Efficient Steam

Generation & Distribution

Dr. Bipin Thapliyal

Scientist
Central Pulp & Paper Research
Institute, Saharanpur
 Contents
„ Steam and its properties
„ Condensate and Flash Steam
„ Efficient Steam Generation
„ Steam Distribution
Why Steam is so popular as heat
conveying media in industry?

„ Highest specific heat and latent heat

„ Highest heat transfer coefficient

„ Easy to control and distribute

„ Cheap and inert

1. Energy
• Energy can neither created nor destroyed.
• It can always be accounted for, and if it disappears at point. A then it reappears in
equal amount at point B.
• The steam tables can be relied on always to provide information on the properties
of steam.
2. Heat Flow
• A temperature difference is necessary for heat to flow. Heat flows from higher-
temperature to lower-temperature.
• The rate of flow varies directly with temperature differences, and inversely with
any resistances to this flow.!
3. Fluid Flow
• Any fluid tends to flow from high-pressure to lower-pressure regions because of
the effects of friction,
• The rate of flow varies directly with pressure differences and inversely with any
resistances to this flow.
• Gravity acts downwards! the denser constituents in a mixture often tend to move to
the bottom of a space, unless other forces acting on them oppose such motion.
„ Saturated Steam
„ Super Heated Steam
„ Condensate
„ Flash Steam
 What is steam ?

„ Adding heat energy to water raises its

temperature: some 419.04 KJ will raise 1 kg
to 1000C, any further addition of heat
evaporates the water.
„ If 2257 KJ are added to each kg of water,
then all the water becomes the dry gas,
steam.
 Specific Volume of Steam
• In case, if only part of this extra energy is added –
say, 90% - then 90% of the water evaporates and the
other 10% remains liquid.
• The specific volume of steam at atmospheric
pressure is 1.673 m3/ kg, so the mixture 1 kg steam
containing 90% steam and 10% water would occupy
a volume of (0.9x 1.673)+ (0.1x 0.001) = 1.5057 m3.
• This mixture would be described as steam with a
dryness fraction of 0.9.
• If the water is kept at a pressure above atmospheric, its
temperature can be raised above 1000C before boiling
begins.
• At 10 bar gauge, for example, boiling point is at about
184.10C.
• The extra energy needed to convert water at this
pressure and temperature into steam (the enthalpy of
evaporation) is now rather less at 2000.1 KJ/ kg, while
the volume of 1 kg of pure steam is only 0.177 m3.
 Heat & Mass Flow of Steam
• When steam at the saturation temperature
contacts a surface at a lower temperature, and
heat flows to the cooler surface, some of the
steam condenses to supply the energy.
• The pressure and temperature of the steam
remain constant after condensing, due to a
sufficient supply of steam moving into the
volume which had been occupied by the steam
and is now condensed.
• The condensate produced within the heat
exchangers, as also within the steam lines, is
initially at the saturation temperature and carries
the same pressure.
• If it is discharged to a lower pressure, through a
manual or automatic drain valve (steam trap) or
even through a leak, it then contains more
energy than water is able to hold at the lower
pressure if it is to remain liquid.
• If steam at the saturation temperature were to contact a surface
at a higher temperature, as in some boilers, its temperature
could be increased above the evaporation temperature and the
steam would be described as superheated.
• Superheated steam is very desirable in turbines, where its use
allows higher efficiencies to be reached, but it is much less
satisfactory than saturated steam in heat exchangers.
• It behaves as a dry gas, giving up its heat content rather
reluctantly as compared with saturated steam, which offers
much higher heat transfer coefficients.
 Condensate & Flash Steam
• The condensate often contains excess of energy.
• If the excess energy amounts to, say, 5% of the enthalpy of
evaporation at the lower pressure, then 5% of the water would
be evaporated. The steam released by this drop in pressure
experienced by high–temperature water is usually called flash
steam.
• Recovery and use of this low-pressure steam, released by
flashing, is one of the easiest ways of improving the efficiency
of steam-utilization systems.
 Condensate & Flash Steam

• It is equally true that condensate, even if it has been

released to atmospheric pressure, carries the same 419.04
KJ/kg of heat energy that any other water at the same
temperature would hold.
• Condensate is a form of distilled water, requiring little
chemical feed treatment of softening. And it already holds
energy which may amount 15% of the energy which would
have to be supplied to cold make-up feed water, even in
relatively low-pressure systems.
Steam Generation
 Steam Generation: Boiler
„ A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for
combustion heat to be transferred into water until it
becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam
under pressure is then usable for transferring the heat to
a process.
„ When water is boiled into steam its volume increases
about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
explosive as gunpowder.
„ This causes the boiler to be extremely dangerous
equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
 Boiler Types and
Classifications
There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but
generally they fit into one of two categories:
„ Fire tube or “fire in tube”
boilers;contain long steel
tubes through which the
hot gasses from a furnace
pass and around which
the water to be converted
to steam circulates.
„ Fire tube boilers, typically have a lower initial cost, are
more fuel efficient and easier to operate, but they are
limited generally to capacities of 25 tons/hr and pressures
of 17.5 kg/cm2.
 Boiler Types and Classifications

Water tube or “water in tube”

boilers are in which the the
water passes through the
tubes and the hot gasses
passes outside the tubes.

These boilers can be of single- or multiple-drum type.

These boilers can be built to any steam capacities and
pressures, and have higher efficiencies than fire tube
boilers.
 Boiler Types and Classifications

Packaged Boiler: The

packaged boiler is so called
because it comes as a
complete package.
Once delivered to site, it
requires only the steam, water
pipe work, fuel supply and
electrical connections to be
made for it to become
Package boilers are generally of shell type with fire tube
operational.
design so as to achieve high heat transfer rates by both
radiation and convection
 Stoker Fired Boiler:
Stokers are classified according to the method of feeding fuel to the
furnace and by the type of grate. The main classifications are:
1. Chain-grate or traveling-grate stoker and 2. Spreader stoker

Chain-Grate
or Traveling-
Grate Stoker
Boiler
 Spreader Stoker Boiler
Spreader stokers utilize a combination of suspension burning and
grate burning.
The coal fines are burned in
suspension; the larger particles
fall to the grate, where they are
burned in a thin, fastburning coal
bed.
This method of firing provides
good flexibility to meet load
fluctuations, since ignition is
almost instantaneous when firing
rate is increased.
Hence, the spreader stoker is
favored over other types of
stokers in many industrial
 Pulverized Fuel Boiler
The coal is ground (pulverised) to a fine powder, so that less than
2% is +300 micro metre (µm) and 70-75% is below 75 microns, for
a bituminous coal.
The pulverised coal is blown with part of the combustion air into
the boiler plant through a series of burner nozzles.
Secondary and tertiary air may also be added. Combustion takes
place at temperatures from 1300-1700°C, depending largely on
coal grade.
One of the most popular systems for
firing pulverized coal is the
tangential firing using four burners
corner to corner to create a fireball
at the center of the furnace
 FBC Boiler
Air & finely divided bed of solid particles (sand) are supported on a
fine mesh. At a particular air velocity, a stage is reached when the
individual particles are suspended in the air stream.
Further, increase in velocity gives rise to bubble formation, vigorous
turbulence and rapid mixing and the bed is said to be fluidized.

The sand in a fluidized state is heated

to the ignition temperature of the coal
and the coal is injected continuously in
to the bed. The coal burns rapidly, and
the bed attains a uniform temperature
due to effective mixing.
 Advantages of Fluidised bed
combustion over conventional firing
systems
• Fuel flexibility,
• Reduced emission of
noxious pollutants such as
SOx and NOx,
• Compact boiler design and
• Higher combustion
efficiency.
 Efficient Steam Generation
The various efficient steam generation opportunities
in boiler system are related to;
• Combustion of fuel,
• Heat transfer,
• Avoidable losses,
• High auxiliary power consumption,
• Water quality and
• Blowdown.
 Efficient Steam Generation
Examining the following factors can indicate if a
boiler is being run to maximize its efficiency:
1. Stack Temperature
Stack temperatures greater than 200°C indicates
potential for recovery of waste heat.
It also indicates the scaling of heat transfer/recovery
equipment and hence the urgency of taking an early
shut down for water / flue side cleaning.
 Efficient Steam Generation

2. Feed Water Preheating using Economiser

The potential for energy saving depends on the type of
boiler installed and the fuel used.
For a typically older model shell boiler, with a flue gas exit
temperature of 260 °C, an economizer could be used to
reduce it to 200 °C, increasing the feed water temperature
by 15 °C. Increase in overall thermal efficiency would be in
the order of 3%.
For a modern 3-pass shell boiler firing natural gas with a flue
gas exit temperature of 140 °C a condensing economizer
would reduce the exit temperature to 65 °C increasing
thermal efficiency by 5%.
 Efficient Steam Generation
3. Combustion Air Preheat
Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feedwater
heating.
In order to improve thermal efficiency by 1%, the combustion
air temperature must be raised by 20 °C.
Most gas and oil burners used in a boiler plant are not
designed for high air preheat temperatures.
Modern burners can withstand much higher combustion air
preheat, so it is possible to consider such units as heat
exchangers in the exit flue as an alternative to an
economizer, when either space or a high feed water return
temperature make it viable
 Efficient Steam Generation
4. Incomplete Combustion
In the case of oil and gas fired systems,
• CO or smoke with normal or high excess air indicates
burner system problems.
• poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner.
• Poor oil fires can result from
• improper viscosity,
• worn tips,
• carbonization on tips and
• deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates.
 Efficient Steam Generation

5. Excess Air Control

Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure
complete combustion, to allow for the normal variations in
combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions
for some fuels.
The optimum excess air level for maximum boiler
efficiency occurs when the sum of the losses due to
incomplete combustion and loss due to heat in flue gases
is minimum.
This level varies with furnace design, type of burner, fuel
and process variables. It can be determined by
conducting tests with different air fuel ratios.
Relation Between CO2 and Excess Air for
Fuel Oil
Relation Between Residual Oxygen and Excess
Air
 Efficient Steam Generation

Various methods available to control the excess air are:

• Portable oxygen analysers and draft gauges - Excess air
reduction up to 20% is feasible.
• Continuous oxygen analyzer with a local readout
mounted draft gauge, by which the operator can adjust
air flow. A further reduction of 10–15% can be achieved.
• Damper control by continuous oxygen analyzer. This
enables an operator to remotely control a number of firing
systems simultaneously.
• The automatic fan speed control from O2 analyser feed,
It’s cost is really justified only for large systems.
 Efficient Steam Generation
6. Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
With modern boiler designs, this may represent only
1.5% on the gross calorific value at full rating, but will
increase to around 6%, if the boiler operates at only 25
percent output.
Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss
through boiler walls and piping.
7. Automatic Blowdown Control
Uncontrolled continuous blowdown is very wasteful.
Automatic blowdown controls can be installed that sense
and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH.
A 10% blow down in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler results in 3%
 Efficient Steam Generation

8. Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses

Elevated stack temperatures may indicate excessive soot
buildup or scaling on the water side.
When the flue gas temperature rises about 20 °C above
the temperature for a newly cleaned boiler, it is time to
remove the soot deposits.
It is estimated that 3 mm of soot can cause an increase in
fuel consumption by 2.5% due to increased flue gas
temperatures.
Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces,
boiler tube banks, economizers and air heaters may be
necessary to remove stubborn deposits
 Efficient Steam Generation

9. Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure

This is an effective means of reducing fuel consumption,
if permissible, by as much as 1 to 2%.
Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated steam
temperature and without stack heat recovery, a similar
reduction in the temperature of the flue gas temperature
results.
Pressure should be reduced in stages, and no more than
a 20 percent reduction should be considered.
 Efficient Steam Generation

10. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and

Pumps
In general, if the load characteristic of the boiler is
variable, the possibility of replacing the dampers by a
VSD should be evaluated.
11. Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency
The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at
full load, but at about two-thirds of the full load. If the load
on the boiler decreases further, efficiency also tends to
decrease.
 Efficient Steam Generation
12. Proper Boiler Scheduling
It is usually more efficient, on the whole, to operate a
fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than to operate a
large number at low loads.
13. Boiler Replacement
A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the
existing boiler is :
•old and inefficient
•not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
•over or under-sized for present requirements
•not designed for ideal loading conditions
Replacement must be carefully studied.
Efficient Steam Utilization
and Distribution
Energy in Fuel to Useful Energy
Energy in Fuel Purchased

Cost of Energy into Factory

Heat Generation

Distribution

Cost of Energy To Process

Utilisation in Production Process

Final Utilisation Cost

Heat to Product
 Example of System Loss
The typical steam system overall efficiency is about 35% as follows:
25%
20%

5% P P
R R
O O
C D
OIL 100% Boiler 80%
Steam Mains
75% 35%
E U
S C
5%
S T
10%
15%

Condensate Return System

Generation Distribution Utilisation

efficiency efficiency= 83% efficiency
80% (including conden- 47%
sate return)
 Efficient Steam Utilisation
„ Avoid steam leakages
„ Provide dry steam for process
„ Utilising steam at the lowest possible pressure
„ Insulation of steam pipelines and hot process
equipment
„ Minimising barriers to heat transfer
„ Condensate recovery
„ Flash steam recovery
„ Proper selection and maintenance of steam traps
„ Proper sizing of steam and condensate piping
„ Reducing the work to be done by steam
Avoiding Steam Leakages
 Leaking Steam Pipe / Valve
Audible Leak Visible Leak

Weak whistling Weak hissing

Almost invisible steam jet Visible steam jet

800
800litre
litreoil
oilper
peryear
year 2,000
2,000to
to4,000
4,000litre
litreoil
oilper
peryear
year
 Provide dry steam for the process

„ Disadvantages of wet steam

„ Less heat content, Extended process time, Irregular
heating, Barrier to heat transfer, Overloading of steam
traps
„ Disadvantages of superheated steam
„ Poor heat transfer coefficient, takes time to give up
superheat by conduction
„ Benefits of dry steam
„ Heat transfer is rapid and regular
 Providing Dry Steam for Process

‰ Use Dry Saturated

steam for
processes
‰ Steam Separators
to be fitted at point
of steam use

Provide a little superheat to ensure dry saturated steam

at the process end
 Utilising steam at the lowest
possible pressure
2730.7 KJ/kg 2770.8 KJ/kg Total Heat

Steam should always be generated

2151.3 KJ/kg 2054 KJ/kg
Latent Heat and distributed at the highest possible
pressure but utilised at the lowest
practicable pressure

579.4 KJ/kg 716.8 KJ/kg Sensible Heat

2.4 bar, 121.5oC 6.8 bar, 164.3oC

 Optimal Insulation
Heat loss, 89 mm black steel pipe, 90 oC

Uninsulated 50 mm insulation 100 mm insulation

320 W/m 29 W/m 19 W/m

50 mm insulation compared with an uninsulated pipe: 320 - 29 = 291 W per m

263 litre oil per year
50 mm insulation compared with 100 mm insulation: 29 - 19 = 10 W per m
9 litre oil per year
...But don’t Over-Insulate:
There is always an optimum insulation level (1-3 years payback)
 Direct Utilization of Steam

‰ Direct Steam use

involves both Latent
Heat and Sensible
Heat
‰ Use temperature
controller in Direct Use
to avoid steam
wastage
 Minimising barriers to heat transfer
film
at e

all

pro nant

t
duc
e ns

t
w
ilm

Resistance to heat transfer of

duc
am

g
le

tal

le
nd

pro
Sta
f

Sc a

Sc a
Air

Me
Ste

Co

water is 60 – 70 times more than

steel and 500 – 600 times than
copper

Resistance to heat transfer of Air

is 1500 times more than steel and
19,000 times than copper
 Effect of air and water film
Steam at 0.75 kg/.cm2:Air and water film reduced by
Steam at 1 kg/cm2 50 % ; Quicker process time

film

film
all

all

pro nant
pro nant

t
duc

duc
t
t
w

w
ilm

ilm

duc
duc
at e

at e
am
am

g
g
tal

tal
pro

pro
Sta
Sta
f

f
e ns

e ns
Air

Air
Me

Me
Ste
Ste

nd

nd
Co

Co
250OC

240OC

210OC 210OC
 Boiler Fuel Saving by Condensate Return
Saving in percent if condensate is returned to the boiler instead of draining

14
12
10
100% returned
Percentage 8
saved 6 50 % returned
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Condensate return temp. oC

For every 6OC rise in boiler feed water temperature,

there is a 1 % raise in boiler efficiency
 Reducing the work to be done by steam

„ Have shortest route of piping

„ Remove moisture mechanically to the fullest before
steam drying / avoid bone drying
„ Optimise humidity of drier exhaust
„ Explore process integration
„ Use thermostatic controls
„ Remove / blank redundant lines
„ Productive use of machinery (Maximise equipment loading)
„ Look for cheaper alternatives of doing the job (waste heat
boilers, thermic fluid heater etc)
 Steam Piping : Features
„ while laying new pipes ,it is a compromise between
aesthetic design and architect’s plans.
„ Steam pipes should be laid by the shortest possible
distance.
„ Provision for proper draining of condensate.
„ For example, a 100mm well lagged pipe of 30-
meter length carrying steam at 7 Kg/cm2 pressure
can condense nearly 10 Kg. of water in the pipe in
one hour unless it is removed from the pipe through
traps.
„ The pipes should run with a fall (slope)of not less
than 12.5 mm in 3 meter in the direction of flow.
„ Large pockets in the pipes to enable water to
collect
„ Drain pockets should be provided at every 30 to
50 meters and at any low point in the pipe
network.
„ Expansion loops are required to take care of the
expansion of pipes when they get heated up.
„ Automatic air vents should be fixed at the dead
end of steam mains, which will allow removal of
air, which will tend to accumulate.
 Steam Pipe Sizing and Design

1. Pipe Sizing
ƒ Proper sizing of steam pipelines help in minimizing
pressure drop.

ƒ The velocities for various types of steam are:

„ Superheated 50-70 m/sec
„ Saturated 30-40 m/sec
„ Wet or Exhaust 20-30 m/sec

ƒ The steam piping should be sized, based on permissible

velocity and the available pressure drop in the line.
ƒ A higher pipe size will reduce the pressure drop and thus
the energy cost. However, higher pipe size will increase
the initial installation cost.
„ By use of smaller pipe size, even though the
installation cost can be reduced, the energy cost will
increase due to higher-pressure drop.
„ Pressure drop change is inversely proportional to the
5th power of diameter change.
„ Hence, care should be taken in selecting the
optimum pipe size.
2) Pipe Redundancy
3) Drain Points
„ These points help in removing water in the pipes due to
condensation of steam.
„ The presence of water causes water hammering.
„ A steam trap must be provided at the drain points to
avoid leakage of steam.
Steam average velocity (in m/s)
Nominal pipe size (in mm) Below 50 50 to 150 200 & above

Saturated steam at sub-atmospheric pressure - 10 - 15 15 - 20

Saturated steam at 0-1 kg/cm2.(g) 15 - 20 17 - 30 20 - 30

Saturated steam at 1.1 - 7 kg/cm2.(g) 15 - 22 20 - 33 25 - 43

Saturated steam over 7 kg/cm2.(g) 15 - 25 20 - 35 30 - 50

Superheated steam at 0 - 7 kg/cm2.(g) 20 - 30 25 - 40 30 - 50

Superheated steam at 7.1-35 kg/cm2.(g) 20 - 33 28 - 43 35 - 55

Superheated steam at 35.1 - 70 Kg/cm2.(g) 22 - 33 30 - 50 40 - 61

Superheated steam over 70 kg/cm2.(g) 22 - 35 35 - 61 50 - 76

 Steam Traps?
A steam trap is a valve device that discharges
condensate and air from the line or piece of equipment
without discharging the steam.
„ The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain
fast heating of the product and equipment by keeping
the steam lines and equipment free of condensate, air
and non-condensable gases.
„ Functions
„ To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed
„ Not to allow steam to escape.
„ To be capable of discharging air and other incondensable
gases
 Types of Steam Traps

G roup P r in c ip le
M e c h a n ic a l tr a p D if f e r e n c e in
b e tw e e n s te a m
c o n d e n s a te .
T h e r m o d y n a m ic
D if f e r e n c e in
tr a p th e r m o d y n a m ic p r o p e r tie s
b e tw e e n s te a m a n d
c o n d e n s a te
T h e r m o s ta tic D if f e r e n c e in te m p e r a tu r e B im e ta llic ty p e m e ta l
tr a p b e tw e e n s te a m
c o n d e n s a te
‰ To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed
‰ Not to allow steam to escape.
‰ To be capable of discharging air and other incondensable gases
S u b -g r o u p
d e n s ity B u c k e t ty p e
and - O pen bucket
- I n v e r te d b u c k e t,
w ith le v e r ,
w ith o u t le v e r
- F lo a t ty p e
- F lo a t w ith le v e r
- F r e e f lo a t
D is c ty p e
O r if ic e ty p e
a n d e x p a n s io n ty p e .
 Flash Steam

Flash steam available in % - S1 - S2

L2
S1 - Sensible heat of high pressure condensate
S2 - Sensible heat of steam at lower pressure
(at which it is flashed)
L2 - Latent heat of flash steam at lower pressure
 Make a steam balance
24 TPH
8 bar
Boiler Distribution
Steam Header 7 TPH VAPOR ABSORPTION
PRDV
REFRIGERATION
12 Bar

4 TPH CONTINUOUS
2 TPH STERILISER
DG Set
WHR
Steam 8 Bar

PRDV

3 Bar

0.5TPH 3 TPH
DEAERATOR Bleed

11 TPH Media 4 TPH

FERMENTATION
Sterilisation

PILOT PLANT Germinator 4 TPH

Sterile vessels
Pre fermentor
MICRO BIOLOGY
LAB 0.5 TPH

EXTRACTION

SOLVENT 2.5 TPH

RECOVERY

FUEL OIL TANK 0.5 TPH

FARM
Conduct Steam audit
Specific Steam Consumption

300 40
35
250
Production (Tonnes)

30

KL / Tonne of PE
200
25
150 20
15
100
10
50
5
0 0
Sep'96 Oct'96 Nov'96 Dec'96 Jan'97 Feb'97 Mar'97 Apr'97 May'97 Jun'97 Jul'97 Aug'97

Month Production (Total PE)

Steam (T) /Ton of PE

Conclusion
At your plant;

„ Ensure proper sizing of steam lines

„ Select right type of traps
„ Test and identify malfunctioning traps
„ Quantify steam leakages
„ Determine heat loss from leakages
„ Quantify flash steam and its recovery
„ Identify energy saving opportunities in steam
distribution and utilization systems