b+ within a potentially e;pandable multi-modal approach including interview and multi-rater assessment *!ar-Rn U )andley, =&&Da, =&&Db+# $he purpose o( this article is to present, describe and e;amine the !arRn model o( emotional-social intelligence *E-I+# $his is an empirically based theoretical paper# 8s such, various (indings are presented to describe this theory o( E-I and demonstrate that it is a comprehensive, robust and valid conceptuali2ation o( the construct# $he (irst part o( the article describes the !ar-Rn model and measure o( emotional-social intelligence and how it was developed# $he second part provides the reader with a description o( the model:s construct validity, and the third part describes its predictive validity# I then show that the !ar-Rn model is both a teachable and learnable concept# In the last part o( the article, I summari2e the "ey points, discuss the limitations o( the model that need to be addressed, and raise the idea (or developing a more comprehensive and robust model o( E-I based 128

on the most power(ul aspects o( e;isting conceptuali2ations o( this construct#

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Darwin :s early wor" on the importance o( emotional e;pression (or survival and adaptation *1'%=X19G + has in(luenced the ongoing development o( the !ar-Rn model, which both stresses the importance o( emotional e;pression and views the outcome o( emotionally and socially intelligent behavior in Darwinian terms o( e((ective adaptation# 8dditional in(luence on my thin"ing can be traced to $horndi"e:s description o( social intelligence and its importance (or human per(ormance *19=&+ as well as 7echsler:s observations related to the impact o( non-cognitive and conative (actors on what he re(erred to as Aintelligent behaviorB *19@&, 19@D+# -i(neos: description o( ale;ithymia *19G%+ on the pathological end o( the E-I continuum and 8ppelbaum:s conceptuali2ation o( psychological mindedness *19%D+ on the eupsychic end o( this continuum have also had an impact on the ongoing development o( the !ar-Rn model# <rom Darwin to the present, most descriptions, de(initions and conceptuali2ations o( emotional-social intelligence have included one or more o( the (ollowing "ey components4 *a+ the ability to recogni2e, understand and e;press emotions and (eelings5 *b+ the ability to understand how others (eel and relate with them 5 *c+ the ability to manage and control emotions5 *d+ the ability to manage change, adapt and solve problems o( a personal and interpersonal nature5 and *e+ the ability to generate positive a((ect and be sel(-motivated# $he !ar-Rn model provides the theoretical basis (or the EQ-i, which was originally developed to assess various aspects o( this construct as well as to e;amine its conceptuali2ation# 8ccording to this model, emotional*social intelligence is a cross*section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effecti$ely we understand and e'press oursel$es, understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demands# $he emotional and social competencies, s"ills and (acilitators re(erred in this conceptuali2ation include the (ive "ey components described above5 and each o( these components comprises a number o( closely related competencies, s"ills and (acilitators which are described in the 8ppendi;# >onsistent with this model, to be emotionally and socially 129

intelligent is to e((ectively understand and e;press onesel(, to understand and relate well with others, and to success(ully cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures# $his is based, (irst and (oremost, on one:s intrapersonal ability to be aware o( onesel(, to understand one:s strengths and wea"nesses, and to e;press one:s (eelings and thoughts non-destructively# Rn the interpersonal level, being emotionally and socially intelligent encompasses the ability to be aware o( others: emotions, (eelings and needs, and to establish and maintain cooperative, constructive and mutually satis(ying relationships# ?ltimately, being emotionally and socially intelligent means to e((ectively manage personal, social and environmental change by realistically and (le;ibly coping with the immediate situation, solving problems and ma"ing decisions# $o do this, we need to manage emotions so that they wor" (or us and not against us, and we need to be su((iciently optimistic, positive and sel(-motivated#

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$o better understand the !ar-Rn model o( E-I and how it developed, it is important to (irst describe the Emotional Quotient Inventory *the EQi+ which has played an instrumental role in developing this model# <or the purpose o( the present discussion, it is also help(ul to stress that the !ar-Rn model is operationali2ed by the EQ-i# $he EQ-i is a sel(-report measure o( emotionally and socially intelligent behavior that provides an estimate o( emotional-social intelligence# $he EQ-i was the (irst measure o( its "ind to be published by a psychological test publisher *!ar-Rn, 199%a+, the (irst such measure to be peer-reviewed in the /uros Mental Measurement 0ear#ook *,la"e U Impara, 1999+, and the most widely used measure o( emotional-social intelligence to date *!ar-Rn, =&&@+# 8 detailed description o( the psychometric properties o( this measure and how it was developed is (ound in the /ar*1n E2*i Technical Manual *!ar-Rn, 199%b+ and in Glenn Geher:s recent boo" titled Measuring Emotional Intelligence 4 3ommon 4round and 3ontro$ersy *=&&@+# In brie(, the EQ-i contains 1DD items in the (orm o( short sentences and employs a -point response scale with a te;tual response (ormat ranging (rom Fvery seldom or not true o( meF *1+ to Fvery o(ten true o( me or true o( meF * +# 8 list o( the inventory's items is (ound in the instrument:s technical manual *!ar-Rn, 199%b+# $he EQ-i is suitable (or 130

individuals 1% years o( age and older and ta"es appro;imately @& minutes to complete# $he individual:s responses render a total EQ score and scores on the (ollowing composite scales that comprise 1 subscale scores4 Intrapersonal *comprising -el(-Tegard, Emotional -el(-8wareness, 8ssertiveness, Independence, and -el(-8ctuali2ation+5 Interpersonal *comprising Empathy, -ocial Tesponsibility, and Interpersonal Telationship+5 -tress 0anagement *comprising -tress $olerance and Impulse >ontrol+5 8daptability *comprising Teality-$esting, <le;ibility, and ,roblem--olving+5 and General 0ood *comprising Rptimism and )appiness+# 8 brie( description o( these emotional-social intelligence competencies, s"ills and (acilitators measured by the 1 subscales is (ound in the 8ppendi; as was previously mentioned# -cores are computer-generated# Taw scores are automatically tabulated and converted into standard scores based on a mean o( 1&& and standard deviation o( 1 # $his resembles IQ *Intelligence Quotient+ scores, which was my intention when I coined the term AEQB *AEmotional QuotientB+ during my doctoral studies *19''+# 8verage to above average EQ scores on the EQ-i suggest that the respondent is e((ective in emotional and social (unctioning# $he higher the scores, the more positive the prediction (or e((ective (unctioning in meeting daily demands and challenges# Rn the other hand, low EQ scores suggest an inability to be e((ective and the possible e;istence o( emotional, social andXor behavioral problems# $he EQ-i has a built-in correction (actor that automatically ad3usts the scale scores based on scores obtained (rom two o( the instrument:s validity indices *,ositive Impression and 1egative Impression+# $his is an important (eature (or sel(-report measures in that it reduces the potentially distorting e((ects o( response bias thereby increasing the accuracy o( the results#

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$he EQ-i was originally constructed as an e;perimental instrument designed to e;amine the conceptual model o( emotional and social functioning that I began developing in the early 19'&s *19''+# 8t that time, I hypothesi2ed that e((ective emotional and social (unctioning should eventually lead to a sense o( psychological well-being# It was 131

also reasoned that the results gained (rom applying such an instrument on large and diverse population samples would reveal more about emotionally and socially intelligent behavior and about the underlying construct o( emotional-social intelligence# !ased on (indings obtained (rom applying the EQ-i in a wide range o( studies over the past two decades, I have continuously molded my conceptuali2ation o( this construct5 these changes have been mild and are ongoing in an e((ort to maintain a theory that is empirically based# $he development o( the !ar-Rn model and measure o( E-I proceeded in si; ma3or stages over a period o( 1% years4 *1+ Identi(ying and logically clustering various emotional and social competencies thought to impact e((ectiveness and psychological wellbeing based on my e;perience as a clinical psychologist and review o( the literature5 *=+ >learly de(ining the individual "ey clusters o( competencies, s"ills and (acilitators that sur(aced5 *D+ initially generating appro;imately 1,&&& items based on my pro(essional e;perience, review o( the literature and input (rom e;perienced healthcare practitioners who were as"ed to generate 6uestions they would as" in an interview situation guided by my de(initions5 *@+ determining the inclusion o( 1 primary scales and 1DD items in the published version o( the instrument based on a combination o( theoretical considerations and statistical (indings generated by item analysis and (actor analysis5 * + Initially norming the (inal version o( the instrument on D,'D1 adults in 1orth 8merica in 199G5 and *G+ >ontinuing to norm and validate the instrument across cultures# $he (irst normative sample o( the EQ-i included individuals (rom every >anadian province and (rom nearly all the states in the ?-# $he genderage composition o( the sample included @9_ males and 1_ (emales (rom 1G to 1&& years o( age, with an average age o( D@#D years# $he sample was %9_ 7hite, '_ 8sian 8merican, %_ 8(rican 8merican, D_ )ispanic, and 1_ 1ative 8merican#* + <or more detailed demographic in(ormation, including the educational and occupational bac"ground o( 132

the original normative sample, the reader instrument:s technical manual *!ar-Rn, 199%b+#

is

re(erred

to

the

$he EQ-i has been translated into more than D& languages, and data have been collected in numerous settings around the world# Earlier versions o( the inventory were completed by a total o( D,&&& individuals in si; countries * 8rgentina, Germany, India, Israel, 1igeria and -outh 8(rica+# $he (irst translation o( the EQ-i was (rom English to -panish to allow (or e;tensive data collection in 8rgentina, which was (ollowed by data collection in a number o( other countries# In addition to providing cross-cultural data, this preliminary piloting o( the EQ-i was important (or item selection and alteration, continued scale development and validation, and establishing the (inal nature o( the response (ormat# 1umerous reliability and validity studies have been conducted around the world over the past two decades, a number o( which will be re(erred to in the (ollowing sections to describe the reliability and validity o( the EQ-i and the construct it measures# $he outcome o( this rigorous development process has rendered psychometric properties that shed light on the validity and robustness o( the model# 8(ter discussing the age-gender e((ect, (actorial structure and reliability, I will (ocus primarily on the construct validity and predictive validity o( the model# $his approach o( e;amining the validity o( a concept by e;amining the psychometric properties o( scales designed to measure that concept is not uncommon in psychology in general as well as in the speci(ic area o( E-I Ce#g#, 1ewsome et al#, =&&&5 ,etrides U <urnham, =&&&5 -alovey et al#, 199 5 Qan Tooy U Qiswesvaran, =&&@E#

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8n analysis o( variance o( the 1orth 8merican normative sample *n^D,'D1+ was conducted to e;amine the e((ect o( age, gender and ethnicity on EQ-i scores *!ar-Rn, 199%b+# It was thought that the results would also shed light on the underlying construct o( E-I# 8lthough the results indicated a (ew signi(icant di((erences between the age groups that were compared, these di((erences are relatively small in magnitude# In brie(, the older groups scored signi(icantly 133

higher than the younger groups on most o( the EQ-i scales5 and respondents in their late @&s obtained the highest mean scores# 8n increase in emotional-social intelligence with age is also observed in children *!ar-Rn U ,ar"er, =&&&+# $he (indings presented here, which are based on a cross-sectional comparison o( di((erent age groups, will eventually be compared with (indings (rom an ongoing longitudinal study o( the same cohort *n^=D,&&&+ over a = -year period (rom birth to young adulthood# $his will provide a more accurate indication o( how E-I develops and changes over time# -imilar increases in E-I with age have been reported by others based on employing the EQ-i, 0EI- and other measures o( this construct *Goleman, 199'+# $hese (indings are interesting when one considers that cognitive intelligence increases up until late adolescents and then begins to mildly decline in the second and third decades o( li(e as was originally reported by 7echsler *19 '+# $he results suggest that as one gets older, one becomes more emotionally and socially intelligent# 7ith respect to gender, no di((erences have been revealed between males and (emales regarding overall E-I# )owever, statistically signi(icant gender di((erences do e;ist (or a (ew o( the (actors measured by the EQ-i, but the e((ects are small (or the most part# !ased on the 1orth 8merican normative sample *!ar-Rn, 199%b+, (emales appear to have stronger interpersonal s"ills than males, but the latter have a higher intrapersonal capacity, are better at managing emotions and are more adaptable than the (ormer# 0ore speci(ically, the !ar-Rn model reveals that women are more aware o( emotions, demonstrate more empathy, relate better interpersonally and are more socially responsible than men# Rn the other hand, men appear to have better sel(-regard, are more sel(-reliant, cope better with stress, are more (le;ible, solve problems better, and are more optimistic than women# -imilar gender patterns have been observed in almost every other population sample that has been e;amined with the EQ-i# 0en's de(iciencies in interpersonal s"ills, when compared with women, could e;plain why psychopathy is diagnosed much more (re6uently in men than in women5 and signi(icantly lower stress tolerance amongst women may e;plain why women su((er more (rom an;iety-related disturbances than men *8merican ,sychiatric 8ssociation, 199@+#

8n e;amination o( the 1orth 8merican normative sample, upon which the EQ-i was normed, did not reveal signi(icant di((erences in E-I between the various ethnic groups that were compared *!ar-Rn, 199%b, =&&&, =&&@5 !ar-Rn U ,ar"er, =&&&+# $his is an interesting 134

(inding when compared with some o( the controversial conclusions that have been presented over the years suggesting signi(icant di((erences in cognitive intelligence between various ethnic groups *e#g#, -u2u"i U Qalencia, 199%+#

$o summari2e the above (indings, the !ar-Rn model reveals that older people are more emotionally and socially intelligent than younger people, (emales are more aware o( emotions than males while the latter are more adept at managing emotions than the (ormer, and that there are no signi(icant di((erences in emotional-social intelligence between the various ethnic groups that have been e;amined in 1orth 8merica#

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<actor analysis was applied to study the 1 -(actor structure o( the EQ-i to empirically evaluate the e;tent to which it is theoretically valid# 0oreover, this statistical procedure was used to e;amine the (actorial structure o( the !ar-Rn model *i#e#, to e;amine the e;tent to which the (actorial components o( this model structurally e;ist+# $his analysis was (irst per(ormed on the normative sample, progressing (rom e;ploratory to con(irmatory (actor analysis *!ar-Rn, 199%b+#

!ased on a varima; rotation, a 1D-(actor solution a((orded the most theoretically meaning(ul interpretation# $hese results provided a reasonable match with the subscale structure o( the EQ-i# 1onetheless, the 1D-(actor empirical structure that emerged raised an important 6uestion that had to be addressed4 >an the 1 -(actor model used in the !ar-Rn model and measure o( E-I still be 3usti(ied in light o( the (indings which suggested a 1D-(actor structureS $he essential di((erences that were identi(ied between the theoretical structure and the one that sur(aced as a result o( e;ploratory (actor analysis were as (ollows4 *a+ $wo (actors emerged (rom the Impulse >ontrol items5 135

*b+ 8lthough -el(-Tegard, -el(-8ctuali2ation, Rptimism and )appiness represent (our separate scales, most o( their items loaded on two (actors5 *c+ although 8ssertiveness and Independence are considered to be two separate subscales, items (rom both subscales loaded on one (actor5 and *d+ 8lthough two separate e;perimental (actors emerged (rom the Empathy and -ocial Tesponsibility items, they are the two highest correlating (actors *#'&+# 8 con(irmatory (actor analysis was initially applied to resolve the above-mentioned di((erences between the 1 -(actor structure o( the !ar-Rn model and the 1D (actors that emerged (rom the e;ploratory (actor analysis# 8lthough the results supported a 1 -(actor structure in the end, which (its the theoretical basis o( the !ar-Rn model and measure *!ar-Rn, 199%b+, an additional con(irmatory (actor analysis was subse6uently applied to the same dataset *n^D,'D1+ in an attempt to e;plore an alternative (actorial structure *!ar-Rn, =&&&+# $he items (rom the above-mentioned pro#lematic (actors *Independence, -el(8ctuali2ation, Rptimism, )appiness, and -ocial Tesponsibility+ were e;cluded (rom the second analysis# -el(-8ctuali2ation, Rptimism and )appiness were e;cluded (rom this analysis in that a number o( their items loaded on the -el(-Tegard (actor while others loaded on an additional yet wea"er (actor5 moreover, these three (actors appear in the literature primarily as (acilitators o( E-I rather than actual components o( the construct itsel(5 7echsler re(erred to them as Fconative (actorsF *19@&, 19@D+# Independence was e;cluded (rom the analysis because its items loaded heavily on the 8ssertiveness (actor, and because it rarely appears in the literature as an integral component o( E-I5 however, assertiveness *the ability to e;press one's emotions and (eelings+ most de(initely appears in the literature, (rom Darwin to the present, as an important part o( this construct# <or similar empirical and theoretical reasons, it was decided to e;clude -ocial Tesponsibility items5 moreover, this subscale was shown to correlate e;tremely high with Empathy as was previously mentioned, meaning that they are most li"ely measuring the same domain# $he results o( this second analysis clearly suggested a 1&-(actor structure, which is both empirically (easible and theoretically acceptable as an alternative to the above-mentioned 1 -(actor structure# In the order o( their e;traction, the ten (actors that emerged are4 136

*1+ -el(-Tegard, *=+ Interpersonal Telationship, *D+ Impulse >ontrol, *@+ ,roblem--olving, * + Emotional -el(-8wareness, *G+ <le;ibility, *%+ Teality-$esting, *'+ -tress $olerance, *9+ 8ssertiveness, *1&+ Empathy# $hese ten (actors appear to be the "ey components o( E-I, while the (ive (actors that were e;cluded (rom the second con(irmatory (actor analysis *Rptimism, -el(-8ctuali2ation, )appiness, Independence, and -ocial Tesponsibility+ appear to be important correlates and (acilitators o( this construct# $he ten "ey components and the (ive (acilitators together describe and predict emotionally and socially intelligent behavior, as will be shown below# $he (actorial validation o( the EQ-i presented here compares (avorably with that o( the 0->EI$ and E>I#

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$he reliability o( the EQ-i has been e;amined by a number o( researchers over the past =& years# 8 consensus o( (indings reveals that the !ar-Rn conceptual and assessment model is consistent, stable and reliable *!ar-Rn, =&&@+# 0ore speci(ically, the overall internal consistency coe((icient o( the EQ-i is #9% based on the 1orth 8merican normative sample *!ar-Rn, 199%b+# $his well e;ceeds the #9& minimum (or total scores suggested by 1unnally *19%'+# Internal consistency was recently ree;amined on 1,G=D adults in 1orth 8merica, revealing nearly identical results with a slight mean increase o( #&= in consistency coe((icients *!ar-Rn, =&&@+# 8n overall retest reliability 137

e;amination o( the EQ-i is #%= (or males *n^%D+ and #'& (or (emales *n^=%9+ at si; months *!ar-Rn, =&&@+# Rther researchers around the world have reported similar (indings regarding the reliability o( the EQ-i *e#g#, 0atthews et al#, =&&=5 1ewsome et al#, =&&&5 ,etrides U <urnham, =&&&+# $hese (indings compare (avorably with those o( other measures o( this construct#

$o summari2e, the (indings presented here demonstrate that there is good consistency within the (actorial components o( this model as well as stability over time#

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In order to demonstrate that a concept is robust, one must (irst show that it is actually describing what it was designed to describe# $his is usually done by e;amining its construct validity# $here are a number o( basic approaches to e;amining the construct validity o( psychometric and conceptual models *8nastasi, 19''+# $he approach that I have adopted was to simply demonstrate that the EQ-i correlates higher with other measures o( E-I than with measures o( other constructs such as cognitive intelligence and personality# 8s will be shown, the (indings con(irm that the EQ-i has the least amount o( overlap with tests o( cognitive tests# $his is (ollowed by (indings indicating a greater degree o( overlap with personality tests# 8nd the greatest degree o( domain overlap e;ists between the EQ-i and other E-I measures#

In an e((ort to e;amine the divergent construct validity o( the !ar-Rn model, the EQ-i has been concomitantly administered with various measures o( cognitive intelligence *including the 7echsler 8dult Intelligence -cale, ,rogressive Taven 0atri;, and the General 8dult 0ental 8bility -cale+ to a total o( @,=1' individuals in si; studies *!ar138

Rn, =&&@+# $he results indicate that there is only minimal overlap between the EQ-i and tests o( cognitive *academic+ intelligence, which was e;pected in that this instrument was not designed or intended to assess this type o( per(ormance# $his (inding is also con(irmed by David Qan Tooy and his colleagues *Qan Tooy U Qiswesvaran, =&&@5 Qan Tooy et al#, =&&@5 D# 9# Qan Tooy, personal communication (rom 8pril =&&D+, who suggests that no more than @_ o( the variance o( the EQ-i can be e;plained by cognitive intelligence according to a recent meta-analysis including 1& studies *nb ,&&&+# In addition to shedding light on the construct validity o( the !ar-Rn model and measure o( E-I *i#e#, what it is and is not describing+, these (indings indicate that emotional-social intelligence and cognitive intelligence are not strongly related and are most li"ely separate constructs# 1ot only is this assumption statistically supported by (indings presented by me and others *!ar-Rn, =&&@5 Qan Tooy U Qiswesvaran, =&&@5 Qan Tooy et al#, =&&@+, but there is also neurological evidence suggesting that the neural centers governing emotional-social intelligence and those governing cognitive intelligence are located in di((erent areas o( the brain# 0ore succinctly, the ventromedial pre(rontal corte;*1=+ appears to be governing basic aspects o( E-I *!ar-Rn et al#, =&&D5 !echara U !ar-Rn, in press5 9ane U 0cTae, =&&@+, while the dorsolateral pre(rontal corte; is thought to govern "ey aspects o( cognitive (unctioning *Duncan, =&&1+#

-ubse6uent to submitting their pioneering meta-analysis o( emotional intelligence (or publication in December =&&=, Qan Tooy and Qiswesvaran e;panded the number o( studies in their original analysis o( the construct validity o( emotional intelligence# $heir most recent meta-analysis suggests that the degree o( overlap between the EQ-i and personality tests is probably no more than 1 _ based on ' studies in which more than 1,%&& individuals participated *D# 9# Qan Tooy, personal communication (rom 8pril =&&D+# $his overlap is smaller than was previously thought and strongly suggests that the EQ-i must be measuring something else other than personality traits# It also ma"es sense that the EQ-i is not measuring personality traits, because the 1 emotional and social competencies, s"ills and (acilitators that it measures

139

*a+ Increase almost continuously (rom childhood to the end o( the (ourth decade o( li(e as was previously mentioned, *b+ $hey can also be signi(icantly increased within a matter o( a (ew wee"s as a result o( training *!ar-Rn, =&&D, =&&@+5 personality traits are simply not as malleable as these competencies, s"ills and (acilitators appear to be# 7hen this small degree o( overlap with personality is coupled with the even smaller degree o( overlap with cognitive intelligence, the large une;plained variance that remains logically suggests that the EQ-i is measuring something else other than these constructs5 and based on what is presented below, I argue that a substantial amount o( this une;plained variance in the !ar-Rn model and measure can be e;plained by a larger domain overlap which is observed when the EQ-i is correlated with other measures o( E-I# 0ore precisely, the degree o( signi(icant overlap between the EQ-i and these other measures o( E-I is nearly twice as high as that e;plained by personality and cognitive intelligence combined#

In order to e;amine the convergent construct validity o( the !ar-Rn model and measure, the correlation between the EQ-i and other E-I instruments was evaluated# In another publication *=&&@+, I have summari2ed the ma3or (indings related to the convergent construct validity o( the EQ-i based on 1D studies in which a total o( =,@1% individuals participated# $hese (indings indicate that the degree o( domain overlap between the EQ-i and other measures o( E-I is about DG_, which is substantial when evaluating construct validity *8nastasi, 19''+# 7hen compared with a @_ overlap with IQ tests and a 1 _ overlap with personality tests, it is obvious that the EQ-i is measuring what these other E-I measures are measuring *i#e#, emotional-social intelligence+ rather than cognitive intelligence or personality traits#

$he above (indings suggest that EQ-i possesses good construct validity f i#e#, (or the most part, this instrument is measuring what it was designed to measure# $his suggests that the !ar-Rn model is a valid concept o( E-I in that it is describing "ey aspects o( emotional-social intelligence rather than other psychological constructs such as cognitive intelligence or personality# Empirically demonstrating this point *!ar-Rn, =&&@+ is thought to dispel what some psychologists have 140

assumed regarding the !ar-Rn conceptual and psychometric model and have prematurely concluded based on less e;tensive and conclusive (indings *e#g#, !rac"ett U 0ayer, =&&D5 0atthews et al#, =&&=5 1ewsome et al#, =&&&+# Rther measures o( E-I, such as the E>I and 0->EI$, have not yet e;amined construct validity as robustly as has been done with the EQ-i on larger and more diverse samples#

7hen the (indings related to the EQ-i are compared with the actual degree o( domain overlap between ability-based measures o( E-I and tests o( cognitive intelligence as well as personality *Qan Tooy U Qiswesvaran, =&&@5 Qan Tooy et al#, =&&@+, the accuracy, meaning(ulness and use(ulness o( dichotomously describing these measures as either Ami;edB or *non*mi'ed+ AabilityB models come into 6uestion# Rn the one hand, the EQ-i overlaps with cognitive intelligence and personality tests no more than =&_ while the degree o( overlap between the 0->EI$ and these types o( tests does not e;ceed 1 _ *!ar-Rn, =&&@5 Qan Tooy U Qiswesvaran, =&&@5 Qan Tooy et al#, =&&@5 D# 9# Qan Tooy, personal communication (rom 8pril =&&D+#

In other words, the vast ma3ority o( the variance o( both conceptual and psychometric models *'&_ and ' _ respectively+ is not e;plained by personality andXor by cognitive intelligence# $here(ore, the Ami;edB characteristic used by some *0ayer et al#, =&&&+ to describe some o( these models, e;ists in all such models and measures in that they all overlap with personality traits and cognitive intelligence to some e;tent, but the actual di((erence between them within this small degree o( overlap does not 3usti(y using descriptors such as Ami;edB versus AabilitiesB as a meaning(ul way o( categori2ing these models and measures# 8ll models o( human behavior are in(luenced at least to some e;tent by a Ami;edB cross-section o( bio-psycho-social predictors and (acilitators including biomedical predispositions and conditions, cognitive intelligence, personality, motivation and environmental in(luences#

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In addition to demonstrating that the !ar-Rn model is able to describe what it is meant to describe *E-I+, it must also be shown that it is capable o( predicting various aspects o( human behavior, per(ormance and e((ectiveness in order to argue that it represents a robust and viable concept# $he best way o( doing this is to e;amine its predictive validity *i#e#, the predictive validity o( the psychometric instrument that measures the !ar-Rn conceptual model+#

In various publications, I have described =& predictive validity studies to date that have been conducted on a total o( ==,9%1 individuals who completed the EQ-i in seven countries around the world# $hese publications shed a great deal o( light on the predictive validity o( the EQ-i by e;amining its ability to predict per(ormance in social interactions, at school and in the wor"place as well as its impact on physical health, psychological health, sel(-actuali2ation and sub3ective well-being *!ar-Rn, 199%b, =&&1, =&&D, =&&@, =&& 5 !ar-Rn, et al#, =&& 5 \rivoy et al#, =&&&+# !ased on these (indings, the average predictive validity coe((icient is # 9, which suggests that the !ar-Rn model is indeed able to predict various aspects o( human per(ormance# -ummari2ed below are the ma3or (indings related to the predictive ability o( this conceptual and psychometric model#

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$hree studies *!ar-Rn, =&&@5 \rivoy et al#, =&&&+ suggest that there is a moderate yet signi(icant relationship between E-I and physical health# In the (irst study *\rivoy at al#, =&&&+, the EQ-i results o( D adolescent cancer survivors were compared with those o( a control group comprising D randomly selected adolescents (rom the local normative population sample# In addition to revealing signi(icant di((erences between the two groups with respect to overall E-I, the most power(ul EQ-i subscale that was able to distinguish between the e;perimental and control groups was Rptimism, which is an important (acilitator o( emotionally and socially intelligent behavior as was previously mentioned#

In another study conducted by me *=&&@+, D, %1 adults completed the EQ-i and responded to the (ollowing 6uestion4 AI (eel good about my health in general#B $his 6uestion was meant to provide a sel(-perceived assessment o( physical health so that I could e;amine the degree to which it may be in(luenced by emotional-social intelligence# $he results o( a multiple regression analysis rendered an overall correlation o( #@9#

In a recent study *!ar-Rn U <und, =&&@+, a population sample o( =, 1@ male recruits in the Israeli De(ense <orces completed the EQ-i in the beginning o( their tour o( duty# <rom this sample, 91 recruits were identi(ied as having medical pro(iles indicating mild or minor health problems that allowed them to continue to serve in the military with very (ew limitations# 8n additional @= recruits were (ound, who were shown to have more severe medical problems, yet not severe enough to 3usti(y a medical discharge# I then randomly selected an additional group o( @= recruits (rom the sample *n^=, 1@+ who did not receive a medical pro(ile and were thus considered to be physically healthy# $his procedure created three groups representing three di((erent levels o( physical health# 8 multiple regression analysis was applied to the data, using the three di((erent levels o( physical health as the dependent variable and the recruits: scores on the 1 EQ-i subscales as the independent variables# $he analysis rendered an overall correlation o( #D% suggesting a lowmoderate yet signi(icant relationship between E-I and physical health (or the sample studied# 143

!ased on the most power(ul EQ-i scales that sur(aced in these studies, it appears that *a+ $he ability to be aware o( onesel(, *b+ $he ability to manage emotions and handle stress, *c+ $he ability to solve problems o( a personal and interpersonal nature, and *d+ $he ability to maintain an optimistic disposition are signi(icantly related to physical health#

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In one o( the (irst studies that e;amined the relationship between E-I and psychological health, the EQ-i scores o( @1' psychiatric patients were compared with matched control groups in 8rgentina, Israel, -outh 8(rica and the ?nited -tates *!ar-Rn, 199%b+# In addition to signi(icant di((erences in overall E-I, the EQ-i scores revealed signi(icant di((erences on most o( the scales between the clinical samples and control groups#

In a more recent study, which included a sample o( =, 1@ males who completed the EQ-i at the time o( their induction into the Israeli De(ense <orces, I identi(ied 1 = recruits who were eventually discharged (or psychiatric reasons *=&&D+# I then randomly selected an additional group o( 1 = among =@1 who were diagnosed with less severe psychiatric disturbances that allowed them to continue their tour o( duty with relatively (ew limitations# $he EQ-i scores o( these two groups were compared with a randomly selected group o( 1 = recruits within the same population sample *n^=, 1@+ who did not receive a psychiatric pro(ile during the entire period o( their military service# $his created three groups representing three di((erent levels o( psychological health4

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*a+ Individuals who were so severely disturbed that they were incapable o( serving a (ull tour o( duty, *b+ Individuals who received less severe psychiatric pro(iles which allowed them to continue active military service until completion, and *c+ Individuals who completed their military service without having received a psychiatric pro(ile# 8 multiple regression analysis was applied to e;amine the degree o( impact o( E-I on psychological health5 the results revealed a moderate yet signi(icant relationship between the two# $he (indings (rom these studies suggest that the most power(ul E-I competencies, s"ills and (acilitators that impact psychological health are *a+ $he ability to manage emotions and cope with stress, *b+ $he drive to accomplish personal goals in order to actuali2e one:s inner potential and lead a more meaning(ul li(e, *c+ $he ability to veri(y (eelings and thin"ing#

$his particular constellation o( (indings ma"es sense, because de(iciencies in these speci(ic competencies may lead to an;iety *an inability to ade6uately manage emotions+, depression *an inability to accomplish personal goals and lead a more meaning(ul li(e+ and problems related to reality testing *an inability to ade6uately veri(y (eelings and thin"ing+ respectively# It is also compelling that such de(iciencies, in one (orm or another, are pathognomic (or most psychiatric disturbances *8merican ,sychiatric 8ssociation, 199@+5 and i( not directly pathogenic, they are most li"ely signi(icant contributors to these disturbances# 0oreover, tran6uili2ers, anti-depressants and neuroleptics *anti-psychotics+ represent three o( the (our ma3or classi(ications o( psychotropic drugs that have been traditionally administered (or treating these speci(ic disturbances *\aplan U -adoc", 1991+# $he (indings presented here compare 6uite (avorably with other E-I measures#

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Th) -)('%& !"h&1 5)%0))! %h) B'--O! $ 2)( '!2 " +&'( &!%)-'+%& !.
In addition to a number o( older studies that have indicated a signi(icant relationship between E-I and social interaction *!ar-Rn, 19'', 199%b, =&&&E, a recent e;amination o( an older dataset sheds new light on the nature o( this relationship# 7hen the EQ-i was normed in 1orth 8merica *!ar-Rn, 199%b+, DD participants in the normative sample completed the 1G,< in addition to the EQ-i# <actor ) on the 1G,< assesses the e;tent to which one see"s out (riendly, genial and positive relationships with others *>attell et al#, 19%&+# $his (actor was selected as the dependent variable, and the 1 EQ-i subscales were selected as the independent variables5 and the results o( applying a multiple regression analysis o( the data suggested that E-I, as conceptuali2ed by the !ar-Rn model, relates very signi(icantly with social interaction *#G9+# $his strongly indicates that E-I has a substantial impact on and can predict the nature o( interpersonal interaction# $hese (indings compare 6uite (avorable with those generated by other measures o( E-I#

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In contrast to a study conducted by 1ewsome et al# in =&&& that did not reveal a statistically signi(icant relationship between EQ-i scores and per(ormance at school, (our ma3or studies conducted on much larger samples in -outh 8(rica, >anada and the ?nited -tates *!ar-Rn, 199%b, =&&D5 ,ar"er et al#, =&&@5 -wart, 199G+ clearly indicate that such a relationship e;ists# 0oreover, these results con(irm that the !arRn model is capable o( identi(ying and predicting who will per(orm well at school and who will not#

In a path analysis conducted by /ames ,ar"er and his colleagues on GG% >anadian high school students *=&&@+, the overall degree o( correlation between E-I and scholastic per(ormance was (ound to be #@1 indicating a moderate yet statistically signi(icant relationship between them# $his means that at least 1%_ o( scholastic per(ormance is a (unction o( emotional-social intelligence in addition to cognitive intelligence# $hese (indings suggest that the !ar-Rn model is capable 146

o( identi(ying those students who will per(orm well and those who will e;perience problems#

<indings (rom a study conducted on @@' university students in -outh 8(rica indicated that there is a signi(icant di((erence in E-I between success(ul and unsuccess(ul students *-wart, 199G+# $hese results were con(irmed by an additional study conducted on 1,1= university students in the ?nited -tates, which was described by me in 199%# In both studies, the more success(ul students were (ound to be the more emotionally and socially intelligent# 0ore speci(ically, the ability to manage one:s emotions, to be able to validate one:s (eelings and to solve problems o( a personal and interpersonal nature are important (or being academically success(ul5 additionally, academic per(ormance appears to be (acilitated by being able to set personal goals as well as to be su((iciently optimistic and sel(-motivated to accomplish them#

0ore recently, >laude 0archessault e;amined the impact o( EQ-i scores on the grade point average *G,8+ o( 1&G (irst-year university students in an 8merican university *># 0archessault, personal communication (rom the % th o( /anuary =&& +# $he students completed the EQ-i in the beginning o( the academic year, and their G,8 was calculated during the middle o( the year# 0ultiple regression analysis revealed a correlation o( #@ , which once again con(irms a signi(icant relationship between E-I and per(ormance in school# $he students: EQ-i scores will be compared with their G,8 at the end o( the academic year as well, and the (indings will later be published#

$he importance o( developing and applying E-I per(ormance models in the school setting is that they will be help(ul in identi(ying students who are in need o( guided intervention# >omparing the students: EQ-i results with such per(ormance models will provide a scienti(ic way o( pinpointing their E-I strengths and wea"nesses# !ased on the results to date, the enhancement o( the wea"er E-I competencies and s"ills is e;pected to increase per(ormance at school#

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$he (indings presented here compare 6uite (avorably with those generated by other E-I measures#

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In si; studies that I and my colleagues have conducted, summari2ed and cited over the past (ew years *!ar-Rn, 199%b, =&&@5 !ar-Rn et al#, =&& 5 )andley, 199%5 Tuderman U !ar-Rn, =&&D+, the EQ-i has demonstrated that there is a signi(icant relationship between E-I and occupational per(ormance# In the (irst "nown study that directly e;amined the relationship between E-I and occupational per(ormance, the EQ-i scores o( 1,1%1 ?- 8ir <orce recruiters were compared with their ability to meet annual recruitment 6uotas *)andley, 199%5 !ar-Rn et al#, =&& +# !ased on ?-8< criteria, they were divided into those who were able to meet at least 1&&_ o( their annual 6uota *Ahigh per(ormersB+ and those who met less than '&_ *Alow per(ormersB+, representing a very robust method o( assessing occupational per(ormance# 8 discriminant (unction analysis indicated that EQ-i scores were able to (airly accurately identi(y high and low per(ormers, demonstrating that the relationship between E-I and occupational per(ormance is high *# D+ based on the sample studied# ,rior to 199G, it was costing the ?-8< appro;imately d D million (or an average 1&& mismatches a year# 8(ter one year o( combining pre-employment E-I screening with interviewing and comparing EQ-i scores with the model (or success(ul recruiters, they increased their ability to predict success(ul recruiters by nearly three(old, dramatically reduced (irst-year attrition due to mismatches and cut their (inancial loses by appro;imately 9=_# !ased on these results, the ?- General 8ccounting R((ice submitted a >ongressional Teport to the -enate >ommittee on 8rmed -ervices praising the ?-8<:s use o( E-I screening *?nited -tates General 8ccounting R((ice, 199'+#

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In two other studies, per(ormance in highly stress(ul and potentially dangerous occupations was studied by comparing EQ-i scores with e;ternally rated per(ormance (or a sample o( DD regular combat soldiers in the Israeli De(ense <orces *ID<+ and (or an additional sample o( =@& soldiers in an elite ID< unit *!ar-Rn et al#, =&& +# !oth studies clearly revealed a signi(icant relationship between E-I and this speci(ic type o( occupational per(ormance5 the predictive validity coe((icient in the (ormer study was # and # 1 in the latter#

In three additional studies described by me *!ar-Rn, =&&@5 !ar-Rn et al#, =&& +, leadership was studied by e;amining the relationship between EQ-i scores and peer-nomination in one study *i#e#, those considered to possess leadership capacity among new recruits in the ID<+, criterion group membership in another study *i#e#, ID< recruits who were accepted to o((icer training versus those who were not+ and multi rater evaluations in the third study which was conducted at the >enter (or >reative 9eadership in the ?- *i#e#, ratings on =1 di((erent leadership criteria made by an average o( seven to eight cowor"ers+# $he results indicated, respectively, that there is a moderate to high relationship between E-I and leadership based on the predictive validity coe((icients o( #D9 *n^ DG+, #@9 *n^9@&+ and #'= *n^=DG+ that were revealed# $he third study shows that success(ul leadership is based to large e;tent on emotional-social intelligence -- appro;imately two-thirds *G%_+ to be e;act#

$he average predictive validity coe((icient (or the si; studies described above is # @, meaning that nearly D&_ o( the variance o( occupational per(ormance is based on E-I as described by the !ar-Rn model# 7hen compared with 7agner:s e;tensive meta-analysis that revealed that cognitive intelligence accounts (or appro;imately G_ o( occupational per(ormance *199%+, the (indings presented here suggest that EQ accounts (or about (ive times more variance than IQ when e;plaining this type o( per(ormance# $he (indings indicate that high per(ormers in the wor"place have signi(icantly higher E-I than low per(ormers# It is interesting to note that in one o( the studies described above *!ar-Rn et al#, =&& +, the results suggest that the EQ-i was able to predict per(ormance 6uite well *# + even over a period o( 1' months#

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$he (indings described here suggest that the most power(ul E-I contributors to occupational per(ormance are4 *a+ $he ability to be aware o( and accept onesel(5 *b+ $he ability to be aware o( others: (eelings, concerns and needs5 *c+ $he ability to manage emotions5 *d+ $he ability to be realistic and put things in correct perspective5 and *e+ $he ability to have a positive disposition# !ased on the (indings presented here, the EQ-i compares 6uite (avorable with other E-I measures in predicting occupational per(ormance#

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-el(-actuali2ation is the process o( striving to actuali2e one:s potential capacity, abilities and talents# It re6uires the ability and drive to set and achieve goals, and it is characteri2ed by being involved in and (eeling committed to various interests and pursuits# -el(-actuali2ation is thought to be a li(e-long e((ort leading to an enriched and meaning(ul li(e# It is not merely per(ormance but an attempt to do one:s best# In a ree;amination o( an older dataset used in my doctoral research *19''+, I recently ran a multiple regression analysis to study the impact o( E-I competencies, s"ills and (acilitators on sel(-actuali2ation# 8 subset o( G% -outh 8(rican university students were identi(ied within the dataset who concomitantly completed an earlier version o( the EQ-i and the ,ersonal Rrientation Inventory *-hostrom, 19%@+ which is a popularly used measure o( sel(-actuali2ation# $he I -cale, which captures ' _ o( the ,RI:s items, was designated the dependent variable while the EQ-i subscale scores were identi(ied as the independent variables# $he results indicated that E-I signi(icantly impacts sel(-actuali2ation *#G@+# $hree additional studies have also e;amined this relationship *!ar-Rn, =&&1+# 9arge samples were studied in the 1etherlands *n^1,GD9+, 150

Israel *n^=,%&=+ and 1orth 8merica *n^D,'D1+# $he results (rom these studies con(irm the -outh 8(rican study indicating that E-I strongly impacts sel(-actuali2ation with multiple regression correlations reaching #%', #% and #'& (or the Dutch, Israeli and 8merican samples respectively# It is e6ually interesting to note that the relationship between cognitive intelligence and sel(-actuali2ation (or the Israeli sample *#&=+ and the Dutch sample *#&'+ was not statistically signi(icant *!ar-Rn, =&&1+# $his means that it is emotional-social intelligence much more than cognitive intelligence that in(luences one:s ability to do one:s best, to accomplish goals and to actuali2e one:s potential to its (ullest# Evidently a high IQ does not guarantee that one will actuali2e one:s potential, but a high EQ is de(initely more important in this respect#

8 very similar model sur(aced in each o( the above-mentioned studies regarding the ability o( E-I to predict sel(-actuali2ation# In addition to being su((iciently motivated to set and accomplish personal goals, sel(actuali2ation depends, (irst and (oremost, on a deep sense o( sel(awareness and understanding o( who one is, what one wants to do, can do and en3oys doing# -el(-actuali2ation also depends upon good problem solving (or ma"ing sound independent decisions regarding what one wants to do, and then being assertive enough to (ollow through with these personal decisions# 8dditionally, one must be optimistic and positive to more (ully actuali2e one:s potential and lead a more meaning(ul li(e based on the (indings o( these studies#

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In a recent study *!ar-Rn, =&& +, it has been demonstrated that E-I, as conceptuali2ed by the !ar-Rn model, also impacts sub3ective wellbeing# 7ell-being was de(ined in this study as a sub3ective state that emerges (rom a (eeling o( satis(action *a+ 7ith one:s physical health and onesel( as a person, *b+ 7ith one:s close interpersonal relationships, and

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*c+ 7ith one:s occupation and (inancial situation# 8 measure o( sub3ective well-being was constructed (rom nine 6uestions that directly tap these three areas# Rn a large 1orth 8merican sample *n^D, %1+, the relationship between E-I and wellbeing was e;amined with multiple regression analysis# $he results indicate that the two constructs are highly correlated *#%G+# !ased on the (our highest E-I predictors o( well-being, it appears that the (ollowing competencies, s"ills and (acilitators contribute the most to this sub3ective state4 *a+ $he ability to understand and accept one:s emotions and onesel(, *b+ $he ability to strive to set and achieve personal goals to enhance one:s potential, and *c+ $he ability to veri(y one:s (eelings and put things in their correct perspective# $hese (indings are substantially higher than those generated by other E-I measures# $he (indings presented here suggest that the !ar-Rn model is a better predictor o( human per(ormance than the other e;isting models, especially when compared with the Aability modelB as some have assumed was the case *0atthews et al#, =&&=+# It also appears to predict a wider range o( per(ormance than the other E-I models based on the current literature *e#g#, Geher, =&&@+#

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8(ter demonstrating that the !ar-Rn model o( E-I signi(icantly impacts various aspects o( human per(ormance, it is logical to as" i( emotionally and socially intelligent behavior can be enhanced in order to improve per(ormance as well as sel(-actuali2ation and sub3ective well-being# $o address this 6uestion empirically, the (indings (rom (our studies are brie(ly summari2ed below to show that emotionally and socially intelligent behavior can be enhanced in school, the wor"place and in the clinical setting#

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Rver the past (ew years, children in a growing number o( schools throughout the ?nited -tates have been introduced to the A-el(-cienceB curriculum that was developed by \aren -tone-0c>own and her colleagues @& years ago *199'+# In light o( the (act that this pro3ect is ongoing and the results are still being analy2ed, I would li"e to (ocus on one o( the most success(ul e;amples that have sur(aced to date which reveals the potential o( this endeavor# $he speci(ic e;ample is a % th grade class o( =G children whose average age was 1= years at the time o( the study *<reedman, =&&D+# $hey were tested with the youth version o( the EQ-i *the EQ-i4.Q+ in the beginning o( the school year =&&=-=&&D and again at the end o( the school year# 8 comparison o( the pre- and post-intervention assessments suggests that the children:s emotional-social intelligence increased signi(icantly a(ter receiving one year o( this E-I-enriching curriculum# 8t the end o( the year, the children were better able to understand and e;press themselves, understand and relate with others, manage and control their emotions, and adapt to their immediate environment at school#

$hese signi(icant changes suggest that this and similar educational programs can ma"e a di((erence and that the !ar-Rn model can accurately monitor and measure these changes# 7hat needs to be done in such studies in the (uture is to e;amine pre- and postintervention behavioral parameters to see i( positive changes have occurred such as better school attendance, higher scholastic per(ormance, less violence, (ewer incidents o( drug abuse and teen pregnancy, and so (orth# Rne o( the most interesting studies which demonstrates that emotionally and socially intelligent behavior can be enhanced in adults was conducted by -3ilund and Gusta(sson in -weden *=&&1+# $hey compared the EQ-i scores o( =9 individuals be(ore and a(ter they participated in a wor"shop designed to increase managerial s"ills# 8t the time the wor"shop was conducted in =&&&, most o( the participants were in their early @&s and had appro;imately 1 years o( managerial e;perience# 8mong other s"ills, they were taught techni6ues designed to strengthen E-I competencies thought to be important (or their wor" as managers5 and these speci(ic competencies and s"ills were those described in the !ar-Rn model# 1ot only did their total EQ score increase (rom a mean o( 9% to 1&G *p-level`#&&&+, but 9 out o( the 1 EQ-i subscales increased signi(icantly as well# $he two E-I competencies which increased the most as a result their participation in the wor"shop were emotional sel(-awareness and empathy, which 153

many consider to be the two most important components o( emotionalsocial intelligence# 8nother interesting outcome was that those participants who began the wor"shop with the lowest EQ-i scores were the ones who made the most progress# \ate >annon, who developed this program, con(irmed similar (indings based on her e;perience in conducting these wor"shops in the ?nited -tates *!ar-Rn, =&&D+# $his is particularly important and encouraging, because the people with the lowest EQ scores are the ones who need to improve their E-I competencies the most# 8t a c on(erence on emotional intelligence held in 1ova -cotia in =&&D, Geetu Rrme presented (indings (rom the individual coaching she has been providing to corporate e;ecutives in the ?\ since 1999# -he assessed @% e;ecutives with the EQ-i be(ore she began coaching them and then a number o( months (ollowing the completion o( the wee"ly sessions that were provided# )er coaching was based on strengthening the wea"er E-I (actors that were identi(ied by their EQ-i scores# $he (ive EQ-i subscale scores that revealed the most signi(icant changes were the (ollowing4 -el(-Tegard *'% to 9 +, -el(-8ctuali2ation *9= to 1&=+, -tress $olerance *9% to 1&=+, Teality-$esting *9% to 1&9+ and )appiness *9D to 1&&+# In addition to the classroom and wor"place, there is also evidence that E-I competencies and s"ills can be enhanced in the clinical setting# ?sing an earlier version o( the EQ-i, a graduate student at the ?niversity o( ,retoria tested a group o( ' patients who were hospitali2ed (or myocardial in(arct *Dun"ley, 199G+# -ubse6uent to being tested, == o( these patients were randomly selected to participate in a stress management program# $he program included instructions on how to better identi(y sources o( stress in their lives and to apply more e((ective ways to cope with these situations# $he EQ-i was administered a second time (ive wee"s a(ter completing this program# In addition to signi(icant changes in the total EQ score *9= versus 1&=, t-value^- #@%, p-level^#&&&+, nine o( the subscale scores revealed statistically signi(icant changes# $a"ing into consideration the primary purpose o( this stress management program, it is not surprising that the E-I competency that changed the most as a result o( this training was -tress $olerance *the ability to manage emotions+5 this is even more important when one considers that stress is considered to be one o( the ma3or psychosocial (actors that impact cardiovascular disturbances such as myocardial in(arct# 0ost o( the EQi scores (or the patients who participated in the stress management program were signi(icantly higher than the scores obtained by those who did not participate in the program# 154

$he results (rom these studies suggest that the E-I (actors described by the !ar-Rn model are both teachable and learnable, and that these (actors can be enhanced by relatively simple didactic methods over a relatively short period o( time#

D&"+/""& !
$he (indings presented in this article have shown that emotional-social intelligence, as conceptuali2ed by the !ar-Rn model, is a multi-(actorial array o( interrelated emotional and social competencies, s"ills and (acilitators that in(luence one:s ability to recogni2e, understand and manage emotions, to relate with others, to adapt to change and solve problems o( a personal and interpersonal nature, and to e((iciently cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures# It has also been shown that the development o( this model has been rigorous, and that the outcome o( this process has produced a valid concept and measure o( E-I# 1ot only is this model consistent and stable over time and across cultures, but it is also capable o( describing the construct it was designed to describe *emotional-social intelligence+# $he importance and use(ulness o( !ar-Rn model has also been demonstrated by e;amining its ability to predict various aspects o( human behavior and per(ormance# <urthermore, showing that the concept is both teachable and learnable and that the E-I (actors involved can be enhanced underscores the importance and use(ulness o( this model# $he studies presented need to be replicated in more diverse settings# It is important to continue to study this model in order to learn how best to apply it at home, school and wor"# <uture studies should use a wide variety o( methods to e;amine the relationship between the !ar-Rn model and an even wider variety o( human per(ormance# In light o( the (act that all o( the studies presented were cross-sectional moreover, (uture research should also attempt to longitudinally e;amine this model and its ability to describe E-I and predict human per(ormance over time5 and it was e;plained that such a study is presently underway# It is particularly important to continue to e;amine E-I and its predictive validity across cultures in an e((ort to better evaluate its applicability in parenting, education, wor" and healthcare worldwide# )ope(ully, this model and the (indings it has generated will more routinely ma"e their way into the home, school and wor"place# ,arents and educators can bene(it (rom this by raising and educating children to be more emotionally and socially intelligent, e((ective and productive (rom an early age onward# )uman resources personnel in 155

organi2ations could also ma"e more widespread use o( this model and measure in hiring, training and succession planning in order to increase individual e((ectiveness and organi2ational productivity# <urthermore, healthcare practitioners could bene(it (rom (ocusing on the abovementioned E-I components o( the !ar-Rn model in diagnostic, remedial and preventive wor"# -uch an approach could be used in mapping out those E-I areas that need to be enhanced in order to increase individual e((ectiveness, sel(-actuali2ation and general well-being# Rne particular E-I model, no matter how valid, robust and viable it might be, describes only a limited view o( the individual:s capacity (or emotionally and socially intelligent behavior# In order to provide a more complete and comprehensive description o( the capacity (or this type o( behavior, we should consider creating an e;panded model that incorporates the best conceptual and psychometric aspects o( e;isting E-I models# 8s such, a (uture challenge in this (ield is to e;plore how best to create a multi-dimensional model that captures both the potential *or ability+ (or emotionally and socially intelligent behavior as well as a sel(-report and multi-rater assessment o( this type o( behavior# Rur ability to more (ully describe E-I will be incomplete until we succeed in creating such a multi-dimensional and multi-modal approach# !y applying an e;panded model o( E-I, we will eventually be more e((ective in mapping out this construct, evaluating its importance and understanding how best to apply it# Encouraging such an approach is also the best way to discourage the proli(eration o( ungrounded theori2ing that abets misconceptions and (alse claims o( what emotional-social intelligence is and is not and what it can and cannot predict#

APPENDIR
$he EQ-i -cales and 7hat $hey 8ssess E,-& SCALES Th) EI C $1)%)!+&)" '!2 S?&((" A"")"")2 5. E'+h S+'() -el(-awareness and sel(-e;pression4 To accurately percei$e, understand and accept oneself! -el(- To #e aware of and understand one5s emotions!

Intrapersonal -el(-Tegard Emotional 8wareness

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8ssertiveness Independence -el(-8ctuali2ation

To effecti$ely and constructi$ely e'press one5s emotions and oneself! To #e self*reliant and dependency on others! free of emotional

To stri$e to achie$e personal goals and actuali6e one5s potential! -ocial awareness and interpersonal relationship4 To #e aware of and understand how others feel!

Interpersonal Empathy

-ocial Tesponsibility To identify with one5s social group and cooperate with others! Interpersonal Telationship To esta#lish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with others!

-tress 0anagement Emotional management and regulation: -tress $olerance Impulse >ontrol 8daptability Teality-$esting <le;ibility ,roblem--olving To effecti$ely emotions! and constructi$ely manage

To effecti$ely and constructi$ely control emotions! >hange management4 To o#7ecti$ely $alidate one5s feelings and thinking with e'ternal reality! To adapt and ad7ust one5s feelings and thinking to new situations! To effecti$ely sol$e pro#lems of a personal and interpersonal nature! -el(-motivation: To #e positi$e and look at the #righter side of life! To feel content with oneself, others and life in general!

General 0ood Rptimism )appiness

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