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1. Glycolysi (definition slide) a. Glucose to pyruvate or pyruvic acid b. Produce ATP c. Occurs in cytoplasm 2.

Convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle (occurs in mitochondrion) 3. Chemiosmosis/ETP/Electron Transfer Phosphorylation (occurs in mitochondrion) 4. 3 steps of aerobic respiration 5. Slide: ATP requiring steps/ATP generating steps 6. Slide: Acetyl-CoA formation and the Krebs cycle 7. At the end of ETP oxygen comes into play 8. Slide: ETP 9. Slide: What happens in Anaerobic respiration 10. Slide: Aerobic respiration 11. Slide: Food to Kreb Cycle process the process of glycylosis. occurs in cytoplasm; hexose is phosphorylated using ATP; hexose phosphate is split into two triose phosphates; oxidation by removal of hydrogen; (do not accept hydrogen ions/protons) conversion of NAD+ to NADH (+H+); net gain of two ATP / two ATP used and four ATP produced; pyruvate produced at the end of glycolysis; the process of aerobic respiration. by glycolysis, glucose is broken down into pyruvate (two molecules) in the cytoplasm with a small yield of ATP/ net yield of 2 ATP and NADH + H+/ NADH aerobic respiration in the presence of oxygen pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA by oxidative decarboxylation / NADH and CO2 formed fatty acids / lipids converted to acetyl CoA acetyl groups enter the Krebs cycle (accept acetyl CoA) Krebs cycle yields a small amount of ATP/ one ATP per cycle and FADH2/ FADH + H+/ NADH /NADH + H+/ reduced compounds/ electron collecting molecules these molecules pass electrons to electron transport chain (reject donates H+) oxygen is final electron acceptor/ water produced electron transport chain linked to creation of an electrochemical gradient electrochemical gradient/ chemiosmosis pwers creation of ATP through ATPase/synthase/synthetase the role of oxygen in providing cells with energy. needed for aerobic (but not anaerobic) resp./simple equation for aerobic resp. used in oxidative phosphorylation oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the ETC also accepts protons to form water / water formed using oxygen allows more electrons along the ETC allows NAD+ to be regenerated / reduced NADH to be oxidised allows ATP production allows a high yield of ATP from glucose in respiration / 32-38 instead of 2

The products from photosynthesis, glucose and oxygen, are consumed by eukaryotic cells (directly or indirectly) in a process called aerobic respiration. Aerobic means with air. This type of respiration needs oxygen for it to occur so it is called aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is an oxygen-requiring metabolic pathway that breaks down carbohydrates to produce ATP: Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy The chemical equation is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O with ~36 ATP Glucose is broken down by oxygen to release energy with carbon dioxide and water being produced as by-products of the reaction. The released energy is used to make ATP. Aerobic respiration occurs in three stages. The first stage called Glycolysis is anaerobic and takes place in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis is a set of reactions in which glucose or another sugar is broken down to two pyruvates for a net yield of 2 ATP. It begins when a molecule of glucose enters a cell through a glucose transporter, a passive transport protein. 2 ATP are consumed in endergonic reactions. In first reaction, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to the glucose, forming glucose-6-phosphate. This is catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase. Hexose is phosphorylated using ATP and the resulting hexose phosphate is split into two triose phosphates. The phosphorylation keeps glucose concentration in cytoplasm lower than fluid outside of the cell. Due to this gradient, the cell favors uptake of even more glucose. The glucose-6-phosphate accepts a phosphate group from another ATP and splits into two, forming 2 PGALs. Oxidation occurs by removal of hydrogen. The second phosphate group attaches to each PGAL forming 2 PGAs. Two electrons and a hydrogen ion are transferred from each PGAL to NAD+ resulting in 2 NADH coenzymes reduced. This NADH will head to the mitochondrion for the third stage of aerobic respiration. A phosphate group I transferred from each PGA to ASP resulting in 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. Two more ATP form when a phosphate group is transferred from another pair of intermediaries, PEP, by substrate-level phosphorylation, to 2 ATP. Glycolysis ends with formation of two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. These products ay now enter the second stage reactions of aerobic respiration (or fermentation). 2 ATP were required to initiate the glycolysis reactions, forming 4 ATP a net yield of 2 ATP per molecule of glucose. The second and third stages occur in the mitochondrion. The second stage is the formation of acetylCoA and begins when the two pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondrion transported across the mitochondrions inner membrane and into its inner compartment matrix. The pyruvates produced in glycolysis get split by an enzyme into two-carbon acetyl group and carbon dioxide by oxidative decarboxylation. The acetyl group binds with Coenzyme A or CoA, producing acetyl-CoA. Electrons and hydrogen ions are released which combine with NAD+ (reduced) yielding NADH. This is the prep-step to prepare the pyruvate to enter Krebs cycle. The Krebs (or citric acid) cycle is a cyclic pathway that, along with acetyl-CoA formation, breaks down the pyruvate to carbon dioxide in aerobic respiration. As acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle, it reacts with oxaloacetate (4-carbon molecule) to make citrate (6-carbon molecule) thus the citric acid cycle. CoA is regenerated. A carbon atom is then removed, to produce an intermediate, and leaves the cell as carbon dioxide. NAD+ (reduced) combines with electrons and Hydrogen ions, forming NADH. A second carbon atom is removed, to produce a second intermediate, and leaves the cell as carbon dioxide.

Another NAD+ is reduced forming NADH. The pyruvates three carbons have all exited the cell at this point as carbon dioxide. A third intermediate forms whereby one ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation. Another intermediate forms when the coenzyme FAD gets reduced and combines with electrons and hydrogen ions to make FADH2. Finally, by reducing another NAD+ to NADH, we reproduce oxaloacetate. For each molecule of glucose, we end up producing a total of 2 ATPs, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 in the Krebs cycle, along with 4 CO2. This is in addition to the 2 CO2 and 2 NADH produced in the prep step. One ATP is produced per cycle. So far we have consumed the glucose molecule, and produced 6 CO2 along with 4 ATPs and not consumed any Oxygen. The third stage of aerobic respiration begins with the coenzymes NADH and FADH2 from the 1st and 2nd stages. These molecules pass electrons to electron transport chains (ETCs) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae). This third stage is called Electron Transfer Phosphorylation or Chemiosmosis. ETCs are a series of enzymes embedded in the membrane. Electrons flow through these causing hydrogen ions to be pumped from the matrix to the inter-membrane space. Ions accumulate in intermembrane space forming hydrogen ion gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This gradient attracts hydrogen ion back towards the matrix. These hydrogen ions can cross the inner mitochondrial membrane only by flowing through the enzyme ATP synthase embedded in the membrane. This flow forms ATP by attaching phosphate groups to ADP. The energy for this reaction comes from the flow of protons through the synthase. This is phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP and is driven by chemiosmosis which is the production of an electrochemical gradient that then drives the production of ATP. For each glucose molecule, this produces 32 ATP. Here oxygen is the final electron acceptor as it combines with the electrons at the end of the ETC, and hydrogen ions to make water. Aerobic respiration refers to oxygen as the final electron acceptor in this pathway. Oxygen allows more electrons to move along the ETC, and enables a high yield of ATP from glucose while, at the same time, allowing NAD+ to be regenerated/reduced and and NADH to be oxidized. The typical net yield of all three stages of aerobic respiration is 36 ATP per molecule of glucose.

G-G-Cc-c-g

A-A-Cu-u-g

G-C-A-

C-G-Ag-u-u

C-A-A- C-C-G- T-G-C g-g-c a-c-g

c-g-u

g-c-u

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