Research in Science & Technological Education Vol. 23, No. 1, May 2005, pp.

7597

Evaporation in different liquids: secondary students conceptions

Bayram Co stu* and Alipa sa Ayas
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Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey

Research 10.1080/02635140500068476 CRST106830.sgm 0263-5143 Original Taylor 2005 0 1 23 Karadeniz BayramCo[scedil]tu +90 bayramcostu@yahoo.com, 00000May (454) & and Article in Francis 215 Technical (print)/1470-1138 Francis Science 2005 53 Group 74 75 Ltd & University Technological Ltd ayas@ktu.edu.tr (online) Faculty Education of Education at GiresunDepartment of Primary Science Education28200, GiresunTurkey

This study explores secondary school students understanding of evaporation and investigates whether students associate the concept of evaporation with only water as a liquid. An open-ended written test was developed using three different words (water, liquid or alcohol) to state the question phrases. The test was implemented on a sample of 313 students at different levels of schooling. Clinical interviews, in which ethyl alcohol was used as an example of liquids, were also undertaken with 12 students, either individually or as a group. From the collected data, it was found that most of the students at different levels lack understanding of the concept and have several misconceptions. Various misconceptions of the evaporation concept that differ from those cited in the related literature were determined. The most important result was that students written responses showed some specific misconceptions when they were presented with the questions using three different words; liquid, water and alcohol.

Introduction Recent studies of students understanding indicate that students do not grasp some of the fundamental ideas that form the basis of science. Some studies carried out over the last couple of decades (Pope & Gilbert, 1983; Nakhleh 1992; Palmer, 1999; Fleer, 1999; Palmer, 2001; Cos tu et al., 2004; alik et al., 2005; Calik & Ayas, 2005a, 2005b) have shown that students come to science classes with alternative theories and notions about the natural world around them. General findings of the research (Driver & Erickson, 1983; Gilbert & Watts, 1983; Hewson & Hewson, 1984; Fensham, 1988) point out that there are two important aspects to be taken into account by teachers and curriculum developers as effective ways of teaching science to overcome these alternative theories (Doran, 1972; Osborne & Freyberg, 1996; Schoon & Boone, 1998). The first is that the theories and notions are strongly held by the students. The second is that they are generally different from those accepted by the scientific community (Gilbert et al., 1982; Pope & Gilbert, 1983;
* Corresponding author. Karadeniz Technical University, Giresun Faculty of Education, Department of Primary Science Education, 28200, Giresun, Turkey. Email: bayramcostu@yahoo.com ISSN 0263-5143 (print)/ISSN 1470-1138 (online)/05/01007523 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd DOI: 10.1080/02635140500068476

76 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas Hewson & Hewson, 1984; Treagust, 1988). The students ideas in the literature have been identified with different terms, such as misconceptions, preconceptions, alternative frameworks, childrens science, naive conceptions and so forth. We prefer to use the term misconception. Whatever name is given, these are the earlier conceptions held by students. For better learning and understanding of scientific concepts, it has been advised by several researchers that the students earlier conceptions should be taken into account at all stages of instruction (Smith et al., 1993; Tyson & Treagust, 1999). Evaporation is one of the fundamental concepts of science taught from the primary school onwards. An understanding of this concept is a prerequisite for many science concepts taught in the later stages of schooling. Both primary and secondary curricula aim to represent this topic for students. Osborne and Cosgrove (1983) stated that understanding of the change of states (evaporation, boiling, condensation, freezing etc.) is necessary to grasp many aspects of chemistry, physics, earth sciences and biology. Moreover, this phenomenon is not only related to our daily life but also provides an important basis on which to understand the cycle of matter, the conservation of matter, the particulate model, attraction forces between particles and kinetic gas theory (Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Andersson, 1990; Stavy, 1990a; Chang, 1999; Ayas & Co stu, 2002). For these reasons, determining students misconceptions and levels of understanding concerning evaporation becomes an important stage in developing new teaching techniques to overcome such misconceptions. Students misconceptions must be taking into account seriously by educators while designing appropriate learning environments (Doran, 1972; Schoon & Boone; 1998). The purpose of this study is to explore secondary school (lyce) students understanding of evaporation. Furthermore, this study attempts to find out whether students associate the concept of evaporation with water as a liquid.
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Rationale There are a large number of studies in physical sciences which show that students have difficulties in understanding many scientific concepts (Driver & Easley, 1978; Gilbert & Watts, 1983; de Vos & Verdonk, 1996; Ebenezer & Erickson, 1996; Ayas & s, 1997). Among the physical sciences, chemistry is the one in which studies Demirba concerning students understanding of concepts have been undertaken. A considerable amount of constructivist research has also focused on identifying common misconceptions in a variety of subject areas. Evaporation is one of the concepts on which a number of studies have been carried out upon the different educational stages of students (Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Beveridge, 1985; Bar, 1989; Russell et al., 1989; Kruger & Summers, 1989; Bar & Travis, 1991; You & Schallert, 1992; Lee et al., 1993; Bar & Gaglili, 1994; Johnson, 1998; Chang, 1999; Tytler, 2000; stu, 2002; Paik et al., 2004). Goodwin, 2000; Valanides, 2000; Ayas & Co Previous research in this area has pointed to several key ideas about state changes. Firstly, it has been explained that students do not use particle ideas consistently to explain changes and, if these are expressed, they are frequently incorrect. Secondly,
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Evaporation in different liquids 77 students find it hard to grasp the reversibility of the state changes, thinking of each process (evaporation, condensation, boiling, melting and freezing) as a separate stu, 2002) is it explained that phenomenon. Finally, in only one study (Ayas & Co although students may be able to give scientifically correct ideas about the behaviour of water and water solutions, they cannot apply reasoning to other substances. This result suggests that rather than having learned and understood state changes in general, they have learned only about the state changes of water. stu, 2002) students conceptions were considered With one exception (Ayas & Co to some extent in these studies. They commonly used liquid water as a sample in the probing instruments, e.g., open-ended tests, multiple-choice tests, paperpencil tests, interviews and tasks. For example, Osborne and Cosgrove (1983) used clinical interviews and a written test technique in order to determine conceptual development of students between the ages of 8 and 17, concerning evaporation and boiling of water and condensation of its vapour. They used a series of events with water to probe students understanding. Similarly, the other studies used water as a liquid in the research instruments. Moreover, these studies have quite similar findings about students misconceptions of evaporation in water and water solutions. What about the other liquids? Is students understanding limited only to water or water solutions? This study aims at extending the current status of our knowledge and understanding of this topic among students at different stages of secondary schooling. Our research differs from related studies about evaporation in respect to the probing instrument used and the results. Test questions including three different words as an example of the term liquid (water, liquid or alcohol) and interview tasks using pure alcohol as a liquid (like water in appearance) were set up in order to find out whether students associated the concept of evaporation with water as a liquid. These treatments enabled us to examine how using different liquids can affect students understanding of the evaporation concept.
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Method In this study, a case study research methodology was used to elicit students understanding about evaporation. This methodology provides opportunities to employ a wide variety of techniques for in-depth investigation (Bell, 1987; Merriam, 1988). In this methodology, a test and clinical interview techniques (known as interviews about events) were used (Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983). The instruments and the sample for each instrument together with the analysis of data are described below. The test The test consisting of four open-ended test items was prepared using three different words as an example of the term liquid (water, liquid or alcohol) in order to investigate whether students conceptions of evaporation are limited to only water or water solutions. We sought to answer the following questions with the test:

78 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas

Table 1. Open-ended test items 1 2 3 4 Specication of the open-ended written test items The topic of the questions Evaporation in an open system Evaporation and condensation in a closed system Absorbing heat from environment during evaporation Evaporation in an open system in referent to temperature

What are the students levels of understanding and misconceptions about evaporation? Are the students able to explain novel situations in everyday life, which require them to apply, analyse or synthesise the knowledge they have acquired? Are the students able to determine whether evaporation is limited to only water/ water solutions?

Two of the test items (1 and 2) were taken from the literature (Chang, 1999). The others were developed by the researchers. Table 1 shows the test items. Three types of the test were prepared as type 1 (test items including the word water as a liquid), type 2 (test items including the word alcohol as a liquid) and type 3 (test items including the word any liquid except for water and alcohol as a liquid). The same number of question papers including different types of question items were mixed and then randomly handed out to the students. The open-ended written test was administered to a sample of 313 students, consisting of 107 lyce 1, 116 lyce 2 and 90 lyce 3, across three grade levels at secondary stage. The students were randomly selected from three general lyces. Table 2 shows the sample for each type of the test. The following steps secured the test validity and reliability. Firstly, we wrote test items and then invited a group consisting of two scholars from the physical chemistry department, one associate professor from

Table 2.

The study sample in the test

Number of students answering three different tests Level of students Lyce 1 Lyce 2 Lyce 3 type 1* 31 41 33 type 2* 31 37 36 type 3* 45 38 21 Total number of students 107 116 90

Type 1*: Test items contain the word water Type 2*: Test items contain the word liquid or water with detergent (Question 4) Type 3*: Test items contain the word alcohol or bleach (Question 4)

Evaporation in different liquids 79 chemistry education and three experienced chemistry teachers, to check and revise the test. Afterwards, the test was piloted with 30 students from lyce 1 since they were at the lowest stage. Finally, based on the pilot results, some revisions were made to the questions. These processes should help to increase validity and reliability of the test. Students understanding of the concept of evaporation was evaluated in the scheme listed in Table 3. Several researchers (Abraham et al.,1992; Abraham et al., 1994) used a different scale in order to determine the level of students understanding. A similar scale with a few adjustments was used in this study. In addition, students answers to the question paper (types 2 and 3) were examined in detail in order to determine whether or not understanding of evaporation is limited to only water or water solutions. The interview Clinical interviews were used to provide an in-depth understanding of students conceptions and to validate the scoring of the test. This also answered the question Are the students able to determine whether evaporation is limited to only water or water solutions, would it occur in other liquids? Students were interviewed by using pure alcohol as a liquid (a liquid like water as it is colourless) as the example liquid. In the clinical interview technique, the situations were presented to the students either through an experiment or by depicting them on cards (Pope & Gilbert, 1983). However, we used a clinical interview where the students were given first-hand experiences to discuss with the interviewer. The interview sequence involved a range of phenomena associated with evaporation. This method has been used by several researchers to investigate students views (Gilbert et al., 1982; Schollum, 1982; Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983). The interview sequence consisted of: 1. an introduction (putting students at ease); 2. showing actual events associated with evaporation (a series of events were shown to student(s) either individually or as a group. For each event and changes, a number of questions were asked to the interviewee(s)); and
Table 3. The criteria for the classication of students responses in the test questions Criteria for the classification of student responses Responses that include all components of the scientifically accepted ideas Responses that include at least one of the components of the acceptable ideas and that show understanding of concepts but that may also contain a kind of misconception. Responses that include descriptive, incorrect or illogical information. Repeats a part of, or full question; irrelevant or uncodable responses. I dont understand No answer; I dont know; I have no idea

Level of understanding Sound understanding Partial understanding

Specific misconception No understanding No response

80 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas 3. collecting students responses about each question (organised especially in group interviews, since in the group interviews the students might give different responses). The interviews were undertaken with 12 volunteer students, either individually (three individual interviews) or as a group (three groups with three students in each), and lasted for about 3045 minutes each. Group interviews were carried out in order to promote discussion where there was disagreement on the correct answer. All interview sessions were recorded on tape with the consent of the subjects and subsequently transcribed. Interviewees were selected by their teachers among students who state their beliefs, opinions and views freely and who willingly participate in group work and discussions. Data collected from the interviews were analysed by putting students responses into categories (Merriam, 1988; Yin, 1994; Gabel et al., 2001). To assess students explanations in the interview questions, a three-item criterion was used. These criteria are shown in Table 4. The test results The results from the open-ended test items are shown in Table 5. Since one of the main aims of this study was to determine students misconceptions about evaporation, their explanations were examined in detail, especially in two categories: Specific Misconceptions and Partial Understanding. Question 1. A clear plastic glass, filled with water (liquid or alcohol) is exposed to the sun light in front of a window. It is left there for several days. What will happen after several days? Please explain. This question about evaporation in an open system requires the students to use the following two propositions:

evaporation occurs in all temperatures; evaporation occurs not only in water but also in other liquids.

As seen from Table 5, percentages of the students at lyce 1, 2 and 3 who gave responses in sound understanding category were 17%, 20% and 41% respectively. For example, students responses were that:
Table 4. The criteria for the classication of students responses in the interview questions Criteria for the classification of student responses Responses that include all components or some of the scientifically accepted responses Responses that include descriptive, incorrect or illogical information No answer; I dont know; I have no idea

Level of understanding

Sound understanding Specific misconception No response

Evaporation in different liquids 81

Table 5. Percentages of the students who gave responses in different categories of understanding

Sound Partial Specific No No Question Level of Understanding Understanding Misconception Understanding Response Number students (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Lyce 1 Lyce 2 Lyce 3 Lyce 1 Lyce 2 Lyce 3 Lyce 1 Lyce 2 Lyce 3 Lyce 1 Lyce 2 Lyce 3 17 20 41 2 10 24 0 6 35 22 41 43 45 53 38 10 34 21 8 12 10 18 40 29 19 7 11 25 16 8 24 22 14 24 6 14 3 11 1 9 7 7 12 17 7 0 3 0 16 9 9 54 33 40 56 43 34 36 10 14

Liquid molecules in the glass gradually vaporize. Thus, water [liquid or alcohol] diminishes and eventually runs out.

A few students at lyce 1 and 2 for type 2 or 3 tests used the word of water instead of liquid and alcohol. This situation wasnt observed in the students responses at lyce 3. The percentages of the students responses in partial understanding category were 45%, 53% and 38% respectively. Students at all three levels stated that the amount of water (liquid or alcohol) gradually diminishes, but couldnt give satisfactory explanations. Moreover, some students gave responses that show an understanding of the concept but also made statements that demonstrate some type of misconceptions. For example, a few students at lyce 1 stated that:
liquid diminishes with changes in air temperature and pressure evaporation happens and the amount of water [liquid or alcohol] decreases with the effect of heat exposed on the glass. Evaporation does not take place without effect of heat, [does not explain that evaporation occurs over a temperature range]

The results show that the students at lyce 2 had the highest percentage in partial understanding (53%; see Table 5). Some explanations given by the students at lyce 2 were:
alcohol disappears because it is a volatile liquid Since boiling point of alcohol is low, it vaporizes.

The students at lyce 3 whose percentages in this category were the lowest (38%) gave responses such as:
Because heat in the glass is different from the heat in the air, thus liquid vaporizes.

82 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas The percentages of the students responses in specific misconception category were 19%, 7% and 11% respectively. As seen in Table 5, the percentages of the students in this category at lyce 1 were the highest (19%). Many reasons for this phenomenon were mentioned by students at different levels. Some of these included:
since the glass is not covered, acids in the alcohol vaporize. For this reason, the amount of alcohol diminishes. because water in the glass is boiling, the amount of water diminishes liquid in the glass breaks into many tiny particles of liquid and deforms

While some of the students stated that:

water molecules in the alcohol vaporize with the effect of the sunlight.

Due to the fact that three different words were used in the test, the students at all three levels sometimes used water instead of alcohol or liquid in answering the questions. Furthermore, they gave answers that were bizarre and implied that evaporation must occur only in water or water solutions in these types of the test. For example, they answered this question using such statements as:
Because glass is not covered, air of alcohol volatilized. Therefore, the amount of alcohol diminishes alcohol is a volatile liquid. If it is left undisturbed for several days, its properties of it are lost and the amount of it diminishes. the amount of the alcohol diminishes, because water in the alcohol vaporizes. since the glass is not covered, acids in the alcohol vaporize. For this reason, the amount of alcohol diminishes. liquid in the glass breaks into many tiny particles of liquid and deforms

Question 2. A tightly capped clear plastic bottle filled with a small amount of water (liquid or alcohol) is kept indoors for a few days. Many tiny water (liquid or alcohol) droplets appeared on the inner surface of the bottle. How does this phenomenon take place? Please explain. This question requires the students to use the proposition that evaporation and condensation may occur in a closed system. While 24 % (the highest) of the students at lyce 3 gave acceptable answers for this question, percentages at the other levels were lower. Percentages of students responses categorised under partial understanding were 10%, 34% and 21% respectively. Students responses in this category included:
droplets are formed by vaporization of water (liquid or alcohol) in the bottle. droplets are formed because of condensation

In these responses, students stated that this phenomenon occurs because of evaporation and condensation; however, they could not explain how these processes take place. Some students answered type 3 with explanation such as:
evaporation takes place in the bottle. Water vapours stuck to inner surface of the bottle and are gradually turned into water [not alcohol]

Evaporation in different liquids 83 Similarly, one student in type 2 stated that:

by vaporizing, liquid in the bottle condenses as a form of water vapour [not liquid]

The percentages of the students responses classified in the specific misconception category were 25%, 16% and 8% respectively. Students responses in this category included:
droplets are observed in the inner surface of bottle because of the air in the bottle air in the bottle gets a little of water condensed since cover of the bottle is closed, air in the bottle becomes damp because of the pressure done by water to the glass, evaporation occurs. Therefore, many tiny droplets were observed on the inner surface of the bottle.

The majority of the students under investigation gave no response for this question (54%, 33% and 40% respectively). Question 3. Once the floors in a school corridor have been wiped with water (water with detergent or bleach) you can feel coldness. Why does this event happen? Please explain. This question requires the students to use knowledge of particles during vaporisation take heat from the environment and thus temperature of environment falls. The percentages of the students responses labelled in the sound understanding category were 0%, 6% and 35% respectively (Table 5). The percentages of the students at each level in the partial understanding category were 8%, 12% and 10% respectively. Some students responses in this category were that:
water (liquid) vaporizes, and becomes water (liquid) vapour, thus coldness is felt in there.

Students responses in the specific misconception category were that:

because cold water is in contact with the warm floor, coldness is felt because of condensation of the water, coldness is felt coldness occurs, for the chemicals in the detergent interact with the water vapour since the vaporized water is cold, we feel coldness in there .. since heat penetrates into the water, coldness is felt

Most of the students under investigation (56%, 43% and 34% respectively) gave no response to this question. Question 4. There are three identical beakers filled with the same amount of water (liquid or alcohol). They are left for two days. Draw the water (liquid, alcohol) levels in these beakers after the two days. Please make a brief explanation with your reasons.
A B C

0 C

30 C

70 C

84 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas This question, in an open system, requires the students to use following two propositions:

evaporation occurs at all temperatures; when the temperature is increased, evaporation rate increases.

As shown in Table 5, percentages of the students responses included in the sound understanding category were 22%, 41% and 43% respectively. While students at lycee 2 and 3 have almost the same percentages, students at lyce 1 have the lowest. The percentages of students responses categorised under partial understanding were 18%, 40% and 29% respectively. In the students drawings, water (liquid or alcohol) levels were shown correctly, but they could not provide explanations for their drawings. Some explanations of the students in this category were that:
since liquid of the beaker whose temperature is highest is boiling, evaporation occurs in this beaker. Therefore, liquid level falls. liquid in the beaker whose temperature close to boiling point vaporizes easily. liquid in the beaker whose temperature is highest boils. Thus, evaporation occurs and the liquid level falls.

One student drew the liquid level correctly, but his explanation was that:
water in the alcohol, beaker A, vaporizes at the highest rate [not alcohol]

The explanation of one student at lyce 3 was that:

firstly, water in the beaker A melts and then vaporizes by the effect of the heat. Between water in the other beakers (B, C), water level whose temperature is higher decreases very much.

The percentages of the students responses labelled under specific misconception were 24%, 6% and 14% respectively. Many students drawings in this category showed that the level of the liquid in beaker A remained the same and the level of liquid in other beakers fell. Some explanations given by the students in this category were:
when the temperature of the liquid is increased, evaporation rate increases. However, water (liquid or alcohol) in the beaker A remains the same liquid in the beaker A remains the same because temperature of this cap is at 0C since content of the beaker A is in solid form, amount of the matter in this beaker remains the same. Amount of the liquid in the other beakers diminishes water in the beaker A freezes. Evaporation takes place in the other beakers.

Some students drawings indicated that the amount of water (liquid or alcohol) in each beaker decreases equally. They gave following explanations for their drawings:
since same amount of the liquid vaporizes, levels of the liquids in each beakers stays the same the same amount of liquid vaporizes by the effect of the sunlight since there is identical liquid in the beakers, level of the liquid in each beakers is the same.

Evaporation in different liquids 85 Some students also gave such explanations as:
since the temperature of the liquid in the beaker C is the highest, it takes at the least rate of heat from the surrounding. Therefore, very little liquid in this beaker vaporizes. Because of the lowest temperature, liquid in beaker A takes heat at the greatest rate from the air. So, a great amount of liquid vaporizes.

Interview results Data from the interviews are presented and abbreviations are used to identify the interviewed students. The abbreviations used are as follows: A: Interviewer B: Individual interview G: Group interview I: Lyce 1 II: Lyce 2 III: Lyce 3 For example, GII.3 stands for the third student at lyce 2 in the group interview. At the beginning of the interviews, the interviewer poured 50 cm3 of ethyl alcohol into a beaker and then measured the temperature of the liquid, which ranged from 19 to 22C. Students observed these steps and were asked the first three questions about evaporation given in Table 6. Questions about evaporation asked during the interviews and numbers of the students who gave responses are shown in some detail in the Table 6. As seen in Table 6, only two students from lyce 1 and 2 showed sound understanding; the others gave responses within the specific misconception category. However, all the students at lyce 3 had sound understanding. Students who gave responses that fell within the sound understanding category explained that evaporation occurs at all temperatures. Students responses labelled under the specific misconception category claimed that heating is necessary for liquid to vaporise. An excerpt from the interviews is given as an example of this.
A: GI.2, GI.4: GI.3: GI.4: A: GI.3: A: GI.3: A: GI.3: GI.2: GI.4: Does evaporation in the alcohol occur at 20C? No, evaporation doesnt occur. Yes, evaporation occurs in all temperatures. No. If evaporation occurred at the moment, we could observe it. Why? Because, [pause] maybe, it doesnt occur. Because water needs heating. Is it water? Umm Is the alcohol pure? Yes. Alcohol is pure. No, pardon. Alcohol needs to be heated. if the temperature of the liquid was higher than 20C, evaporation would occur. Because, boiling doesnt occur at this temperature. Temperature of 20C is its natural heat. If temperature of the liquid was at 0C and we increased the temperature at 20C, evaporation would occur. At the moment, it doesnt occur, since 20C is alcohols own heat.

86 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas

Table 6. Interview questions and number of students who gave responses in the three categories Sound Understanding Interview Questions 1. Does evaporation occur (1922C). Why? 2. How do you explain the process of evaporation using particulate nature of matter? 3. Would alcohol evaporate if it was at 0C? Why? 4. How does rate of evaporation change with the increasing temperature? 5. Explain the reason of this event by considering the particulate nature of matter. 6. Does the evaporation take place on the surface of the alcohol or in all parts of it? Why? 7. What are the effects of air current on evaporation of alcohol?
I*: Students at Lyce 1 II*: Students at Lyce 2 III*: Students at Lyce 3

Specific Misconceptions I 3 II 3 4 III

No Response I 4 II III 1

I* 1

II* 1

III* 4 3

2 3

2 1

GI.2, GI.3:

We agree. Heating is necessary for evaporation.

All of the students at lyce 1 left the second question in Table 6 blank or responded with I dont know. Students at lyce 2, however, had knowledge about the particulate nature of matter, but they couldnt apply this to the process of evaporation. For example, students explained that:
A: GII.2: How do you explain the process of evaporation at this temperature using the particulate nature of matter? When heat is given, the particles of matter are separated from each other and the compounds are also separated as a form of elements. For example, water is separated into H2 and O2. Because 0C means lack of heat, evaporation doesnt occur. At this temperature, particles are moving closely, but separation into H2 and O2 from water doesnt take place. Evaporation does not occur at 0C, because at this temperature particles are moving very closely. Heating is necessary for particles to separate them from each other. Because of insufficient heat, particles arent separated from each other. So, evaporation doesnt occur.

GII.3: GII.4:

Evaporation in different liquids 87 While one student at lyce 3 said that he didnt know the idea of particulate nature of matter, the other students partially used the idea to explain the processes of evaporation. With regard to the third question, all students at lyces 1 and 2, and two students at lyce 3, gave explanations that fell within the specific misconception category (Table 6). These students stated that evaporation does not occur at 0C. A few students also stated that alcohol is a solid at 0C. One student explained:
A: BII.1, GII.4: A: BII.1: GII.4: If temperature of alcohol was at 0C, would it evaporate? No, it does not. Why? Because it is in solid form at this temperature. Because temperature of alcohol is near to its freezing point.

After the first three questions, the interviewer placed the beaker (filled with 50 cm3 alcohol) on the heater and then turned the heater on. Changes in the beaker were shown to the interviewees. The students were then asked the rest of the questions in Table 6 concerning these changes. As shown in Table 6, all the students, except for one at lyce 3, gave responses to the fourth question in the sound understanding category. Some of the students stated that when the temperature of the alcohol increases, the rate of evaporation increases; however, they connected this situation with the concept of boiling. For example, the students stated:
A: GI.2, 3: GI.4: A: GI.3: A: GI.3: A: GI.3: GI.4: How does the rate of evaporation change when temperature of the alcohol goes up? since alcohol is heated, the rate of evaporation increases Because alcohol in the beaker is heated until boiling point it evaporates. If alcohol is not heated until the boiling point, could it evaporate? Yes, when the temperature of alcohol goes up, water evaporates. In the other situations, evaporation doesnt. Is water? [long pause] We used alcohol, didnt we? Yes. Umm Alcohol evaporates. Yes, evaporation would occur. Alcohol in the beaker runs out at the temperature of boiling.

Two students at lyce 3 explained the reasons for increasing evaporation rate, taking into account the particulate nature of matter. One student at this level gave responses in the specific misconception category. All of the students at lyce 3 and two students at lyce 2 gave acceptable answers to the fifth question in the interview. Examples of the students explanations in the fourth question were:
A: How do you explain the reason for increasing evaporation rate by considering particulate nature of matter? GIII.3, 4, BIII.1: As the temperature of the alcohol goes up, vaporization among liquid particles increases. A: Why? GIII.3: Because as heat of the molecules goes up, kinetic energy of molecules will increase. So, movement of the molecules happens much faster and

88 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas

number of particles overcoming external pressure increases. Thus, evaporation rate increases. Because particles take heat; separations of the particles become easy. Therefore, evaporation rate increases. It may be explained by using following example. For example, water vapour isnt observed in the pot at 25C. When the pot is heated, water vapour is seen, for a lot of particles change into the gaseous phase. It is concluded that the higher the temperature, more particles evaporate.

BIII.1: GIII.4:

None of the students at lyce 1 and two at lyce 2 gave a response to the fifth question. The sixth question in the Table 6 aimed to test students understanding of the proposition that evaporation occurs on the surface of liquid. While two students at each level (lyce 2 and 3) gave explanations in the sound understanding category, the others at each level gave explanations within the specific misconception category. Students who gave responses in the sound understanding category explained that vaporising particles are left from the surface of the liquid. Students explanations in this category were:
A: GII.2,4 and GIII.2,3: A: GII.2: Does the evaporation take place on the surface of alcohol or in all parts of it? It takes on the surface of the alcohol. Why? For example, water is heated, it separates as H2 and O2. This separation begins at the surface and particles (H2 and O2), take heat and make pressure on the surface. They overcome the air pressure at 100C and scatter into air. Particles gradually leave from the liquid. At the temperature of 100C, they leave from all parts of it. Molecules in the bottom of the liquid separate from each other. These molecules move upwards by getting lighter. They overcome air pressure and scatter into air.

GII.4: GIII.2,3:

All of the students at lyce 1, whose responses fell into the specific misconception category, stated that evaporation is a phenomenon that occurrs in all parts of the liquid. An example of the students responses related to this question was:
A: GI.3: BI.1: You stated that evaporation occur in all parts of the alcohol. Why? Alcohol takes heat from the heater or the environment. This heat is the same in all parts of it. So, evaporation occurs in all parts of it. Matter is made of tiny particles. Particles forming the matter take the same amount of heat from the heater during heating. Therefore, evaporation occurs in all parts of the alcohol.

After the asking three questions previously discussed, the interviewer used a fan to wave it over the surface of the alcohol. Then, the interviewees were asked What are the effects of an artificial air current on the evaporation of alcohol? As seen from Table 6, only one student at each level gave explanations that fell within the sound understanding category. They stated that evaporation of alcohol increases with this effect; however, a few of them could not give any reason for this. One student at lyce 2 said:

Evaporation in different liquids 89

A: BII.1: A: BII.1: What are the effects of air current on the evaporation of alcohol? Evaporation of the alcohol increases. Why? Because, this effect provides water vapour to spread out. Therefore, evaporation occurs faster. For example, when we blew on a wet object, it dried up quickly.

Two students at each level (lyce 2 and 3) and one student at lyce 1 stated that an air current on the surface makes evaporation of alcohol decrease. They believed that air current increased pressure on the surface of liquid or that the current made the liquid cold. Some students explanations about this question were:
A: GIII.3, 4: A: GIII.4: GIII.3: What are the effects of air current on the evaporation of alcohol? It makes evaporation of the alcohol decrease. Why? Cold air current made the alcohol cold. Therefore, vapour may decrease. This causes an increase in air pressure on the surface of the alcohol. Thus, particles will take a great amount of energy to overcome air pressure and to evaporate. Therefore, evaporation of the alcohol will decrease.

As seen from Table 6, one student at each level (lyce 2 and 3) and two at lyce 1 gave no response to seventh question in the interview. They stated that air current effects evaporation of alcohol, but they could not explain how.

Discussion and conclusion The present study focused on the concept of evaporation at three levels; lyce 1, 2 and 3. The data from the interviews and the test items showed that students at each level have a superficial understanding of the concept of evaporation. Generally, the students did not give satisfactory responses to the test items and interview questions (Tables 5 and 6). This implies that they were unable to explain novel situations faced in everyday life, which require them to apply, analyse or synthesise the knowledge they have acquired in science classes. In this research, students at lyce 3 performanced best. For example, percentages of the students responses to the test questions (Questions 1 and 4) classified within the sound understanding category also rose with the increasing grade (Table 5). Also, in the interviews, the students explanations at lyce 3 are the best in the three levels (Table 6). Although the students at lyce 3 are the best in the three levels, their understanding still needs to be enhanced. The following discussion is focused on two research questions and ascertains: 1. Students misconceptions about evaporation: students misconceptions were determined by the current study and the related literature. students misconceptions were drawn out by the current study, aside from the related literature. 2. Students views of evaporation in different liquids.

90 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas Students misconceptions about evaporation The study revealed some common misconceptions previously reported in the literature. The first is that a few students believe that the process of evaporation is related to temperature differences between the liquid and its environment. According to their beliefs, when the temperature of the surroundings is higher than the temperature of the liquid, evaporation occurs, and would not otherwise. This misconception became evident in the Changs (1999) study on teacher college students. The students who held this misconception gave responses to Question 1 such as if the temperature of environment is higher, evaporation happens. If it is lower, it does not. Similarly, they gave responses to Question 4 such as since the temperature of the liquid in beaker C is the highest; it takes the least ratio of heat from the air. Therefore, very little amount of liquid vaporizes. Because of the lowest temperature, liquid in the beaker A takes more heat from the surrounding. So, a great amount of the liquid vaporizes. This misconception possibly stems from the idea that the process of evaporation requires energy to occur. It is possible that students, knowing this idea, erroneously conclude that water (liquid and alcohol) in a glass takes heat from its environment to evaporate, and that otherwise it would not happen. Thus, they think that if the temperature of the environment is increased, evaporation occurs. The second is that a few students have the idea that if boiling doesnt occur, evaporation does not. They responded to Question 4 with explanations such as since the beaker Cs temperature is the highest and it is boiling, evaporation occurs in this beaker. Therefore, the liquid level falls. In the other beakers, evaporation does not occur. In the interviews, students generally associated evaporation with the boiling point of alcohol. The concepts of evaporation and boiling are related to each other. An important feature that differentiates between them is that boiling occurs when vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure, but evaporation takes place at all temperatures. If students do not know or take this into account, they may associate the concept of evaporation as taking place only at boiling temperatures. The same result also has been reported by previous researchers (Bar & Travis, 1991; Valanides, 2000; Ayas & Co stu, 2002). Thirdly, some of the students believed that vaporising particles give heat to their environment during evaporation. This result is consistent with a previous study by Goodwin (2000). He found that the majority of the students gave incorrect answers to a question similar to our test question. Finally, as seen from the related literature (Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Beveridge, 1985; Russell et al., 1989; Russell & Watt, 1990; Bar & Travis, 1991; Bar & Gaglili, 1994; Hatzinikita & Koulaidis, 1997; Chang, 1999; Tytler, 2000; Valanides, 2000; stu, 2002), a few students erroneously suggest that evaporation is a chemAyas & Co ical change because oxygen and hydrogen gases are produced. In the process of evaporation, water (liquid and alcohol) evaporates as water (liquid and alcohol) vapour and spreads out into the air. It becomes invisible phase at lower temperatures and visible phase at higher temperatures, close to the boiling point of the liquids. Students believe that water goes into an invisible phase because gases in the air
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Evaporation in different liquids 91 (nitrogen, oxygen and others) are invisible. Furthermore, they may think that water consists of hydrogen and oxygen gases in all conditions (temperature, pressure, etc.), as in the following chemical reaction:
H2O(s ) H2( g ) +
1 2

O2( g )

This reaction, found in textbooks, is used by teachers and may be mis-internalised by the students. Thus, they misinterpret the case of water evaporation as dispersing oxygen and hydrogen gases. Therefore, students suggest that evaporation is a chemical change. In addition to these misconceptions, the students showed good performance in some cases and these are observed at different ratios at each level. For example, they knew of the idea that as the temperature of the liquid goes up, evaporation becomes faster. Students were asked questions about this property of evaporation in both methods. As seen in Tables 5 and 6, most of the respondents gave correct answers to these questions. Percentages of the students who gave correct responses in the test items increased with the students levels. In the interviews, while the older students (lyce 3) gave explanations about related questions using the particulate nature of matter as a sign of good understanding, the others gave no such detail. For example one student at lyce 3 gave the following response to the interview question:
A: BIII.1: How do you explain the evaporation of alcohol at 22C by using particulate nature of matter? When the temperature goes up, the forces of attraction between particles lessen. So, alcohol particles change into gases phase. The lower temperature of liquid is, the fewer particles change into gases phase. If the temperature goes up, forces of attraction between the particles would decrease and volatility of alcohol would increase. At 22C, only a few alcohol particles vaporize. At the higher temperature, many particles vaporize. In all temperatures, there are a few liquid particles which overcome forces of attraction and get free.

This research revealed some common misconceptions about evaporation across three levels of learning outlined above, as previously reported in the literature. Three further misconceptions were found in this study and will now be discussed. The first one is concerns the statement evaporation occurs in all temperature ranges. A few students thought that heating is necessary for evaporation. They gave responses to the Question 1 in the test as water (liquid or alcohol) decreases by vaporizing with the effect of sunlight, it does not without it. In the interview, the students, with the exception of those at lyce 3, gave explanations in their answers implying the idea that heating is necessary for evaporation. Similarly, most of the students believe that evaporation does not occur at 0C. They put forward the following reason for this. Although the melting points of liquid and alcohol were not given, the students insist that water (liquid or alcohol) is in a solid form at 0C. Thus, evaporation does not occur. The students, believing this idea, drew the level of water (liquid or alcohol) in Question 4 at the same level. In the interview, they also gave the response that if temperature of alcohol was at 0C, evaporation wouldnt occur

92 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas because at this temperature alcohol is in solid form. Water vapour is invisible at lower temperatures (0C30C), and it is visible as smoke at higher temperatures (30C 90C) due to temperature changes and condensation. Because water (liquid and alcohol) vapour is invisible at lower temperatures, students believe that evaporation does not occur. Moreover, they think that heating is necessary for evaporation. These findings suggest that visual experiences are much more convincing than other sensory information. This result seems to be natural as the core of teaching in schools is done with chalk and talk in this study context. Therefore, the students may not have visual as well as hands-on experience to grasp the concepts plausibly. Also, students believe that Water (liquid and alcohol) is in solid form at 0C thus, evaporation does not occur. This idea stems from lack of understanding of the particulate nature of matter and kinetics theory. The theory argues that while there are a few particles which overcome external pressure in lower temperatures, there are many particles at higher temperatures that do so. The second misconception concerns the proposition that evaporation occurs at the surface of liquids. A few students in the interview stated that evaporation occurs in all parts of the liquid. They explained this as each particle takes the same amount of heat from the heater during evaporation. Therefore, evaporation occurs in all parts of the alcohol. The last is about the effect of air current on evaporation. Students views about the effect of air current on evaporation were tested by the interviews (Table 6). They misunderstood the effect of air current on the evaporation of liquid. They believe that this effect causes evaporation of a liquid to be decreased. According to these students, air current formed pressure on the surface of liquid or made the liquid cold and so evaporation of the liquid decreases. In summary, although a generalisation of the results is not possible, some students conceptions of evaporation at the secondary stage have been identified in detail. If science/chemistry teaching in schools aims to achieve conceptual understanding at a satisfactory level, teachers need to take into account of these pre-existing ideas. As Millar (1988) argues:
For each topic, a starting point is to elicit [students] current ideas and understandings about the topic. On the basis of this, they can be directed to carefully chosen readings and practical activities, designed specifically to challenge or deepen existing ideas (Millar, 1988, p. 51).

Although misconceptions are often unavoidable, in some cases they may be used as useful steps to change students existing ideas. We agree with Millars idea and certainly recommend his approach within our community.

Students views of evaporation in different liquids From a methodological point of view, our research uses different types of liquids in each of the research instruments to determine students understanding about evaporation. We identified that some misconceptions were held by students in reference to

Evaporation in different liquids 93 different liquids. The students sometimes gave responses with regard to the view that evaporation is limited to only water or water solutions. They gave responses to the test items with a few misconceptions, which depended on three different words. For example, one student resonded to Question 1 in the test with alcohol is a volatile liquid. If it is left undisturbed for several days, properties of it is lost and the amount of it diminishes. Another student responded since the glass is not covered, acids in the alcohol vaporize. For this reason, the amount of alcohol diminishes. Perhaps there is an association with the opening of a can of fizzy drink and the resulting ejection of its acid. They may misinterpret evaporation of alcohol with regard to this. Also, when the lids of cold drinks are opened, a white smoke rises up due to temperature changes and condensation; the students may think of this as a dividing of molecules into smaller components. However, this result was not observed in the interviews in which pure alcohol was used and this was indicated by the interviewees. A few students, nevertheless, used water instead of alcohol. Other misconceptions or incorrect answers have been identified. The data provided from the test showed that the students have the specific misconception evaporation is limited to only water or water solutions, it does not occur in other liquids. For example, one student replied to the test items in which alcohol was used instead of water (Question 1) the amount of alcohol diminishes, because the water in alcohol vaporizes and one student in the interview (BII.1) said that air current blowing on the surface gets the evaporation of alcohol increased. Because of this effect, it causes water vapour to spread out. Therefore, evaporation occurs much more. For example, when we blew on a wet object, it dried up quickly. As a final remark, the students gave responses to the questions taking into account the example of water and its properties, such as boiling and melting points and so forth. For example, most of the students believe that evaporation does not occur at 0C. They put forward the following reason: water (liquid or alcohol) is in solid form at 0C, even though melting points of liquid and alcohol were not given. In the interview, they also gave the same answers as they did in the test. The following response is similar if temperature of the alcohol was at 0C, evaporation wouldnt occur. Alcohol would be in solid form at this temperature. Misconceptions have their origins in a diverse set of personal experiences, including direct observation and perception, culture and language, as well as teachers use of language in explanations and during the use of instructional materials. The evidence for origins of misconceptions is often inferential at best and certainly such origins are difficult to document. This is especially true of the misconceptions derived from direct observations and perceptions. However, it is considered that the aforementioned students problems possibly stem, in past, from teachers and textbook authors who usually use water as an example in teaching about evaporation. This requires us to pay attention to changing the use of only water in explaining evaporation and other related concepts in curricular materials and during teaching. The above discussions show that, as students go through the stages of schooling, their understanding does not necessarily grow in a scientific way. It can be argued

94 B. Cos tu and A. Ayas that there should be more emphasis on teaching fundamental concepts such as evaporation, condensation and particulate nature of matter, to establish a sound background for further learning in science. In order to do this, science teaching should provide the students with direct experience of the phenomena, spend time on it and play with different ideas to conceptualise the world around them. Students undertake a competitive examination at the end of the lyce to enrol at universities, therefore the teachers currently concentrate on covering content rather than attending to student understanding. This is presumably one of the main reasons why students develop misconceptions, not only about the topics of this study but also about concepts of science.

Implications Our research has three implications for teaching and practice in Turkey. The first is that teaching about evaporation in the study context needs attention. The results of this study suggest that traditional teaching methods are ineffective in helping students to learn this concept scientifically. Although the students have begun to learn the concept of evaporation from earlier stages in their schooling, they show superficial understanding and hold several misconceptions about it. Although the students at lyce 3 showed the best performance within the three levels, their understanding of evaporation still needs to be enhanced. Teaching strategies and assessment instruments should be developed to engage the students more actively with such concepts. Furthermore, teachers, as well as textbook writers and curriculum developers, should be aware of students misconceptions prior to introducing a new concept related to evaporation. Such awareness would provide a chance to design more appropriate learning environments that would help to develop concepts accordingly. Teachers should be able to identify and consider students misconceptions found by research and then design teaching in such a way that students will be able to develop or change their earlier misconceptions. Moreover, research projects or assignments comprising various situations from everyday life may be given to students either individually or as a group. The second implication refers to the fact that many students couldnt apply the idea that evaporation occurs in all liquids. Stavy and Stachel (1985) stated that Water serves as an exemplar for liquids. In another study, Stavy (1990b) stated that common typical exemplars have strong perceptual reinforcement. Moreover, he stated that:
When teaching about liquids, the common examples of water, oil etc. are normally given but this is not augmented with examples of viscous liquids or powders and other concepts. (Stavy, 1990b, p. 512)

Similarly, students in this study associated the concept of evaporation with water as a liquid and answered questions in this way, irrespective of the particular type of liquid (e.g., alcohol).

Evaporation in different liquids 95 We also suggest using different liquids similar to water in appearance, such as alcohol, as well as liquids of different colours, with a wider range of pupils in terms of their ability. Acknowledgements s and Fatma The authors thank Muammer alk, Suat nal, Faik zgr Karata stu for their support. Co
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