+8

Overview of the Period

T
his third pcriod, just likc thc sccond pc
riod, starts out with a massivc ark Agcs
ol intrusion ol invadcrs lrom outsidcthc
Scc ond ark Agcs. Tis timc it is not pagan An glo
Saxons but pagan \ikings pillaging ncwly Christian
AngloSaxons. Toward thc cnd ol this pcriod, as in thc
prcvious pcriod, thcrc is again a pcriod ol pcacc and
quict, productivc outrcach, scholarship and 8iblc study
on thc part ol thc Christian movcmcnt in thc Vcst, a
ourishing ol laithin a word, a rcnaissancc.
Howcvcr, this pcriod ol pcacc toward thc cnd ol thc
sccond pcriod startcd a littlc carlicr than in thc last
400ycar pcriod, considcr ably bclorc 1100. !l you wcrc
to diagram thosc two ark Agcs lollowcd by thc two
Light Ages, or renaissances as thcy arc callcd, you would
nd a striking parallclism. Vc havc alrcady rc lcrrcd to
thc Sccond ark Agcs bcing thc rcsult ol thc Scandi
navian invasion. As in thc First ark Agc, this pcriod
is markcd by pcrsccution ol Christians in thc carly
ycars, lollowcd thcn by thc pcriod ol pcacc and quict
callcd by his torians thc Carolingian Renaissance.
1

Charlemagne
8clorc wc movc on into this third pc riod, lcts look at
Charlcmagnc. Two gcncrations bclorc his rcign, thc
Mus lims had startcd moving up lrom North Alrica
into Spain, and Charlcmagncs grandlathcr, Charlcs
Martcl (thc hammcr) had stoppcd thcm at thc 8attlc
ol Tours, just north ol thc Py rcnccs Mountains which
scparatc prcscntday Spain lrom Francc. Charlcs Mar
tcl had bccomc a Christian ol sorts, howcvcr rough,
but his grandson was a litcratc, scholarly statcsman and
an outstandingly humblc Chris tian.
nc thing Charlcmagnc is notorious lor is his trcat
mcnt ol thc Saxons. Hc was convinccd that thc only
way to protcct his tcrritory was to makc thc Saxons
(still living and constantly raiding to thc north ol
Francc whcrc hc rulcd) into rcal bclicvcrs. Tcrc was
still prcssurc lrom thc Muslims in Spain and incrcas
ing prcssurc com ing down lrom thc north with thc
\ikings. All thc morc, Charlcmagncor Charlcs thc
Grcathad to kccp his cyc on unprcdictablc dangcrs
lrom thc Saxons, who wcrc still pagans in u ropc and
right on thc vcry bordcr ol his tcrri tory.
Hc importcd thousands ol Ccltic monks lrom ng
land and !rcland (by now pcrhaps quitc a lcw wcrc
8cncdictincs) to comc and sct up schools all ovcr his
domain, which includcd thc Saxon tcrritory. Hc urgcd
thc monks not only to tcach about Christ, but to tcach
thc pcoplc to rcad thc 8iblc.
8ut politically thc Saxons hatcd thc Franks and
rcluscd. Tcy killcd somc ol thc missionar ics, and
cvcntually Charlcmagnc thrcatcncd thcm with cxtcr
mination il thcy did not gct baptizcd (at lcast that is
what thc lcgcnds say). And hc vcry ncarly did, al
though thousands wcrc lorccably transplantcd to thc
arca today callcd Saxony, in astcrn Gcrmany.
!t has bccn thought that Charlcmagnc was illitcr
atc. 8ut somc rcccnt rcscarch indi catcs that hc mcrcly
couldnt rcad Latin, Grcck and Hcbrcw, or pcrhaps not
thc Gcrmanic script. Hc typically movcd around thc
countrysidc in monks robcs. !n his privatc corrcspon
dcncc, hc signcd his namc David altcr King avid in
thc 8iblc and tricd to cmulatc his picty and lilc, cvcn
to thc point ol having morc than onc wilc.
Somc historians claim that during a thou sandycar
Te Tird Four Hundred Years
(AD 8001200)
Ralph D. Winter
Rcprintcd with pcrmission lrom Vintcr, Ralph . Te Unfolding Drama f the Christian Movement. n.d., Chaptcr 7.
+o Tnv Tnivb Foiv Hixbvvb Yv~vs (A 8oo+:oo)
pcriod, Charlcmagnc stood hcad and shouldcrs (both
litcrally and politically) abovc cvcry othcr rulcr on
carth. Hc was truly a grcat man. Hc wantcd to rcbuild
thc Roman mpirc with all its bcncts, but without its
viccs, thus rcqucst ing thc popc to crown him cmpcror
ol thc Holy Roman mpirc, which was donc in thc
ycar 800, thc symbolic ycar whcn thc \ikings bcgan
to invadc lrom thc north. 8ut thc rcnaissancc which
hc brought about in lcarning, 8iblical studics, manu
script rcproductionall bccausc ol his importation ol
lcarncd Ccltic and 8cnc dictinc monks lrom ngland
and !rclandworkcd to prcscrvc to a grcat cxtcnt what
pcacc thcrc had bccn until thc \ikings camc, and hc
sct a signicant pattcrn to lollow.
Te Viking Invasions
Tus, thc Sccond ark Agcs opcn around thc ycar
800 with thc incrcasing invasions ol thc \ikings.
Churchills scrics ol books callcd A History of the Eng-
lish-Speaking Peoples contain an cxciting chaptcr on thc
\ikings. Churchill himscll was an AngloSaxon, so hc
docs not havc any scnti mcntal attachmcnt to thc \i
kings, but hc docs havc a powcrlul gilt ol dcscription.
!n his chap tcr cntitlcd Tc \ikings hc talks about thc
culgcncc ol thc gospcl ultimatcly dazzling and hold
ing captivc thcsc marauding tribals.
Hc dcscribcs thc \i king ships in thcir slcck bcauty,
balancc and gaudy color as having a sccnt ol murdcr
about thcm, and talks about thc \ikings as thc crucl
cst piratcs in history. Vhilc this might not bc a truc
lact, thc dcscription is still rathcr accuratc. Howcvcr
shocking it might bc to us, modcrnday rcadcrs, wc
must admit that thc gcn tlcncss ol our culturc is not na
tivc to our lallcn naturc. Vhat cvcr gcntlcncss wc havc
is purcly thc gracc ol God. To unsnarl thc unbclicvablc
complcxitics ol Satans powcr ovcr mankind, thc dark
ncss and distortion ol his purposcs is impossiblc apart
lrom thc gracc and thc powcr ol thc gospcl.
Tcrc is anothcr cqually cxciting chaptcr on thc \ikings
in a book by Christophcr awson callcd Religion and
the Rise of Western Culture. awson is onc ol thc histo
rians who uscs thc phrasc thc Sccond ark Agcs. Tc
picturc ol thc \ikings as hc tclls it is ugly and grucsomc.
awson points out that thc dicrcncc bctwccn thc \i
kings and thc barbar ians who invadcd 400 ycars bclorc
was in part bccausc thc \ikings wcrc not Christians at
all. Tcy slaughtcrcd thc pcoplc in thc churchcs with an
almost spccial gusto. Tcy torc thc churchcs down with
a vcnom that stcms to Satan himscll. Tcy burncd thc
8iblc, thcy did almost cvcrything you could think ol to
climinatc thc Christian laith.
8ut thc Christian tradition thcy wcrc climi nating was
by thcn stagnant in its casc and rcligious splcndor. As
lar as 8iblical pcrspcctivc is conccrncd, ! would conjcc
turc that Gods truc judgmcnt would not lall upon thc
\ikings but upon thosc Christians who lailcd to rcach
out to thc \ikings, who did not scnd any missionarics
to thcm. And bccausc ol this, thcy cvcn tually had to
sucr thc invasions ol thcsc cx cccdingly rudc, crudc
and vicious savagcs.
Alfred the Great
nc ol thc most signicant missiological dcvclop
mcnts was that in thc conlusion thc lincs ol commu
nication wcrc cutwhat today would bc all tclcphonc
lincs and thc transatlan tic cablcs as wcll as thc satcllitc
communication ccntcrs. Tus, it was not possiblc lor
Romc to maintain its hold cvcn tcnuously upon thc
churchcs ol ngland. 8ut oncc again God brought to
thc lorc a man to salvagc thc situa tionAllrcd thc
Grcat, thc sccond son ol thc AngloSaxon king in
southwcstcrn ng land. Allrcd had intcndcd to go into
a monas tcry and spcnd his lilc in dcvotion and schol
arship. 8ut his brothcr, altcr bccoming king, was killcd
in a \iking invasion, and Allrcd had to takc ovcr.
vcntually Allrcd dclcatcd thc \ikings. Tcy con
qucrcd cvcry othcr placc in ngland, but thcy ncvcr
rcally conqucrcd Vcsscx, King Allrcds arca, thc most
southwcstcrn part ol ngland.
!n thc rst ol thc two ark Agcs, thc An gloSaxon
lorcbcars ol Allrcd had comc in lrom thc south, but
in this pcriod thc invadcrs, thc \ikings, camc in lrom
thc north. Tcy wcrc Scandinaviansthc anish, thc
Swcdish and thc Norwcgians. Tcy camc by sca, and
many ccntcrs wcll lorticd against land invasion wcrc
totally cxposcd to sca inva sion. 8ut Allrcd was ablc
to push thcm back. Conscqucntly, thcy ncvcr quitc
triumphcd ovcr thc southcrn part ol ngland.
Allrcds pcrsonality is lascinating. Hc was vcry studious,
in somc ways al most likc Charlcmagnc in his rcligious,
schol arly and military charactcristics. Hc dccidcd that
hc would start translating thc Latin scripturcs and thc
various ccclcsiastical documcnts into An gloSaxon. At
that timc in Vcstcrn (Roman) Christianity Latin was
Ralph D. Winter ++
thc only acccptablc languagc, and Roman Catholi cism
thc most rcspcctablc lorm. 8ut duc to thc simplc isola
tion ol ngland lrom Romc thc vcr nacular languagc
bcgan to brcak through in worship.
King Allrcds translation work is in curi ous contrast to
thc work ol Cyril and Mctho dius in castcrn uropc.
As a mattcr ol lact, it was alrcady pcrlcctly normal lor
Cyril and Mcthodius to usc thc Slavonic languagc.
Tcy arc thc oncs who produccd what today is known
as thc Cyrillic Script, namcd altcr Cyril. Vc nd hcrc
this curious contrast bctwccn thc pattcrns ol wcstcrn
uropcwhat ! havc callcd unilormitarianand
castcrn uropc with its pcrmittcd divcrsitywhat has
bccn callcd autoccphalic, which allowcd cach cul tural
tradition to havc its own patriarch and its own cqually
lcgitimatc lorm ol Christianity. Tc autoccphalic typc
rcsultcd in a largc divcr sity ol dicrcnt kinds ol Chris
tianity in thc ast, whilc in thc Vcst thcrc was a singlc
tradi tion (thc Roman Catholic). Latcr this bccamc onc
ol thc rcasons that thcrc had to bc a Rclormation in
thc Vcst, and thcrc didnt havc to bc onc in thc ast.
Te Cluny Reform
Possibly duc to thc vcry tcrror ol thc circumstanccs
thcrc was anothcr lascinating dcvclop mcnt in this
pcriod. !t was thc appcarancc ol thc Cluny rcncwal in
thc monastic tradition. Vhat is thcrc about thc Cluny
movcmcnt which was so inucntial:
First ol all, it was thc bcginning ol thc our ishing,
thc rcnaissancc that wcllcd up toward thc cnd ol thc
pcriod. !t was thc bcginning ol a rclormation within
thc monastic tradition it scll. Tings had gonc lrom bad
to worsc, mainly duc to crccping aucncc. Just as it is
truc today in many ol thc Korcan churchcs, aucncc
ovcrtook thcsc outposts ol 8iblc study. Amazingly, il
you givc timc and spacc to a group ol pcoplc who arc
godly, hardworking, abstcmious, pcacclul and produc
tivc, and you lct thcm rccruit othcr pcoplc lor a hun
drcd or two hundrcd ycars, prctty soon thcy bccomc
labulously wcalthy. Tcn, as a rcsult ol thcir wcalth,
thcy bccomc targcts lor vandalism and robbcry.
Tc monastic ccntcrs soon bc camc thc placcs whcrc
wcalth accumulatcd. As a rcsult, thc sccular chicltains
bc gan to cast grccdy cycs upon thcm. And vcry oltcn
thcsc chicltains would ridc into onc ol thosc placcs
with somc horscmcn and soldicrs and takc it ovcr.
Somctimcs onc ol thcsc chicltains would put his son
in as thc abbota curious clash with thc tradition that
was alrcady thcrc. As a rc sult, thcsc monastic ccntcrs
oltcn wcnt down hill lastcr than thcy had gonc up hill.
!n othcr words, thc wcalthicr thcy bccamc, thc morc
likcly thcy wcrc to bc subjugatcd.
2

Tc Cluny Rclorm also occurrcd just at thc point whcn
so many monastcrics wcrc bcing takcn ovcr by civil
powcrs that this movcmcnt raiscd thc issuc ol what latcr
camc to bc callcd thc investiture controversy. !t had to
do with who was going to put on thc garmcnt. Vho is
going to invcst monastic lcadcrs with au thority, and
thus put on thc vcstmcnts ol au thority in a monastcry:
!t is cmincntly clcar that thcy did not think thc mcm
bcrs ol thc mo nastic community ought to clcct thcir
lcadcrs. Vould it thcn bc a local bishop who would
ap point an Abbot, a bishop who might wcll bc subjcct
to thc stringpulling ol thc local chicl tain: r should it
bc thc chicltain himscll: Vill thc Abbot himscll choosc
thc ncw abbot at somc point whcn his powcrs bcgan to
wanc, as had always bccn thc casc: r would somcbody
clsc havc powcr ovcr that monastic ccntcr:
Tis portrays a clash bc twccn thc dioccsan (parish) tradi
tion and thc monastic tradition in Christcndom. Vhat
rc solvcd thc clash is, in a way, thc singlc largcst powcr play
in thc history ol thc Christian movcmcnt. !t clcarly cs
tablishcd a ncw pattcrn, which is not what it sccms to bc.
Although tcchnically it was dccidcd that thc monastcrics
should bc subjcct to thc popc, hc had no rcal powcr what
socvcr ovcr thc monastcrics. !t was a sancticd subtcrlugc.
!t was a powcr play. !t rcsolvcd thc agcold tcnsion ovcr
thc qucstion ol who appoints a ncw abbot, csscntially
rcstor ing to thc monastic ccntcr scllrulc.
Aquitainc (thc arca ol thc rst Cluny housc) is in
southwcstcrn Francc. !n thosc days that was a long way
lrom Romc. And cvcn at our latc datc in history to day
thcrc is no rcal possibility ol thc popc hav ing any grcat
inucncc ovcr thc monastcrics. 8ut by saying that thc
popc was in chargc, thcy wcrc saying that thc bishop
and thc local chicltain wcrc not in chargc. Tis ncw
appcal to thc popc was a dcclaration ol indcpcndcncc,
so to spcak. Howcvcr, it was not so indcpcndcnt that it
madc thc monastcry a uniquc isolatcd island.
Tc Cluny Movcmcnt had trcmcndous spiritual powcr.
!t bcgan to nd othcr monastic ccntcrs and caught on
cvcry whcrc last. Prctty soon cight hundrcd othcr mo
nastic scttlc mcnts plcdgcd thcir loyalty to Romc alonc
(which mcant thcy plcdgcd thcir loyalty to no body lo
+: Tnv Tnivb Foiv Hixbvvb Yv~vs (A 8oo+:oo)
cal) and adoptcd thc lilcstylc ol thc Cluny movcmcnt.
Tis was callcd thc Cluny Rclorm.
Noticc thcrc arc two or thrcc things hap pcning hcrc.
First ol all, Cluny cstablishcd oncc and lor all history
thc lact that thc invcstiturc ol an abbot is not subjcct
to thc powcr ol a local bishop. Tis climinatcd any
claim to powcr thcrc might havc bccn ol a bishop ovcr
thc lcadcrship ol a monastic ccn tcr. Sccondly, it cstab
lishcd lor thc rst timc a conncctional dcvclopmcnt
within thc monastic tradition.
Tcrc was now a conncction bctwccn Cluny, thc
mothcr housc, and thc various daughtcr houscs,
although cach ol thcm had a ccrtain amount ol thcir
own authority. Tc daughtcr houscs submittcd thcm
sclvcs to thc mothcr housc, just likc thcy said thcy wcrc
submitting thcmsclvcs to thc popc in Romc. 8ut in
many cascs thcy didnt know or carc who thc popc in
Romc was. As a mattcr ol lact, thc popc at this partic
ular momcnt was onc ol thc lcast quali cd in thc cntirc
history ol thc papacy, an abso lutc scoundrcl, a violcnt,
murdcrous man.
Vc must not ovcrlook thc lact ol thc conncctional
dcvclopmcnt within thc monastic movc mcnt as a
rcsult ol this Cluny rclorm. To this day virtually cvcry
monastcry in thc world in thc Roman Catholic tradi
tion is part ol a conncctional group. Such clustcrs ol
monastcrics today arc callcdin thc Roman Catholic
vocabularycongrcgations. A congregation in thc
Catholic world usually rclcrs to a subdivision ol onc ol
thc major ordcrs. !n othcr words, tcn or ltccn monas
tcrics in a ccrtain rcgion will bc callcd a congregation.
Tc Superior Gen eralthc supcrior ol an ordcr who is
gcncral or lcadcr ovcr all thc vari ous congrcgations
may havc his occ in Romc. Tcn, bccausc thcrc arc
so many dicr cnt Catholic ordcrs, thcrc is a group ol
Supcriors Gcncral who livc in Romc. !ncidcn tally, thcy
havc a committcc on missions.
Latourcttc dcscribcs thc Cluny Movcmcnt with somc
carc, and it is worth looking at. !n my own opinion, thc
Clunys ovcrcmphasizcd thc idca ol worship. !t sccms
that whcn thcy gavc up working with thcir hands and
dccidcd just to pray, thcy wcrc parting ways with 8cnc
dict himscll. ! do not think thcy did this intcntionally
bccausc in thcir own minds thcy wcrc still 8cncdic
tincs, ol coursc. 8cncdict was vcry bal anccd (thc 8cnc
dictincs had a saying that to labor is to pray), but !
lccl thc Clunys lost somc ol that balancc.
Te Cistercian Renewal
Tc Cluny Movcmcnt was cstablishcd in 910. 8ut altcr
a rclativcly short timc that movc mcnt itscll bccamc so
opulcnt with bcautilul buildings, chapcls, paintings,
and cvcrything clsc, that anothcr rcncwal movc mcnt
arosc callcd thc Cistcrcians. ! havc a much highcr
rcgard lor thc Cistcrcians than ! do lor thc Clunys.
Latourcttc, in his A History of Christianity, mcntions
vc chicl charactcristics ol thc Cistcrcians, all ol which
arc vcry signicant. For cxamplc, thc Cistcrcians
wcnt back into thc swamps and startcd lrom scratch.
Tcy wcrc dctcrmincd not to gct rich. Tcy built thcir
monastic houscs cithcr in thc swamplands or on thc
stccp hillsidcs. Tc only thing thcy could possibly
do to makc a living would bc to grazc shccp on thc
hill sidcs and to drain thc swamps. Tcy oltcn did such
things and in thc proccss crcatcd vast arcas ol ncw and
highquality pasturc land. And altcr a hundrcd ycars
thc Cistcrcians had unintcntionally corncrcd thc wool
markct ol uropc. Tat is thc story ol thc Roman Cath
olic monastic movcmcnt again and again.
Other Developments
nc othcr phcnomcnon in thc ourishing ol this pc
riod is thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc scholastics. Long bclorc
1200, cvcn bclorc thc ycar 1000, thc numbcr ol Christian
scholars was growing. Ansclm is onc ol thc rst scholas
tics and Abclard pcrhaps thc scc ond. vcrlapping him
was Maimonidcs, who was not a Christian scholar but
Jcwish. Hc did a lantastic job ol lusing thc Jcwish Sc mitic
cultural tradition with thc knowlcdgc and thc philosophi
cal tradition ol thc Grccks. Tat lusion thcn gavc risc
quitc possibly to Tomas Aquinas work. Hc is thc most
lamous ol all thc scholastics, and hc livcd right around thc
ycar 1200. His work cast a long shadow into thc luturc
rcconciling Christian thought with Aristotclian thought,
just likc Maimonidcs had donc lor thc Jcwish tradition.
Tis scholastic movcmcnt was not rcally thc 8iblc
studying movcmcnt ol thc carlicr monas tic scholars by
any mcans. Tcsc wcrc now morc ncarly philosophcrs
than simply 8iblc scholars.
thcr dcvclopmcnts ol this pcriod wcrc thc dcvclop
mcnt ol thc univcrsitics ol u ropc and thc bcginning
ol thc Crusadcs.
!n thc nal ourishing ol this pcriod, Tc Twcllth
Ccntury Rcnaissancc, cathcdral building bccamc a lad.
Ralph D. Winter +
Almost all ol thc major cathcdrals ol uropc wcrc bcgun
during that pcriodmany taking ccnturics to complctc.
Tc most signicant dcvclopmcnt missiologically is
pcrhaps thc most importantthc appcarancc ol thc
lriars. Most ol thcir work was in thc ncxt 400ycar
pcriod, which will bc discusscd in lurthcr lcssons.
Finally, towards thc cnd ol this third pcriod thc \ikings,
oncc thcy bccamc Christians, thcmsclvcs litcrally bccamc
crusadcrs. All ol thc major crusadcs wcrc lcd by lormcr
\ikings, thc socallcd Northmen. Tcy had a grcat pcrccp
tion ol distancc and thc ability to navigatc and to travcl.
Tcy also still had thc lust lor war. vcn though thcy wcrc
now Christians, thcy still rctaincd this rathcr unlortunatc
warring bcnt. As crusadcrs, thcy dcstroycd many Chris
tian as wcll as Jcwish communitics in thcir rampaging.
Vc nccd to kccp track ol thcsc major dcvcl opmcnts
toward thc cnd ol this third pcriod bccausc things arc
rcally gctting cxciting now. Vc know lar morc about
thc ncxt pcriod wc arc going to look at than wc cvcr
kncw about things hap pcning bclorc, and not only
bccausc thcrc is morc data availablc, but morc things
wcrc happcning as wcll.
Endnotes
1
Although it is almost impossiblc lor mc to say this bccausc
! rcspcct Latourcttc so vcry much, in my cstimation, thc
biggcst singlc mis takc that hc cvcr madc in his writings is to
downplay thc Carolingian Rcnaissancc morc than hc should
havc. 8ccausc ol that hc docs not talk in tcrms ol two ark
Agcs, as many ol thc morc rcccnt scholars do.
2
Probably thc most larrcaching cxamplc ol thc syndromc ol
wcalth lcading to down lall was what is callcd thc dissolution
ol thc monastcrics in latcr history. Vhcn King Hcnry \!!!
dccidcd to divorcc Cathcrinc, his main rcason was not bccausc
hc wantcd to bccomc a Protcstant or cvcn to divorcc his wilc
and marry again, but simply bccausc hc nccdcd moncy. And
thc moncy was in thc hands ol thc monastcrics. According to
Luthcr, who livcd about thc samc timc, thc monastcrics wcrc
not valid. So King Hcnry \!!! lound it vcry dcsira blc to dis
solvc all thc monastcrics in ngland and to scizc thcir wcalth
as a political mancu vcr. Tis as much as any othcr rcason was
what madc Hcnry \!!! into a Protcstant.
Tc wcalth ol thc monastcrics was undoubtcdtly thc rcason
lor thcir downlall. Tis is why !, no longcr a cld missionary,
am still living on a missionary salary and cvcn promoting
in Amcrica an organization which will wclcomc any scrious
bclicvcr into its mcmbcrship and allow him thc privilcgc
ol liv ing on a missionarys salary. !t is callcd Te Or der for
World Evangelization. Tis ordcr simply cnablcs a pcrson to
choosc a mission socicty and to adopt thc salaricd lcvcl ol a
lurloughcd missionary as his own lilcstylc lcvcl. All thc rcst
ol his moncy thcn is madc availablc, by his own dccision, to
thc work ol thc Lord. Tis sccms to mc a pcrlcctly logical
way to ght aucncc.
!ll admit that wc havcnt had a massivc numbcr ol pcoplc
charging in to bccomc mcm bcrs. ! havc oltcn thought that
whilc many mis sionarics, to thcir crcdit, simply sucr along
with thcir missionary salary lcvcl, il lor any valid rcason thcy
could gct out ol thc harncss thcy wouldnt lccl bound by that
typc ol lilc stylc lcvcl. !l, howcvcr, you would likc a littlc cn
couragcmcnt to stay with this kind ol lilc stylc, thcn join thc
rdcr lor Vorld vangcli zation. Vc arc trying to combat
thc diculty ol staying poor by this approach.