8

Introduction
T
hc nation ol !sracl bcgan thc dicult pcriod
ol thc timcs ol thc Gcntilcs as a nation in
cxilc. Altcr a small pcrccntagc ol hcr pcoplc
chosc to rcturn to thc land ol Canaan lrom thcir
various placcs ol cxilc, shc thcn continucd as a nation
uncqually dividcd bctwccn a homcland and a broad
dispcrsion. How would shc survivc such a brokcn
statc: How would thc worship ol thc onc truc God bc
continucd in thc midst ol thc pcoplcs ol thc world who
worship many divcrsc and malcvolcnt gods: How
would Gods plan to blcss thc pcoplcs ol thc world
now bc carricd out il Hc must usc a pcoplc who havc
no sovcrcign status: Can any pcoplc survivc in such a
statc, lct alonc maintain a distinct idcntity as a pcoplc
and maintain thcir customs and worship: !n rcgard to
thcir idcntity, how would !sracl survivc thc onslaught
ol thc sccmingly supcrior culturc ol Alcxandcr thc
Grcat and thc Grccks: How would hcr pcoplc larc
undcr thc Grcck, and latcr, Roman ovcrlords: Tcsc
arc qucstions that wc havc attcmptcd to answcr in thc
prcvious two chaptcrs.
Vc now turn to thc spccic political aspccts ol !sracls
timc undcr thc Gcntilcs lrom thc timc ol Alcxandcr
thc Grcats conqucst ol !sracl in 331 8C to thc lall ol
Jcrusalcm in A 70. ur goal will bc to providc a bricl
survcy ol this lour hundrcd ycar pcriod which shapcd
and cnvclopcd thc timc ol Jcsus and Paul and most ol
thc cvcnts ol thc Ncw Tcstamcnt. !n particular, wc want
to scc how thc Grcck and Roman domination ol !sracl
lcd thc various typcs ol Jcwish mcssianism. !n othcr
words, wc want to scc how thc Jcwish pcoplc rcspondcd
in all thcir divcrsity to thc timcs ol thc Gcntilcs by
longing lor and thcologizing about thc coming ol thc
Mcssiah. l particular intcrcst to us will bc thc con
ncction bctwccn thc coming ol thc Mcssiah and Gods
program ol blcssing thc pcoplcs ol thc world. How did
!sracl conncct thcsc sccmingly divcrsc plans within
Gods program lor history: !n lact, docs God still havc a
plan to blcss thc pcoplcs ol thc world now that somc ol
thcsc pcoplcs havc crushcd his own pcoplc: Tis will bc
thc sccond topic ol this chaptcr altcr a survcy ol thc cras
ol Grcck and Roman domination.
Major Events of the Greek
and Roman Eras
331 BC Greek Era Begins
Alcxandcr thc Grcat gains control ol Palcstinc
323 cath ol Alcxandcr, 4lold division ol his
cmpirc in 320 (scc anicl 8)
301 gypt and thc Ptolcmics gain control ol Palcs
tinc
198 Syria and thc Sclcucids gain control ol Palcstinc
168/167 Pcrsccution ol Jcws by Antiochus and
abomination ol dcsolation sct up in thc
Jcwish tcmplc (cc., 168), Mattathias thc
Maccabcc inspircs rcvolt against Sclcucids
164142 Continucd Maccabcan succcss against wcak
cning Sclcucids, Simon thc last Maccabcc
cstablishcs indcpcndcncc in 142
14267 xpansion ol thc quasiautonomous Jcwish
kingdom undcr thc Hasmoncan (Maccabcan)
dynasty
6763 Civil war within Hasmoncan kingdom
Te Political Landscape
and Jewish Messianism
Walter Russell
Rcprintcd with pcrmission lrom Russcll, Valtcr. Intertestamental and New Testament Periods from a Missiological Perspective, n.d., Chaptcr 5.
8 Tnv Poii:ic~i L~xbsc~vv ~xb Jvwisn Mvssi~xis:
63 BC Roman Era Begins
Pompcy conqucrs Jcrusalcm and makcs
Hasmoncan kingdom a Roman protcctoratc
40 8C Hcrod thc Grcat crowncd King ol thc Jcws
undcr Romans, bcgins rcbuilding tcmplc in 20
8C, dics in 4 8C, 3 hcirs rulc
A 70 cstruction ol Jcrusalcm by thc Roman lc
gions undcr Titus altcr thc Jcwish rcvolt (A
6670)
Te Political Landscape from
Alexander the Great through the
Roman Era (331 BC to AD 70)
A. Alexander the Great and His Successors
(331-143 BC)
1. Alexander the Great (ca. 356-323 BC) (cf. Dan 2:39;
7:6; 8:5-8; 11:3)
Alcxandcr was born about 356 8C, thc son ol Philip
!, king ol Maccdonia. Philip had unitcd thc northcrn
rcgion ol Maccdonia, thcn procccdcd to cxpand his
powcr southward. Hc sought to asscrt Maccdonian
domination throughout Grcccc and to consolidatc
thc indcpcndcnt and lcdcratcd citystatcs ol Grcccc,
pcrhaps in part in ordcr to asscmblc an army capablc
ol taking back wcstcrn Asia Minor lrom thc Pcrsians.
Philip was assassinatcd in 336 8C. Alcxandcrs rolc
in thc murdcr is unclcar, though hc had rcccntly had
a lalling out with Philip and thc lattcr had takcn a
ncw wilc who had bornc him a son, thus cndangcring
Alcxandcrs status as thc royal hcir.
Alcxandcr was cducatcd by Aristotlc, thc lamous
philosophcr, a tcachcr appointcd by Alcxandcrs lathcr
Philip (Maccdonians wcrc thought by somc Grccks to
bc uncducatcd ruans). Altcr his cducation, Alcxandcr
consolidatcd Grcccc, a collcction ol city statcs, whilc
20 ycars old (ca. 336335 8C) through a cunning
mixturc ol conciliation and conqucst. Hc undcrtook
to prcparc lor war with thc Pcrsians, who controllcd
most ol Asia Minor, gypt and thc Middlc ast, in
Asia Minor in 335 8C. Hc laccd a numbcr ol signi
cant disadvantagcs: 1) Hc was badly outnumbcrcd. 2)
Tc Pcrsians had an almost incxhaustiblc supply ol
moncy (somc ol which thcy uscd to lomcnt opposi
tion to Alcxandcr in thc Grcck citics). 3) Tc Pcrsian
navy controllcd thc scaboard ol Asia Minor, Syria and
gypt. 4) Among thc Pcrsians thcrc cxistcd minimal
intcrnal division (unlikc Grcccc undcr Alcxandcr).
Tc conqucst ol thc Pcrsians bcgan with thc battlc ol
Granicus in wcstcrn Asia Minor 334 8C. Alcxandcr
rcachcd thc castcrn portion ol Asia Minor, !ssus, by
333 8C. !ssus virtually bordcrcd on what wc now rclcr
to as Syria. Tcrc hc mct thc Pcrsian king arius in
battlc and soundly dclcatcd his armics.
vcr thc ncxt two ycars Alcxandcr would conqucr
Syria, thc Phocnician coastal towns, !sracl and gypt
bclorc rcturning to advancc castward past Syria
through modcrn !raq onto !ran and !ndia. !ndia was
approachcd in 327 8C and lcll shortly thcrcaltcr.
Ultimatcly, thc Maccdonians in his army rcluscd to
cross thc Hyphasis Rivcr in northwcst !ndia. Hc had
apparcntly intcndcd to march to thc Gangcs, on thc
supposition that it bordcrcd thc ccan on thc ast.
Alcxandcr, it sccms, intcndcd to conqucr thc world, to
Hcllcnizc it and to cxploit it lor thc commcrcial in
tcrcsts ol Grcccc. Hc rcturncd through thc conqucrcd
lands, taking spccial carc to punish govcrnors and
satraps who had abuscd thc powcr which Alcxandcr
had vcstcd in thcm.
l intcrcst to biblical studcnts arc thc commcnts ol
onc historian who notcd that
Troughout thc Asiatic campaigns ol Alcxandcr wc arc
struck by thc pcrlcct organisation ol his transports and
supplics, but wc arc struck cvcn morc by thc ccrtainty
ol his movcmcnts through strangc lands, as il hc had a
map ol thc country bclorc him. His intclligcncc dcpart
mcnt must havc bccn cxccllcnt, and though our rccords
givc us no intimations on thc subjcct, it has bccn sup
poscd with much plausibility that hcrc thc invadcr rc
ccivcd hclp lrom thc Jcws, who cvcr sincc thc Captivity
wcrc scattcrcd about Mcdia and 8abylonia. !t is ccrtain
that Alcxandcr had shown spccial lavour to thc racc ol
!sracl and thc loundation ol gyptian Alcxandria, hc
had invitcd a Jcwish colony to scttlc thcrc, cnjoying thc
rights ol citizcns, and yct living in a scparatc quartcr
and kccping thcir own national customs.
( J. 8. 8ury, A History of Greece, 760)
Alcxandcr dicd about 323 8C. As conqucror, hc was rc
sponsiblc lor Grcck bccoming thc lingua franca in a vcry
largc portion ol thc worldlrom Maccdonia in north
crn Grcccc to !ndia. Hc also pcrmittcd cach country to
rctain its national institutions, including rcligions, rathcr
Walter Russell 8
than attcmpting to imposc an articial schcmc on thc
pcoplcs hc conqucrcd. Addition ally, Alcxandcr dividcd
authority in a country bctwccn a govcrnor, nancial
occr and military commandcr in ordcr to lcsscn thc
likclihood ol rcbcllion (and, pcrhaps, corruption). Vhilc
at rst hc sought to plundcr inlcrior Asia, Alcxandcr
gradually camc to vicw it in lcss condcsccnding tcrms
(this was disquicting to his Grcck contcmporarics). Hc
also sought to lusc Asia and uropc into a homogc
ncous unity by transplanting Grccks and Maccdonians
into Asia, and Asiatics into uropc, by thc promotion ol
intcrmarriagcs bctwccn Pcrsians and Maccdonians, and
by thc institution ol cqual military scrviccHcllcnic
military schools wcrc cstablishcd in cvcry provincc and
thc local youths conscriptcd.
2. Alexanders successors (ca. 323-143 BC)
(cf. Dan 8:6.; 11:4)
Altcr Alcxandcrs dcath, his kingdom was dividcd
among lour succcssors. Tc most important ol thcsc
lor thc subscqucnt history ol !sracl wcrc thc dynas
tics cstablishcd by Ptolcmy and Sclcucus. Tc Ptol
cmaic dynasty was cstablishcd in gypt by Ptolcmy,
with Alcxandria as its capital. Tc Sclcucid dynasty
was loundcd in Syria by Sclcucus with Antioch as its
capital. Judca was rulcd by thc Ptolcmics until 198 8C,
altcr which it lcll undcr Sclcucid control.
Undcr thc Ptolcmics (323198 8C) (cl. an 11: 539),
thc Jcws wcrc trcatcd with considcration. !n Alcxandria,
Ptolcmy !! loundcd a grcat library and sought, by various
mcans, to cstablish thc city as a rival to Athcns. Tc ld
Tcstamcnt was translatcd into Grcck hcrc ovcr thc coursc
ol scvcral dccadcs. Tis sccms initially to havc bccn donc
bccausc thc Jcws in Alcxandria no longcr undcrstood Hc
brcw. Tc Jcws may also havc wantcd to havc thc transla
tion to countcr gyptian hostility. !t had bccn rumorcd,
lor cxamplc, that thcy had long ago bccn cxpcllcd lrom
gypt bccausc ol lcprosy. !n addition, thcrc was a rcspcct
lor antiquity among thc ancicnts and thc ld Tcstamcnt
would hclp cstablish thc antiquity and dignity ol thc Jcws.
Furthcr, thc LXX would, pcrhaps, cnablc thc Alcxandrian
Jcws to lunction indcpcndcntly ol thc hicrarchy at Jcrusa
lcm. Tc projcct ol translation was probably bcgun about
250 8C and complctcd around 130 8C.
Undcr thc Sclcucids (198143 8C) (cl. an 8:9., 11:5
39), lilc provcd to bc morc dicult and tumultuous
lor thc Jcws. Tc Sclcucids wrcstcd control ol Palcs
tinc lrom thc Ptolcmics in 198 8C in a victory won
at Pancion, ncar thc Cacsarca Philippi ol thc Gospcl
narrativcs. !nitially, thcy continucd to grant to Judca a
largc dcgrcc ol autonomy. !n 190 8C thc Sclcucids wcrc
dclcatcd by Romc at thc battlc ol Magncsia in south
wcst Asia Minor. Tis camc about bccausc Hannibal
ol Carthagc, who had bccn dclcatcd by thc Romans
in 202, cd to Antiochus !!!. Hc convinccd Antiochus
to invadc Grcccc in 194. Romc dcclarcd war against
Antiochus in 192 and dclcatcd him. Tis togcthcr with
thc cnsuing Pcacc ol Apamca (188 8C) dcprivcd thcm
ol thc wcalthy provinccs in wcstcrn Asia Minor and
imposcd scvcrc war rcparations on thc Sclcucids.
!n thc lollowing ycars thc Sclcucids wcrc hard prcsscd
to raisc rcvcnucs, and on two occasions acccptcd
bribcs lrom Jcwish rcligious lcadcrs to makc thcm
high pricsts rathcr than lollow thc Zadokitc (ld
Tcstamcnt) prcscriptions. Antiochus !\ (piphancs)
attcmptcd to allcviatc thc situation by vcnturing to
gypt in scarch ol rcvcnuc. Hc was rcbucd by thc
Romans in 168 8C. Vhcn ncws ol his dclcat rcachcd
Jcrusalcm, Jcws thcrc sought to dcposc thc highpricst,
Mcnclaus, whom Antiochus had appointcd. Antiochus
saw this as blatant rcbcllion.
n his rcturn to Syria hc passcd through Judca,
intcnding to usc that rcgion as a bucr against thc Ro
mans. Vhilc thcrc (cl. an 8:9), Antiochus conrmcd
Mcnclaus in thc pricsthood, and lorbadc Sabbath
obscrvancc and customary lcstivals and sacriccs. Hc
also lorbadc thc circumcision ol childrcn and dcstroycd
copics ol thc Torah. Additionally, hc tricd to cstablish
thc cult ol a Syrian dcity in thc Jcrusalcm Tcmplc, hc
sacriccd swinc in thc Tcmplc (cccmbcr 167 8C, cl.
an 11:3132, 1 Macc 1:4164, 2 Macc 6:12).
!n Modcin, northwcst ol Jcrusalcm, Mattathias Mac
cabacus (an old pricst ol thc Hasmoncan lamily) and
his vc sons inauguratcd thc rcsistancc to thc Sclcu
cids by assassinating a Jcwish pricst who had agrccd
to ocr thc dclcd sacricc. Antiochus cvcntually saw
thc lutility ol continuing to war against thc gucrrillas,
and rcachcd an agrccmcnt with thcm undcr which thc
propcr sacricc was rcinstitutcd cccmbcr 164 8C
(thc lcast ol Hanukkah).
B. Jewish Independence (143-63 BC)
Tc Hasmoncans continucd thc strugglc lor libcrty lor
anothcr 20 ycars altcr thc propcr sacriccs wcrc rcin
stitutcd. National autonomy was won undcr Simon,
thc last survivor ol thc sons ol Mattathias (142 8C).
86 Tnv Poii:ic~i L~xbsc~vv ~xb Jvwisn Mvssi~xis:
Tc sccds ol luturc dicultics wcrc sown whcn Jona
than Maccabacus acccptcd thc high pricsthood lrom
a Sclcucid rulcr in 152 8C. Vhcn Simon, his youngcr
brothcr, had at last libcratcd thc country, hc acccptcd
thc popular bcstowal ol thc highpricsthood. Howcvcr,
hc was not a Zadokitc, that is, not a lawlul (accord
ing to thc ld Tcstamcnt) candidatc lor thc post. Tis
dclcmcnt ol thc high pricsthood prccipitatcd thc
scparatism ol thc sscncs (who sought to rcplacc thc
Hasmoncans). Tcsc scparatists wcrc pious Jcws who
wcrc dccply troublcd by thc ruling ol illcgitimatc high
pricsts. Additionally, in rcsponsc to thc combining ol
thc Hasmoncan kingship and thc high pricsthood,
othcr pious Jcws in !sracl lormcd thc scct ol thc Phari
sccs (who sought to inucncc, rathcr than rcplacc, thc
Hasmoncans). Tc rst mcntion ol thc sccts ol thc
Pharisccs and thc Sadducccs occurrcd by 135 8C.
Simons dcsccndants rulcd thc country and bccamc
morc and morc corrupt, lcading to a ccrtain disillu
sionmcnt among thc pcoplc and opposition lrom thosc
Jcws conccrncd with strict obscrvancc ol thc Torah.
Tc growing wcakncss ol thc Sclcucids allowcd thc
Hasmoncan rulcrs to cnlargc thcir kingdom. 8cgin
ning with Simon in 142 8C and rcaching its zcnith
undcr Alcxandcr Jannacus in 10376 8C, thc Hasmo
ncan rulcrs cxpandcd thc tcrritory undcr Jcwish au
thority by conqucst. !n particular, thcy totally dcstroycd
Samaria, Gaza, Gadara, and Pclla, and colonizcd with
Jcwish scttlcrs and garrisons citics likc Joppa and
Gazara. Tcy Judaizcd thc pcoplc ol !dumca (south
ol Judca, Hcrods homc arca) and Galilcc (north ol Sa
maria) by lorcing thcm to adopt circumcision and thc
obscrvancc ol Torah ( Joscphus, Antiquitics, 13.2578,
13.318). Aristobulus was thc rst Hasmoncan rulcr to
adopt thc titlc ol king in 104 8C and his succcssors
lollowcd his pattcrn.
C. Roman Dominance (63 BCAD 70)
!n 64/63 8C Syria was madc a provincc ol Romc and
Judca had to acknowlcdgc Roman ovcrlordship. Prior
to this Romc had cxpandcd its dominancc castward
lrom !taly, but about 12088 8C thcrc was pcrsistcnt
disarray in many ol Romcs castcrn tcrritorics. Tis
culminatcd in thc rcbcllion ol Mithridatcs \!, king
ol Pontus (in northcrn Asia Minor, along thc south
crn bordcr ol thc 8lack Sca). Hc was a capablc lcadcr
who had comc to occupy most ol Asia Minor and, on
occasion, to cncroach into Grcccc. Hc lcd thcsc tcr
ritorics to opposc Roman rulc. !n 66 8C thc Roman
scnatc vcstcd thc gcncral Ptolcmy with cxtraordinary
powcr to put an cnd to thc problcms oncc and lor all.
Hc journcycd lrom Romc and rctook Asia Minor and
madc Syria a Roman provincc.
Hyrcanus !!, a Hasmoncan and grcatgrand son ol
Simon Maccabacus, was conrmcd as high pricst by
Pompcy. Lcading up to this, thrcc groups ol Jcwish
rcprcscntativcs had approachcd Pompcy conccrning
his appointmcnt ol a rulcr in Judca. nc group la
vorcd Hyrcanus !!, thc lcgitimatc hcir to thc thronc,
anothcr lavorcd Aristobulus !!, thc youngcr, morc ablc
and morc ambitious brothcr ol Hyrcanus, yct anothcr
wantcd Pompcy to sct asidc both Hasmoncans and rc
cstablish a Zadokitc pricsthood in conlormity to ld
Tcstamcnt law. Pompcy chosc Hyrcanus !!. Antipatcr,
an !dumacan, sccms to havc rccognizcd thc wcakncss
ol Hyrcanus !! and chosc to support him in thc bclicl
that hc could havc his way with him. Antipatcr was his
chicl counscl and thc rcal powcr bchind thc thronc.
Pompcy was lorccd to put down subscqucnt unrcst in
Jcrusalcm, at thc Tcmplc mount. Aristobulus !!, Hyr
canus youngcr brothcr, had attcmptcd to rcsist Pompcy
but was not ablc to do so. Hc gavc up thc cort. A
numbcr ol his lollowcrs, howcvcr, would not submit
to thc Roman govcrnor and wcrc slaughtcrcd on thc
Tcmplc mount in 63 8C. Pompcy judgcd thc city
scvcrcly lor its opposition, but took carc to insurc that
Tcmplc worship should continuc undisturbcd.
Te Maccabean/Hasmonean Rulers
Mattathias 168166 8C
Judas Maccabcus 166160
Jonathan Maccabcus 160142
Simon Maccabcus 142135
John Hyrcanus ! 135104
Aristobulus 104103
Alcxandcr Jannacus 10376
Hyrcanus !! vs. Aristobulus !! 6763
(Pompcy cstablishcs Roman rulc 63)
Hyrcanus !! 6340
Antigonus !! 4037
(Parthians put on thc thronc)
Walter Russell 8
Hyrcanus !! and Antipatcr wcrc ablc to sccurc bcncts
lor thcmsclvcs and thc Jcwish pcoplc through thcir sup
port ol Julius Cacsar altcr thc dcath ol Pompcy. Julius
Cacsar bccamc cmpcror in 49 8C and civil war cruptcd
shortly thcrcaltcr at Romc. Altcr thc dcath ol Pom
pcy in gypt (48 8C), Hyrcanus !! and Antipatcr lcnt
valuablc assistancc to Cacsar in ghting thc rcsurgcnt
Ptolcmics in gypt. Cacsar conrmcd Hyrcanus as hc
rcditary highpricst and cthnarch ol thc Jcws in 47 8C
whilc Antipatcr was nominatcd as procurator ol Judca,
madc a Roman citizcn and cxcmptcd lrom taxation. Fa
vors lor Jcws living outsidc Palcstinc wcrc also sccurcd.
Antipatcr sccurcd lor his sons, Hcrod and Phasacl, thc
govcrnorships ol Galilcc and Jcrusalcm, rcspcctivcly.
!n thc disarray lollowing thc murdcr ol Julius Cacsar
in 44 8C, Antipatcr and his son Hcrod supportcd
Cassius, onc ol thc conspirators. Antipatcr was himscll
assassinatcd in 43 8C by a wouldbc usurpcr, who was
in turn killcd by assassins hircd by Hcrod.
Altcr thc murdcr ol Cacsar in 44 8C, Marcus Antonius
sought to avcngc Cacsars dcath against 8rutus and
Cassius. Cassius journcycd to Syria and assumcd powcr
thcrc. Antipatcr and Hcrod supportcd him. A pcriod ol
disarray lollowcd. Anthony and ctavian (latcr known
as Augustus) dclcatcd 8rutus and Cassius at Philippi in
42 8C. Anthony took up rcsidcncc in Syria and grantcd
Hcrod and his brothcr Phasacl lavorcd status.
Vhilc Anthony was distractcd by Clcopatra in 40 8C,
Palcstinc was ovcrrun by thc Parthians (a kingdom
strctching lrom thc uphratcs Rivcr in modcrn day
!raq to thc !ndus Rivcr in !ndia) who installcd a rival,
Antigonus, as pricst and rulcr. Hcrod was disposscsscd
and his hopcs now rcstcd solcly and simply on Romc.
D. Herod the Great
Hcrod was dcclarcd king ol Judca at a lormal scssion
ol thc Scnatc about 40 8C. Hcrod had journcycd to
Romc to scck Roman assistancc, and hc got it. Hc bc
gan to cxcrcisc sovcrcignty in 37 8C. A Roman lcgatc
undcr thc authority ol Anthony cxpcllcd thc Parthians
lrom Syria in 39 8C, yct ghting continucd until 37
8C, whcn thc Parthians wcrc dccisivcly dclcatcd and
cxpcllcd lrom Syria and Palcstinc. Hcrods rival Anti
gonus was capturcd and bchcadcd. Hcrod thus camc to
posscss thc sovcrcignty in 37 8C.
Hcrod bcgan a pcriod ol consolidation lrom 3725
8C. Hc climinatcd his cncmics by cxccutions, bribcs
and bcstowal ol lavors. For cxamplc, hc appointcd
Hanancl, a 8abylonian Jcw ol pricstly lincagc, as high
pricst, thus displacing a Hasmoncan. His mothcrin
law Alcxandra (thc daughtcr ol Hyrcanus !!) thought
a Hasmo ncan should bc appointcd pricst. Shc lobbicd
Clcopatra to intcrvcnc with Anthony, in ordcr to havc
him inducc Hcrod to appoint Aristobulus !!! as high
pricst (hc was 17 ycars old at thc timc and Hcrods
brothcrinlaw). Anthony agrccd and Hcrod was
lorccd to havc Hanancl rcsign (unlawlul, sincc high
pricsts wcrc to scrvc lor lilc). Hcrod lclt thrcatcncd
by thc popularity ol thc boy and conspircd to havc
him drowncd. Tis is a typical cxamplc ol thc sort ol
intriguc in which Hcrod oltcn involvcd himscll.
Hcrod rcccivcd thc support ol ctavius (Augustus) in
30 8C dcspitc Hcrods carlicr support lor Anthony. !n
32 8C whcn war brokc out bctwccn ctavian and An
thony, Hcrod sidcd with Anthony. !n Scptcmbcr 31 8C
thc battlc ol Actium was lought in which Anthony lost
his powcr lor good. Hcrod wcnt bclorc ctavius (Au
gustus) with humility and was grantcd thc royal powcr.
From 2514 8C, Hcrod and !sracl cxpcricnccd a pcriod
ol prospcrity. Hc bcgan massivc building programs in
Palcstinc, including wholc citics. Hcrod also built thc
atcrs, amphithcatcrs and hippodromcs. Largc buildings
wcrc also nanccd and constructcd outsidc Palcstinc,
including pagan tcmplcs (a sourcc ol irritation to pious
Jcws). Hc undcrtook thc rcconstruction ol thc Tcmplc
(about 20/19 8C) and nishcd about A 63 (scc John
2:20). Ncw tcrritorics wcrc acquircd (c.g. Trachonitus,
8atanca, Auranitis, ctc.). Tcrc was support lor gamcs,
culturc and Grcck cducation. His sons, Alcxandcr and
Aristobulus, wcrc scnt to Romc lor cducation. Tcsc
idcals ol thc polisGrcck languagc, culturc, litcraturc
and rcligionwould havc bccn problcmatic lor most
pious Jcws, sincc thcy wcrc at odds with Jcwish, or bibli
cal, idcals. Morcovcr, many Grccks wcrc cntrustcd with
important administrativc and diplomatic posts (this
naturally lcd to rcscntmcnt among thc Jcws).
Hcrod was dominatcd by domcstic troublcs during thc
last ycars ol his lilc (144 8C). Hc had 10 wivcs. His
sons Alcxandcr and Aristobulus wcrc committcd to
prison, accuscd ol high trcason, lound guilty and cxc
cutcd (7 8C). Tc slaughtcr ol thc innoccnts rccordcd
in Matthcw 2 is a tcstimony to Hcrods paranoia. His
son Antipatcr was caught in a plot against Hcrod and
imprisoncd and lound guilty, thcn cxccutcd (5 8C).
Mcrcilully, Hcrod nally dicd in 4 8C.
88 Tnv Poii:ic~i L~xbsc~vv ~xb Jvwisn Mvssi~xis:
E. Te Divided Kingdom (Herods Posterity)
Hcrod Antipas (rulcd 4 8CA 39), son ol Hcrod thc
Grcat and Malthacc, rcccivcd Galilcc and Pcrca with
thc titlc tctrarch upon his lathcrs dcath. Hc had John
thc 8aptist killcd (Mark 6:1429), tricd Jcsus (Lukc
23), and had his tcrritory takcn by his cxlathcrinlaw,
thc Nabatacan king Arctas in A 36. Antipas appcalcd
to thc cmpcror Tibcrius, but Tibcrius dicd bclorc his
ordcr to thc Syrian govcrnor to capturc Arctas dcad or
alivc could bc carricd out. Hc was banishcd to Francc by
Caligula in A 39 and was probably cxccutcd thcrc.
Vhcn Caligula succccdcd Tibcrius, hc assigncd
Agrippa, Antipas brothcrinlaw, thc tcrritory which
had lormcrly bclongcd to Philip (scc bclow) and gavc
him a royal titlc. !t sccms that Hcrod Antipas wilc
Hcrodias (thc onc wc rcad about in thc Gospcls) was
cnvious ol this (cvcn though Agrippa was hcr brothcr)
and cncouragcd Antipas to scck a royal titlc lor him
scll. Hc wcnt to Caligula, howcvcr, hc was lollowcd
thcrc by an agcnt ol Agrippas who chargcd that Anti
pas had a largc storc ol wcapons, prcsumably lor usc in
a rcbcllion. Caligula lound Antipas guilty ol this and
othcr misdccds and took action against him.
Philip, son ol Hcrod thc Grcat and Clcopatra, rcccivcd
thc rcgions ol 8atanaca, Trachonitis and Auranitis and
thc titlc tctrarch. Hc rulcd quictly, built Cacsarca
Philippi (Matt 16:13) and rcbuilt 8cthsaida. Jcsus
wcnt to his tcrritory to lccd thc 4,000 and 5,000. Hc
dicd in A 34 without any ospring.
Archclaus, son ol Hcrod thc Grcat and Malthacc, rulcd
Judca and Samaria lrom 4 8CA 6 (Matt 2:22).
Archclaus was conrmcd by Cacsar against thc wishcs
ol thc Jcwish pcoplc (who argucd against any Hcrodian
succcssor) and ol his brothcr Antipas (cl. Lukc 19:1127
thc parablc ol thc noblcman going to a lar country).
Archclaus was awardcd Judca, Samaria, !duma ca and
givcn thc titlc cthnarch. Hc cngagcd in grcat building
programs likc his lathcr and also laccd popular hostil
ity. Altcr ninc ycars ol rulc, a dcputation ol Jcwish and
Samaritan aristocracy jour ncycd to Romc to complain
to Augustus about Archclaus rulc. Augustus listcncd
and Archclaus was cvcntually dcposcd and banishcd to
Francc. Hc may havc dicd in Palcstinc (according to Jc
romc his gravc was thcrc). Hc was rcplaccd by thc dircct
rulc ol a Roman prclcct (Pilatc was onc ol thcsc).
King Hcrod Agrippa ! (rulcd Judca and Samaria,
A 4144) was a grandson ol Hcrod thc Grcat. Hc
rcccivcd thc tctrarchy ol Philip in A 37 and that ol
Hcrod Antipas (Galilcc and Pcrca) in 40. Hc was rc
wardcd with Judca and Samaria by Claudius whcn thc
lattcr assumcd powcr altcr thc murdcr ol Caligula in
A 41. Hcrod Agrippa was an unusually pious obscrv
cr ol thc Law (insidc Palcstinc). Howcvcr, hc put to
dcath Jamcs, thc brothcr ol John (Acts 12:119) and
dicd suddcnly in Cacsarca in A 44 (Acts 12:1923).
F. Te Roman Governors
Altcr Archclaus was dcposcd, hc was rcplaccd by a Ro
man govcrnor ol cqucstrian rank. Tis was somcwhat
unusual, sincc govcrnors wcrc normally mcn ol scnato
rial rank.
nly a lcw provinccs wcrc by way ol cxccption placcd
undcr govcrnors ol cqucstrian rank, namcly thosc in
which, owing to a tcnacious and individual culturc, or a
lack ol it, thc strict implcmcntation ol ordinary rcgula
tions sccmcd impossiblc. it was in particular tcrritorics
inhabitcd by scmibarbarous pcoplcs that wcrc adminis
tcrcd in this manncr. (Schurcr, Jewish People, 1:3578)
Tcsc govcrnors wcrc hcadquartcrcd in Cacsarca, not
Jcrusalcm, with small garrisons throughout thc rc
gion. Tcy commandcd auxiliary, not rcgular (lcgions),
Roman troops. Tcsc wcrc nonJcws. Tcy cxcrciscd
suprcmc judicial authority as wcll as nancial adminis
tration and military supcrvision.
Tc lollowing govcrnors scrvcd:
1. Coponius ( Judca & Samaria, A 69)
2. Marcus Ambibulus ( Judca & Samaria, A 912)
3. Annius Rulus ( Judca & Samaria, A 1215)
4. \alcrius Gratus ( Judca & Samaria, A 1526)
5. Pontius Pilate ( Judca & Samaria, A 2636)
a. Chargcd with grccd, vindictivcncss and cruclty
in Philo and Joscphus.
b. Tricd and scntcnccd Jcsus.
6. Marccllus/Marullus ( Judca & Samaria, A 3641)
7. Cuspius Fadus (all ol Palcstinc, A 44:46). Put
down thc uprising instigatcd by Tcudas
8. Tibcrius !ulius Alcxandcr (all ol Palcstinc, :A
4648)
a. A Jcw by birth who had givcn up thc
anccstral rcligion.
Walter Russell 8
b. A scvcrc laminc in thc land during his govcr
norship.
c. xccutcd Jamcs and Simon (nationalists), thc
sons ol Judas thc Galilcan.
9. \cntidius Cumanus (all ol Palcstinc, A 4852)
a. Squashcd an angry crowd ol Jcws who had
bccn ocndcd by a Roman soldicr, 2030,000
killcd in thc rcsultant mclcc.
b. Altcr Samaritans had ambushcd and murdcrcd
a numbcr ol Jcws on pilgrim agc, thc Jcws rctali
atcd with a largc slaughtcr. Tc Roman intcr
vcncd and wcnt so lar as to bring thc mattcr to
Claudius attcntion.
10. Antonius Fclix (all ol Palcstinc, A 52:60)
a. Capturcd thc Jcwish rcsistancc lcadcr lcazar bcn
cinacus and scnt him to Cacsar in Romc lor trial.
b. Crucicd a largc numbcr ol brigands and thcir
sympathizcrs among thc pcoplc.
c. Squashcd an uprising lcd by an gyptian lalsc
prophct (thc prophct cscapcd).
11. Porcius Fcstus (all ol Palcstinc, :A 6062)
12. Lucccius Albinus (all ol Palcstinc, A 6264)
13. Gcssius Florus (all ol Palcstinc, A 6466)
14. ( Jcwish Rcvolt, A 6670)
G. Te Signicance of Tese Events
1. Tc world had bccn prcparcd lor thc proclamation
ol thc gospcl by pcoplc and mcans, which at rst
glancc, might appcar not to bc divincly ordaincd.
Howcvcr, upon a littlc dccpcr rccction, it is not
dicult at all to scc how thc Apostlc Paul could
boldly asscrt that, 8ut whcn the fulness of the time
came, God scnt lorth His Son, born ol a woman,
born undcr thc Law (Galatians 4:4).
2. !n Palcstinc, thc pcriod ol Roman rulc bctwccn thc
dcath ol Hcrod thc Grcat (4 8C) and thc dcstruc
tion ol Jcrusalcm (A 70) was markcd by rcpcatcd
outbrcaks ol hostility and civil disturbanccs. Tis
crcatcd an oltcn tcnsc and dynamic political contcxt
within which Jcsus ministcrcd.
3. Tc authors ol thc Gospcls and Acts makc it clcar
that both thc prcparation lor thc coming ol Jcsus
and all that happcncd to Him was donc kata, ta,~
grala,~ (according to thc Scripturcs). Tc Apostlc
Pctcr also proclaimcd that Jcsus was dclivcrcd up
by thc prcdctcrmincd plan and lorcknowlcdgc ol
God (Acts 2:23). Tc Jcrusalcm Church praycd
along thc samc lincs:
For truly in this city thcrc wcrc gathcrcd togcthcr
against Ty holy scrvant Jcsus, whom Tou didst anoint,
both Hcrod and Pontius Pilatc, along with thc Gcntilcs
and thc pcoplcs ol !sracl, to do whatcvcr Ty hand and
Ty purposc prcdcstincd to occur. (Acts 4:2728)
God was working out His plan through thc tanglcd
wcb ol Jcwish and Gcntilc political lcadcrs.
Jewish Messianism in the Light
of Gentile Domination
A. Old Testament Expectations
Tc litcraturc ol Judaism, both biblical and postbibli
cal, cvidcnccs a much grcatcr intcrcst in thc Mcssianic
Agc itscll and thc activity ol God during thc agc than
in thc pcrson or pcrsons whom God would usc to bring
about and to accomplish his purposcs.
(Richard N. Longcncckcr, Te Christology of Early Jewish
Christianity, 63)
Tc laith ol thc ld Tcstamcnt rcsts on two ccrtaintics,
cqually prolound and indissolubly bound togcthcr. Tc
rst is that God has comc in thc past, and that hc has
intcrvcncd in lavour ol his pcoplc. Tc othcr is thc
hopc that God will comc ancw in thc luturc.
(Gcorgcs Pidoux, Le dieu qui vient, 7)
Tc ld Tcstamcnt rcgularly looks lorward to thc timc
in which God will intcrvcnc in human aairs to cstablish
!sracl and to mctc out justicc and mcrcy to thc nations.
Although thc phrasc kingdom ol God docs not appcar
in thc ld Tcstamcnt, thc conccpt is unmistakably prcs
cnt. Vc scc this manilcstcd lrom at lcast lour pcrspcc
tivcs, onc ol which is locuscd on thc Mcssiah, thc onc
who will bc Gods agcnt to implcmcnt Gods plan.
1. Te coming of God ( Judgcs 5:45, Psalms 68:78,
Micah 1:27, Nahum 1:58, !saiah 2:1921, 35:4
10, 40:1011, 64:17, 66:1516). Tc coming ol thc
Lord causcs thc crcation to trcmblc in lcar at His
prcscncc, and thc languagc ol Gods suddcn appcar
ing rccalls Yahwchs acts in thc crcation account.
o Tnv Poii:ic~i L~xbsc~vv ~xb Jvwisn Mvssi~xis:
2. Te Day of the Lord (Hosca 2:1823, Jocl 1: 1520, 2:1
11, 3:121, Amos 5:1820, badiah 15, Micah 2:14,
4:13, Zcphaniah 1:1418, !saiah 2:24, 13:616, Zccha
riah 14:911). Tc ay ol thc Lord brings judgmcnt and
dclivcrancc both lor His pcoplc and thc nations. Tis day
is thc day whcn both !sracl and thc pcoplcs ol thc world
acknowlcdgc that Yahwch is thc onc truc God.
3. Te new era resulting from the coming of God is an
era characterized by peace and righteousness.
Now it will comc about that in thc last days, thc mountain
ol thc housc ol thc Lord will bc cstablishcd as thc chicl ol
thc mountains, and will bc raiscd abovc thc hills, and all
thc nations will strcam to it. And many pcoplcs will comc
and say, Comc, lct us go up to thc mountain ol thc Lord,
to thc housc ol thc God ol Jacob, that Hc may tcach us
conccrning His ways, and that wc may walk in His paths.
For thc law will go lorth lrom Zion, and thc word ol thc
Lord lrom Jcrusalcm. And Hc will judgc bctwccn thc na
tions, and will rcndcr dccisions lor many pcoplcs, and thcy
will hammcr thcir swords into plowsharcs, and thcir spcars
into pruning hooks. Nation will not lilt up sword against
nation, and ncvcr again will thcy lcarn war. (!saiah 2:24)
Vhcn Yahwch comcs to bring his kingdom, it is to
this world that hc comcs and in this world that hc cs
tablishcs his rcign. Tc hopc ol !sracl is not lor a homc
in hcavcn but lor thc rcvclation ol thc glory ol God in
this world. As Gods claim on man cncompasscs thc
totality ol his lilc, so Gods salvation lor man cncom
passcs thc totality ol human cxistcncc, including our
historical cxistcncc. (G. R. 8caslcyMurray, Jesus and
the Kingdom of God, 25)
4. Old Testament Passages about the Messiah
nc has only to scan thc ld Tcstamcnt passagcs
which look towards thc distant luturc to notc that thc
grcatcr cmphasis is givcn to a dcscription ol thc Agc
itscll than to Gods anointcd instrumcnt who will ushcr
in that Agc. Vhilc scctions and chaptcrs arc dcvotcd
to thc lormcr (c.g., !saiah 2629, 40, zckicl 4048,
anicl 12, Jocl 2:283:21), dcnitc rclcrcnccs to thc
lattcr arc conncd, in thc main, to a lcw spccic vcrscs
(c.g., !saiah 9:6, Micah 5:2, Zcchariah 9:9).
(Richard N. Longcncckcr, Te Christology of Early
Jewish Christianity, 63)
a. avidic sonship is loundational to Mcssiahs
idcntity and this is bascd upon Gods covcnant
with avid:
Vhcn your days arc complctc and you lic down with your
lathcrs, ! will raisc up your dcsccndant altcr you, who will
comc lorth lrom you, and ! will cstablish his kingdom. Hc
shall build a housc lor My namc, and ! will cstablish thc
thronc ol his kingdom lorcvcr. ! will bc a lathcr to him
and hc will bc a son to mc, whcn hc commits iniquity, !
will corrcct him with thc rod ol mcn and thc strokcs ol
thc sons ol mcn, but My lovingkindncss shall not dcpart
lrom him, as ! took it away lrom Saul, whom ! rcmovcd
lrom bclorc you. And your housc and your kingdom shall
cndurc bclorc Mc lorcvcr, your thronc shall bc cstablishcd
lorcvcr. (2 Samucl 7:1216, comparc Psalm 89)
b. Howcvcr, Mcssiahs idcntity is also associatcd
with thc pricsthood ol Mclchizcdck:
Tc Lord says to my Lord: Sit at My right hand, until !
makc Tinc cncmics a lootstool lor Ty lcct. Tc Lord
will strctch lorth Ty strong sccptcr lrom Zion, saying,
Rulc in thc midst ol Tinc cncmics. Ty pcoplc will vol
untccr lrccly in thc day ol Ty powcr, in holy array, lrom
thc womb ol thc dawn, Ty youth arc to Tcc as thc dcw.
Tc Lord has sworn and will not changc His mind, Tou
art a pricst lorcvcr according to thc ordcr ol Mclchizcdck.
Tc Lord is at Ty right hand, hc will shattcr kings in thc
day ol His wrath. Hc will judgc among thc nations, Hc
will ll thcm with corpscs, Hc will shattcr thc chicl mcn
ovcr a broad country. Hc will drink lrom thc brook by thc
waysidc, Tcrclorc Hc will lilt up His hcad. (Psalm 110)
c. As Hcrod discovcrcd (Matthcw 2:16), thc Mcs
siah would bc born in 8cthlchcm:
8ut as lor you, 8cthlchcm phrathah, too littlc to bc
among thc clans ol Judah, lrom you nc will go lorth
lor Mc to bc rulcr in !sracl. His goings lorth arc lrom
long ago, lrom thc days ol ctcrnity. (Micah 5:2)
d. Tc avidic Mcssiah will rcstorc thc glory ol
avids housc:
!n that day ! will raisc up thc lallcn booth ol avid,
and wall up its brcachcs, ! will also raisc up its ruins,
and rcbuild it as in thc days ol old, that thcy may posscs
thc rcmnant ol dom and all thc nations who arc callcd
by My namc, dcclarcs thc Lord who docs this. (Amos
9:1112, scc also 9:1315)
c. Tc avidic Mcssiah will again shcphcrd !sracl
wiscly as hcr king:
8chold thc days arc coming, dcclarcs thc Lord, whcn !
shall raisc up lor avid a rightcous 8ranch, and Hc will
Walter Russell +
rcign as king and act wiscly and do justicc and rightcous
ncss in thc land. !n His days Judah will bc savcd, and
!sracl will dwcll sccurcly, and this is His namc by which
Hc will bc callcd, Tc Lord our rightcousncss. ( Jcrcmi
ah 23: 56, scc also Jcrcmiah 23:14 and 33:1418)
l. Howcvcr, thc Mcssiah will prcscnt himscll humbly
as King to !sracl, but will havc a univcrsal dominion:
Rcjoicc grcatly, daughtcr ol Zion! Shout in triumph,
daughtcr ol Jcrusalcm! 8chold, your king is coming
to you, Hc is just and cndowcd with salvation, humblc,
and mountcd on a donkcy, cvcn on a colt, thc loal ol a
donkcy. And ! will cut o thc chariot lrom phraim,
and thc horsc lrom Jcrusalcm, and thc bow ol war will
bc cut o. And Hc will spcak pcacc to thc nations, and
His dominion will bc lrom sca to sca, and lrom thc
Rivcr to thc cnds ol thc carth. (Zcchariah 9:910)
g. Mcssiahs kingdom will clcarly bc a univcrsal
onc ovcr all thc pcoplcs ol thc world:
Vhy arc thc nations in an uproar, and thc pcoplcs dcvis
ing a vain thing: Tc kings ol thc carth takc thcir stand,
and thc rulcrs takc counscl togcthcr against thc Lord and
against His Anointcd: Lct us tcar thcir lcttcrs apart, and
cast away thcir cord lrom us! Hc who sits in thc hcavcns
laughs, thc Lord scos at thcm. Tcn Hc will spcak to
thcm in His angcr and tcrrily thcm in His lury: 8ut as
lor Mc, ! havc installcd My King upon Zion, My holy
mountain. ! will tcll ol thc dccrcc ol thc Lord: Hc said
to Mc, Tou art My Son, today ! havc bcgottcn Tcc.
Ask ol Mc, and ! will surcly givc thc nations as Tinc
inhcritancc, and thc vcry cnds ol thc carth as Ty posscs
sion. Tou shall brcak thcm with a rod ol iron, Tou shalt
shattcr thcm likc carthcnwarc. Now thcrclorc, kings,
show disccrnmcnt, takc warning, judgcs ol thc carth.
Vorship thc Lord with rcvcrcncc, and rcjoicc with trcm
bling. o homagc to thc Son, lcst Hc bccomc angry and
you pcrish in thc way, lor His wrath may soon bc kindlcd.
How blcsscd arc all who takc rclugc in Him! (Psalm 2)
h. Tc avidic Mcssiah will bring an uncnding
univcrsal rcign ol pcacc:
For a child will bc born to us, a son will bc givcn to us,
and thc govcrnmcnt will rcst on His shouldcrs, and
His namc will bc callcd Vondcrlul Counsclor, Mighty
God, tcrnal Fathcr, Princc ol Pcacc. Tcrc will bc no
cnd to thc incrcasc ol His govcrnmcnt or ol pcacc, on
thc thronc ol avid and ovcr his kingdom, to cstablish
it and to uphold it with justicc and rightcousncss lrom
thcn on and lorcvcr morc. Tc zcal ol thc Lord ol hosts
will accomplish this. (!saiah 9:67, scc also !saiah 9:15
and 11:110)
i. Apparcntly, thc Mcssiah is also dcscribcd as onc
likc a Son ol Man who is dcsignatcd thc univcrsal
rulcr by God thc Fathcr:
! kcpt looking in thc night visions, and bchold, with thc
clouds ol hcavcn nc likc a Son ol Man was coming,
and Hc camc up to thc Ancicnt ol ays and was prc
scntcd bclorc Him. And to Him was givcn dominion,
glory and a kingdom, that all thc pcoplcs, nations, and
mcn ol cvcry languagc might scrvc Him. His dominion
is an cvcrlasting dominion which will not pass away,
and His kingdom is onc which will not bc dcstroycd.
(anicl 7:1314)
Tcsc passagcs should givc somc indication that whilc
thc mcssiah was not thc ccntral gurc in ld Tcsta
mcnt cxpcctationsYahwch wasncvcrthclcss, thcrc is
a vcry clcar picturc that cmcrgcs lrom thc biblical data.
Tc Mcssiah is sccn to bc thc ultimatc avidic Son who
will bc Yahwchs agcnt in bringing about !sracls rcstora
tion and thc cstablishmcnt ol justicc among thc pcoplcs
ol thc world. About thcsc points thc ld Tcstamcnt
givcs clcar and dcnitivc statcmcnts.
Howcvcr, among thc various sccts ol Judaism, thc
conccpt ol mcssiah was not without ambiguity. !n
somc circlcs, thcrc wcrc othcr typcs ol mcssiah than
thc royal. 8y thc timc ol thc Ncw Tcstamcnt, thc
mcssianic cxpcctations wcrc not homogcncous. Nonc
thclcss, political cxpcctations conncctcd with a coming
son ol avid wcrc dominant in thc ld Tcstamcnt
and intcrtcstamcntal pcriod. Vc now turn to cxamplcs
ol thc thcologizing ol somc ol thc sccts within !sracl
rcgarding thc coming Mcssiah.
B. Extrabiblical Expectations about the Messiah
Tc prcscncc or abscncc ol mcssianism was primarily
dctcrmincd by thc political attitudcs and circumstanccs
ol thc dicrcnt groups within Judaism. Tosc who
placcd thcir hopcs in thc institutions and lcadcrs ol
thcir day, whcthcr thc High Pricsts, thc Ptolcmics, or
thc Maccabccs, had littlc intcrcst in mcssianism. Apoca
lyptic groups dcvclopcd thc idca ol a transccndcnt
savior gurc, cithcr as an altcrnativc or as a complc
mcnt to carthly mcssianism. nly with thc risc ol thc
Qumran community do wc nd a group with a strong
and dcvclopcd intcrcst in mcssianism, and thcn again in
: Tnv Poii:ic~i L~xbsc~vv ~xb Jvwisn Mvssi~xis:
thc rst ccntury 8C in thc Psalms ol Solomon. ( John
H. Collins, Mcssianism in thc Maccabcan Pcriod, in
Judaisms and Teir Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian
Era, 106)
1. Te Expectations of the Pharisees (e.g. Te Psalms of
Solomon 17-18)
Closcst to thc biblical cxpcctations ol any ol thc
groups ol Judaism wcrc thc cxpcctations ol thc Phari
saic scct. Tc lollowing sclcctions lrom thc Pharisaic
Psalms ol Solomon wcrc writtcn in thc rst ccntury
bclorc Christ, pcrhaps by this group ol pious Jcws in
rcsponsc to thc capturc ol Jcrusalcm by thc Romans
in 63 8C.
1
Notc how closcly thcsc psalms cmphasizc
somc ol thc biblical aspccts about thc Mcssiah. Ad
ditionally, whilc thcy do includc somc blcssing lor thc
Gcntilcs whcn Mcssiah comcs, thcy, ncvcrthclcss, arc
clcarly biascd toward !sraclitcs as thc blcsscd pcoplc.
Tis is signicant bccausc this pcrspcctivc would
rcprcscnt, pcrhaps morc than any ol thc lollowing scts
ol cxpcctations, thc vicw ol thc mainstrcam ol Judaism.
Tis is bccausc ol thc widcsprcad succcss ol thc Phari
sccs in pcrpctuating thcir thcology among thc majority
ol thc !sraclitcs.
Lord, you arc our king lorcvcrmorc, lor in you,
God, docs our soul takc pridc.
How long is thc timc ol a pcrsons lilc on thc carth: As
is his timc, so also is his hopc in him.
8ut wc hopc in God our savior, lor thc strcngth ol our
God is lorcvcr with mcrcy.
And thc kingdom ol our God is lorcvcr
ovcr thc nations in judgmcnt.
Lord, you chosc avid to bc king ovcr !sracl, and sworc
to him about his dcsccndants lorcvcr, that his kingdom
should not lail bclorc you. (Psalms ol Solomon 17:14)
Scc, Lord, and raisc up lor thcm thcir king, thc son ol
avid, to rulc ovcr your scrvant !sracl in thc timc known
to you, God.
Undcrgird him with thc strcngth to dcstroy thc unrigh
tcous rulcrs, to purgc Jcrusalcm lrom gcntilcs who tramplc
hcr to dcstruction, in wisdom and in rightcousncss to drivc
out thc sinncrs lrom thc inhcritancc,
To smash thc arrogancc ol sinncrs likc a pottcrs jar, to
shattcr all thcir substancc with an iron rod, to dcstroy thc
unlawlul nations with thc word ol his mouth,
At his warning thc nations will cc lrom his prcscncc, and
hc will condcmn sinncrs by thc thoughts ol thcir hcarts.
Hc will gathcr a holy pcoplc whom hc will lcad in righ
tcousncss, and hc will judgc thc tribcs ol thc pcoplc that
havc bccn madc holy by thc Lord thcir God. (17:2126)
And hc will havc gcntilc nations scrving him undcr his
yokc, and hc will glorily thc Lord in (a placc) promincnt
(abovc) thc wholc carth.
And hc will purgc Jcrusalcm (and makc it) holy as it was
cvcn lrom thc bcginning, lor nations to comc lrom thc
cnds ol thc carth to scc his glory, to bring as gilts hcr chil
drcn who had bccn drivcn out, and to scc thc glory ol thc
Lord with which God has gloricd hcr.
And hc will bc a rightcous king ovcr thcm, taught by God.
Tcrc will bc no unrightcousncss among thcm in his
days, lor all shall bc holy, and thcir king shall bc thc
Lord Mcssiah.
(For) hc will not rcly on horsc and ridcr and bow, nor will
hc collcct gold and silvcr lor war.
Nor will hc build up hopc in a multitudc lor a day ol war.
Tc Lord himscll is his king, thc hopc ol thc onc who has
a strong hopc in God.
Hc shall bc compassionatc to all thc nations (who) rcvcr
cntly (stand) bclorc him.
Hc will strikc thc carth with thc word ol his mouth lorcvcr,
hc will blcss thc Lords pcoplc with wisdom and happincss.
And hc himscll (will bc) lrcc lrom sin, (in ordcr) to rulc a
grcat pcoplc.
Hc will cxposc ocials and drivc out sinncrs by thc
strcngth ol his word.
And hc will not wcakcn in his days, (rclying) upon his
God, lor God madc him powcrlul in thc holy spirit and
wisc in thc counscl ol undcrstanding, with strcngth and
rightcousncss. (17:3137)
Lord, your mcrcy is upon thc works ol your hands lor
cvcr. (You show) your goodncss to !sracl with a rich gilt.
Your cycs (arc) watching ovcr thcm and nonc ol thcm will
bc in nccd. Your cars listcn to thc hopclul praycr ol thc poor.
Your compassionatc judgmcnts (arc) ovcr thc wholc
world, and your lovc is lor thc dcsccndants ol Abraham,
an !sraclitc.
Your disciplinc lor us (is) as (lor) a rstborn son, an
only child, to divcrt thc pcrccptivc pcrson lrom unin
tcntional sins.
May God clcansc !sracl lor thc day ol mcrcy in blcssing,
lor thc appointcd day whcn his Mcssiah will rcign.
8lcsscd arc thosc born in thosc days, to scc thc good things
ol thc Lord which hc will do lor thc coming gcncration,
(which will bc) undcr thc rod ol disciplinc ol thc Lord
Mcssiah, in thc lcar ol his God, in wisdom ol spirit, and ol
Walter Russell
rightcousncss and ol strcngth,
to dircct pcoplc in rightcous acts, in thc lcar ol God, to sct
thcm all in thc lcar ol thc Lord
A good gcncration (living) in thc lcar ol God,
in thc days ol mcrcy. Pausc. (18:19)
2. Te Expectations of the Qumran Community (the Essenes?)
Tc Qumran community appcars to havc cxpcctcd a
doublc Mcssianic appcarancc in that thcy cxpcctcd
both thc traditional avidic lcadcr and a pricstly lcadcr
lrom thc sons ol Zadok (thc propcr high pricstly
lamily lrom thc tribc ol Lcvi) who stood alongsidc
thc avidic Mcssiah. !n thc pcrlormancc ol pricstly
lunctions, thc son ol Aaron had prcccdcncc, but in thc
ovcrall rolc ol lcadcrship it is thc avidic lcadcr who
plays thc morc important rolc. 8oth arc involvcd in
bringing about thc coming kingdom ol God.
And thcy shall not dcpart lrom any maxim ol thc Law
to walk in all thc stubbornncss ol thcir hcart.
And thcy shall bc govcrncd by thc rst ordinanccs in
which thc mcmbcrs ol thc Community bcgan thcir
instruction, until thc coming ol thc Prophct |i.c. thc
Mcssiah, cut. 18:15| and thc Anointcd ol Aaron and
!sracl. (Manual ol isciplinc, 9:9b11)
2
Tc books ol thc Law arc thc hut ol thc king, as Hc
said, ! will raisc up thc hut ol avid which is lallcn.
|Amos 9:11|
Tc king is thc Asscmbly, [ ] and thc laithlulncss ol
thc imagcs is thc books ol thc prophcts whosc words
!sracl has dcspiscd.
And thc Star is thc Scckcr ol thc Law who camc to
amascus, as it is writtcn, A star has journcycd out
ol Jacob and a sccptcr is riscn out ol !sracl. |Numbcrs
24:17| (Tc amascus Rulc, 7:15b20a)
3
|And| Yahwch |dc|clarcs to thcc that Hc will build thcc a
housc, and ! will raisc up thcy sccd altcr thcc, and ! will cs
tablish his royal thronc |lorcv|cr. ! wi|ll bc| a lathcr to him
and hc shall bc my son. |2 Samucl 7:11c, 12bc, 1314a|
Tis is thc 8ranch ol avid who will arisc with thc
Scckcr ol thc Law and who will sit on thc thronc ol
Zion at thc cnd ol days,
as it is writtcn, ! will raisc up thc tabcrnaclc ol avid
which is lallcn |Amos 9:11|. Tis tabcrnaclc ol avid
which is lallcn (is) hc who will arisc to savc !sracl. (4Q
Florilcgium, 1013)
4
|Conccrning thc mcc|ting ol thc mcn ol rcnown
|callcd| to asscmbly ol thc Council ol thc Community
whcn |Adonai| will havc bcgottcn thc Mcssiah among
thcm. |Psalm 2:7|
|Tc Pricst| shall cntcr |at| thc hcad ol all thc con
grcgation ol !sracl, thcn all |thc chicls ol thc sons|
ol Aaron thc pricsts callcd to thc asscmbly, mcn ol
rcnown, and thcy shall sit |bclorc him| cach according
to his rank.
And altcrwards, |thc Mcss|iah ol !sracl shall |cntcr|,
and thc chicls ol |thc tribcs ol !sracl| shall sit bclorc
him, cach according to this rank, according to thcir |po
sition| in thcir camps and during thcir marchcs, thcn
all thc hcads ol la|mily ol thc congrc|gation, togcthcr
with thc wisc mc|n ol thc holy Congrcgation|, shall sit
bclorc thcm, cach according to his rank.
And |whcn| thcy gathcr lor thc Community tab|lc|,
|or drink w|inc, and arrangc thc Community tablc |and
mix| thc winc to drink, lct no man |strctch out| his
hand ovcr thc rstlruits ol brcad and |winc| bclorc thc
Pricst, lor |it is hc who| shall blcss thc rstlruits ol
brcad and w|inc, and shall| rst |strctch out| his hand
ovcr thc brcad.
And altcr|wards,| thc Mcssiah ol !sracl shall |str|ctch
out his hands ovcr thc brcad. |And altcrwards,| all thc
Congrcgation ol thc Community shall |bl|css, ca|ch
according to| his rank.
And thcy shall procccd according to this ritc at cvcry
mca|l whcrc| at lcast tcn pcrsons |arc as|scmblcd. (Tc
Mcssianic Rulc or Anncx to thc Manual ol isciplinc,
2:1122)
5
3. Te Expectations of Various Apocalyptic Groups
Apart lrom thc Qumran community, thcrc arc vari
ous othcr apocalyptic writings that rccct a pcrspcctivc
similar to that hcld by thosc who livcd on thc shorcs ol
thc cad Sca at Qumran. !n particular, thc common
cxpcctation about thc Mcssiah is that thcrc may, in lact,
bc two Mcssiahs: a avidic onc and a pricstly onc. Ap
parcntly writtcn during thc timc ol thc Hasmoncans and
thc kingpricst cra ol !sracls history, thc pious writcrs
ol matcrial likc thc Tcstamcnt ol thc Twclvc Patriarchs
picturcd a pricstly lcadcr who would arisc with mcssianic
Tnv Poii:ic~i L~xbsc~vv ~xb Jvwisn Mvssi~xis:
warlikc qualitics and purgc thc nowcorruptcd Hasmo
ncan pricsthood. !n this scnsc, this mcssianic pricst would
cvcn havc prcccdcncc ovcr thc avidic Mcssiah.
For at no timc did ! bring gricl to Jacob, my lathcr,
bccausc cvcrything hc said, ! did. And Abraham, my
lathcrs lathcr, blcsscd mc as dcstincd to bc thc king in
!sracl, and Jacob blcsscd mc similarly. And so ! know
that through mc thc kingdom will bc cstablishcd.
(Tcstamcnt ol Judah, 17:46)
6
Tc Lord will instigatc among thcm lactions sct against
cach othcr and conicts will pcrsist in !sracl. My rulc
shall bc tcrminatcd by mcn ol alicn racc, until thc
salvation ol !sracl comcs, until thc coming ol thc God
ol rightcousncss, so that Jacob may cnjoy tranquillity
and pcacc, as wcll as all thc nations. Hc shall prcscrvc
thc powcr ol my kingdom lorcvcr. Vith an oath thc
Lord sworc to mc that thc rulc would not ccasc lor my
postcrity. (Tcstamcnt ol Judah, 22:13)
7
And altcr this thcrc shall arisc lor you a Star lrom Jacob
|Numbcrs 24:17| in pcacc. And a man shall arisc lrom my
postcrity likc thc Sun ol rightcousncss, walking with thc
sons ol mcn in gcntlcncss and rightcousncss, and in him
will bc lound no sin. And thc hcavcns will bc opcncd upon
him to pour out thc spirit as a blcssing ol thc Holy Fathcr.
And hc will pour thc spirit ol gracc on you. And you shall
bc sons in truth, and you will walk in his rst and nal
dccrccs. Tis is thc Shoot ol God |!saiah 11:1| Most High,
this is thc lountain lor thc lilc ol all humanity. Tcn hc will
illuminc thc sccptcr ol my kingdom, and lrom your root
will arisc thc Shoot, and through it will arisc thc rod ol
rightcousncss lor thc nations, to judgc and to savc all that
call on thc Lord. (Tcstamcnt ol Judah, 24:16)
8
For this rcason, ! say to you, you will vic with thc sons
ol Lcvi and will scck to bc cxaltcd abovc thcm, but you
will not bc ablc: For God will pcrlorm vcngcancc in thcir
bchall, and you will dic an cvil dcath, sincc God gavc Lcvi
thc authority, and to Judah with, |as wcll as to mc and
to an and to Joscph|, to bc rulcrs. !t is lor this rcason
that ! command you to givc hccd to Lcvi, bccausc hc will
know thc law ol God and will givc instructions conccrn
ing justicc and conccrning sacricc lor !sracl until thc
consummation ol timcs, hc is thc anointcd pricst ol whom
thc Lord spokc. ! call to witncss thc God ol hcavcn that
you do thc truth, cach to his ncighbor, and that you show
lovc, cach to his brothcr. raw ncar to Lcvi in humil
ity ol your hcarts in ordcr that you may rcccivc blcssing
lrom his mouth. For hc will blcss !sracl and Judah, sincc
it is through him that thc Lord has choscn to rcign in thc
prcscncc ol all thc pcoplc. Prostratc yoursclvcs bclorc his
postcrity, bccausc (his ospring) will dic in your bchall in
wars visiblc and invisiblc. And hc shall bc among you an
ctcrnal king. (Tcstamcnt ol Rcubcn, 6:512)
9
And thcy said to mc, Lcvi, your postcrity shall bc
dividcd into thrcc occs as a sign ol thc glory ol thc
Lord who is coming. Tc rst lot shall bc grcat, no
othcr shall bc grcatcr than it. Tc sccond shall bc in thc
pricstly rolc. 8ut thc third shall bc grantcd a ncw namc,
bccausc lrom Judah a king will arisc and shall lound a
ncw pricsthood in accord with thc gcntilc modcl and
lor all nations His prcscncc is bclovcd, as a prophct ol
thc Most High, a dcsccndant ol Abraham, our lathcr.
(Tcstamcnt ol Lcvi, 8:1115)
10
Vhcn vcngcancc will havc comc upon thcm lrom thc
Lord, thc pricsthood will lapsc. And thcn thc Lord will
raisc up a ncw pricst |Psalm 110| to whom all thc words ol
thc Lord will bc rcvcalcd. Hc shall ccct thc judgmcnt ol
truth ovcr thc carth lor many days. And his star |Numbcrs
24:17| shall risc in hcavcn likc a king, kindling thc light
ol knowlcdgc as day is illumincd by thc sun. And hc shall
bc cxtollcd by thc wholc inhabitcd world. Tis onc will
shinc lorth likc thc sun in thc carth, hc shall takc away all
darkncss lrom undcr hcavcn, and thcrc shall bc pcacc in
all thc carth. Tc hcavcns shall grcatly rcjoicc in his days
and thc carth shall bc glad, and thc clouds will bc llcd
with joy and thc knowlcdgc ol thc Lord will bc pourcd
out on thc carth likc thc watcr ol thc scas. And thc angcls
ol glory ol thc Lords prcscncc will bc madc glad by him.
Tc hcavcns will bc opcncd, and lrom thc tcmplc ol glory
sanctication will comc upon him, with a lathcrly voicc, as
lrom Abraham to !saac. And thc glory ol thc Most High
shall burst lorth upon him. And thc spirit ol undcrstand
ing and sanctication shall rcst upon him |in thc watcr|.
For hc shall givc thc majcsty ol thc Lord to thosc who arc
his sons in truth lorcvcr. And thcrc shall bc no succcssor
lor him lrom gcncration to gcncration lorcvcr. And in his
pricsthood thc nations shall bc multiplicd in knowlcdgc on
thc carth, and thcy shall bc illumincd by thc gracc ol thc
Lord, but !sracl shall bc diminishcd by hcr ignorancc and
darkcncd by hcr gricl. !n his pricsthood sin shall ccasc and
lawlcss mcn shall rcst lrom thcir cvil dccds, and rightcous
mcn shall nd rcst in him. And hc shall opcn thc gatcs ol
paradisc, and hc shall rcmovc thc sword that has thrcat
cncd sincc Adam and hc will grant to thc saints to cat ol
thc trcc ol lilc. (Tcstamcnt ol Lcvi, 18:111)
11
Walter Russell
4. Te Expectations of Philo, a Philosophical Jew
of the Diaspora
At bcst, Philos mcssianism might bc undcrstood as a rcal
izcd cschatology in which cxcgctical clcmcnts that might
bc nationalizcd and idcnticd with spccic mythical or
historical gurcs in othcr systcms ol Jcwish thought or in
othcr Jcwish communitics bccamc allcgorical dcsignators
lor thc Logos in Philo. Tc rst linc ol mcaning lor Mcs
siah and Mcssianic ra was thc inncr cxpcricncc in which
thc soul was translormcd. Tc Logos turns man lrom thc
chaos ol thc scnscs and plcasurc toward thc intclligiblc
world. Vhilc othcr lorms ol Jcwish mcssianism might
havc bccn rcjcctcd bccausc ol thcir disastrous rcsults, Philo
attcmptcd to accommodatc it by translorming its historical
and particularistic clcmcnts. !n ncutralizing mcssianism
Philo gavc it a ncw lilc apart lrom thc particular political
cncrgics it might rclcasc. (Richard . Hccht, Philo and
Mcssiah, in Judaisms and Teir Messiahs, 162163)
Conclusion
Vc can now draw somc conclusions altcr survcying
thc pcriod lrom 331 8C to A 70 whcn !sracl sul
lcrcd undcr thc domination ol thc Grcck and Roman
ovcrlords. Vc havc also bricy ovcrvicwcd thc Jcwish
thcologizing about thc Mcssiah in both thc ld Tcsta
mcnt and in thc postbiblical writings ol thc various
Jcwish sccts. Vc can draw thrcc gcncral conclusions:
1. Tc ld Tcstamcnt statcs clcarly and un cquivocally
that Mcssiah will locus on thc pcoplcs ol thc world
as a part ol his work. Tc Mcssiah will bring judg
mcnt, rulcrship, and blcssing to thc nations whcn hc
comcs. A varicty ol ld Tcstamcnt voiccs proclaim
thcsc lacts: Psalm 2, Zcchariah 9:910, anicl
7:1314, and !saiah 9:67. !saiah 11:10 givcs this
hopclul word to thc worlds pcoplcs: Tcn it will
comc about in that day that thc nations will rcsort
to thc root ol Jcssc, Vho will stand as a signal lor
thc pcoplcs, and His rcsting placc will bc glorious.
2. Howcvcr, this clcar univcrsal locus gcts modicd
in at lcast thrcc ways by Jcwish groups during thc
pcriod ol Grcck and Roman ovcrlordship:
a. !t is mutcd and undcrstatcd at timcs (c.g. in thc
apocalyptic writings).
b. !t is rcvcrscd at timcs and Mcssiah is primarily
picturcd as bcing opposcd to thc Gcntilcs (c.g. in
thc Pharisaic Psalms ol Solomon 17:2126).
c. !t is ovcrlookcd and Mcssiahs locus is shrunkcn to
rclorming !sracl and hcr pricstly ministrics (c.g. in thc
litcraturc ol Qumran and othcr apocalyptic groups).
3. Ncvcrthclcss, bccausc ol thc clcar univcrsal locus
and ministry that thc Mcssiah will havc, wc can
cxpcct pious Jcws to rccognizc this whcn Mcssiah
comcs. Tis is, in lact, what wc scc rccordcd in thc
Ncw Tcstamcnt in thc rcsponscs ol godly Jcws likc
Simcon, who was looking lor thc consolation ol
!sracl. At thc prcscntation ol thc inlant Jcsus in
thc tcmplc by Joscph and Mary (Lukc 2:2228),
Simcon, movcd by thc Holy Spirit, blcsscd God
and said,
Now Lord, Tou dost lct Ty bondscrvant dcpart in
pcacc, according to Ty word, lor my cycs havc sccn Ty
salvation, which Tou hast prcparcd in thc prcscncc ol
all pcoplcs, a Light ol rcvclation to thc Gcntilcs, and
thc glory ol Ty pcoplc !sracl. |quoting !saiah 49:6|
(Lukc 2:2932)
Notes
1
Tis is thc vicw ol R. 8. Vright in his introduction to thc Psalms of
Solomon, Te Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2:639. Tc lollowing
translations arc lrom that samc work, 2:665669.
2
Translation lrom A. upontSommcr, Te Essene Writings from
Qumran, 94.
3
ibid., 134.
4
ibid., 313.
5
ibid., 108109.
6
Translation lrom Jamcs H. Charlcsworth, cd., Tc ld Tcsta
mcnt Pscudcpigrapha, 799800.
7
ibid., 801.
8
ibid., 801.
9
ibid., 784785.
10
ibid., 791.
11
ibid., 794795.