12 - Emotions in Organisation An Integral Perspective PDF

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Int. J. Work Organisation and Emotion, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2008
Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective Wendelin Kpers

Department of Management and International Business, Massey University, Auckland Campus, New Zealand E-mail: WendelinMerlin@t-online.de *Corresponding author
Jrgen Weibler
Business Administration, Leadership, and Organisation, University of Hagen, Profilstr. 8 - D-58084 Hagen, Germany E-mail: Juergen.Weibler@FernUni-Hagen.de
Abstract: The main purpose of this paper is to outline the state-of-the-art of research on emotion in organisations and to provide perspectives on an integral orientation and research approach. On the basis of an extended understanding of emotions, reasons for the neglect of emotions and some main influences of emotions in organisations and research findings are presented. An integral framework is then proposed, which allows a more comprehensive understanding by covering various interdependent dimensions of emotions in organisations. Following this, there is a discussion of the theoretical and methodological implications and future directions for more integral research on emotion in organisations. Keywords: feelings; emotion; organisation; integral perspectives. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Kpers, W. and Weibler, J. (2008) Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective, Int. J. Work Organisation and Emotion, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp.256287. Biographical notes: Wendelin Kpers works as Senior Lecturer and Senior Researcher at the Department of Management and International Business, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. Before he as been affiliated to the Chair of Business Administration, Leadership, and Organisation at the University in Hagen, Germany and the Institute for Leadership and Human Resource Management at the University of St. Gallen, Switzerland. He received his PHD from the University of Witten/Herdecke, Germany. In his research he focuses on integral leadership and followership, as well as emotional and aesthetic dimensions as well as issues related to knowledge and learning in organisations. Jrgen Weibler, PhD, is Full Professor of Business Administration, Leadership and Organisation at the University of Hagen (FernUniversitt in Hagen), Germany. For many years he was the Research Director of the Institute for Leadership and Human Resource Management at the University of St. Gallen, Switzerland, and was later Professor for Management at the University of Constance, Germany, as well a Guest Professor at MGSM, Sydney. He is co-editor of the German Journal of Human Resource Research. Besides he served as a consultant to numerous organisations. In his research he focuses on leadership, organisational change, and ethics in organisations.
Copyright 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective
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Introduction
Do organisations have real feelings (Albrow, 1997; van Maanen and Kunda, 1989)? How relevant are they, and why have emotional dimensions in organisational theory and practice been neglected? What are the main findings and can a more integral understanding of feelings and emotions be developed? By responding to these questions, this paper interprets organisations as specific emotional life-worlds in the current context. At present, organisations are being challenged by increased competition and technological developments, exponential innovations and the acceleration of various discontinuous change processes, which all affect feelings and relate to emotional dimensions in organisations. Transformation endeavours involving downsizing, delayering and layoffs create new emotional exigencies and require more effective actions and flexibility on the part of all members of the organisation. Moreover, an increasing set of organisational and managerial tasks requires the expression and regulation or management of particular feelings across multiple circumstances. For organisations, it is becoming imperative to promote those emotions that will help create and maintain effective, efficient and productive organisational functioning in a sustainable way, as well as regulating and managing problematic emotions. Furthermore, emotions represent valuable resources for generating innovation and added value in an increasingly competitive market context. Given this reality and significance, organisational practice and corresponding studies need to understand the actual influence and potential of emotions. However, in contrast to their apparent importance, for a long time organisation and management research did not consider the vital role of feelings and emotions sufficiently. On the contrary, for various reasons as outlined in the following emotional dimensions have been neglected topics in organisational studies and in economic research in general (Kpers and Weibler, 2005). Currently, a growing body of literature is investigating the role of emotions in causing, moderating or mediating events and interactions in organisations, as well as emotional outcomes for an assortment of organisational phenomena (e.g., Ashkanasy, 2004; Fineman, 2000, 2003). Increasingly, researchers are attempting to integrate insights from divergent perspectives and are using the lens of emotions to re-examine different aspects of organisational life (Stanley and Burrows, 2001; Barley and Kunda, 1992). Even economists are increasingly recognising the importance of emotion in human economic behaviour (Elster, 1998; Loewenstein, 2000; Thaler, 2000; Bowles and Gintis, 2002; Gchter and Fehr, 2001).1 With this broadening of scope, there is a growing recognition of how all-important emotional factors are in making and sustaining connections between people, communities and organisational and management settings. Rather than conceiving the workplace as merely a cold, rational machine, researchers are taking emotional processes and impacts as an integral element of organisational life into account (Fineman, 2000; Giardini and Frese, 2004; Schreygg and Sydow, 2001). This renewed interest in research shows that understanding organisations in the context of the real world with all the associated constraints, pressing needs and conflicts requires studying the role of emotions more systematically. Nevertheless, the issue of researching emotion in organisation studies poses particular difficulties for methodological and epistemological and for moralpolitical concerns
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W. Kpers and J. Weibler
(Fineman, 2005; Sturdy, 2003). The comparative novelty of emotion research combined with its multidimensional character opens up not only theoretical challenges, but also tremendous possibilities, including even a reconciliatory potential (Sturdy, 2003, p.83; Burkitt, 1997, p.37). Accordingly, emotion research is not simply concerned with an empirical filling-in of organisation studies, but can contribute to broader theoretical developments. In view of the deficits and neglect of methodological issues in researching emotions in organisations, alternative research approaches and multi-dimensional and integrative ways of looking at emotions are urgently demanded (Sturdy, 2003, p.95). On the basis of a conceptual overview, the objective of this paper is to contribute to an integral understanding of emotional phenomena in organisations. After outlining an extended understanding of feelings and emotion, we analyse reasons for why researchers have hitherto neglected emotions and summarise some main findings gained in recent research on emotions in specific fields. Following this, we then propose an integral framework that incorporates individual and collective emotional dimensions more comprehensively. Finally, we discuss some theoretical and methodological implications and open perspectives for a more integral emotion research.
1.1 Understanding emotions

Over time, philosophers have pondered on the relation between emotion and human reason and action (Hatzimoysis, 2003). Recently, the phenomena of emotions have been explored by several very different disciplines, including biology, psychoanalysis, cognitive and social psychology, sociology, neuroscience and behavioural science and economics. The level of understanding and analysis attained in this research has varied according to the perspectives from which emotions are investigated. Accordingly, various approaches, theories and concepts investigate different aspects of emotions and emotional dimensions. The fact that emotions are studied by such a broad range of disciplines itself indicates that they are multi-faceted and not easily understood. Not being a monolithic phenomenon, emotions are a manifold, complex event, eluding simple scientific comprehension and treatment (Burkitt, 1997, 1999; Ekman and Davidson, 1994; Elster, 1999; Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981; Le Doux, 1996). Basically, feeling and emotion may occur on different levels; they can be both intra-personal and interactive states and process. Furthermore, emotional experiences cannot be separated from cognitive, symbolising and action-oriented processes. Being more than processed information, bio-chemicalneuronal mechanisms or affective behavioural reactions, they are varied structures and processes of human day-to-day functioning. Because emotions are active ways of organising experience, they not only connect with, but also perpetually constitute their objects, although in different ways with different persons, and very often in very ambivalent ways (see Section 3.3). Consequently, emotions and emotional experiences themselves are never finished entities, but are in a continuous process (Barbalet, 1998). This dynamic character of emotional experience explains why it is so difficult to come up with a definition of emotions. Instead of essentialising notions, it is more productive to view emotions as dynamic process and communicative events that mediate body, mind, social and cultural relations. According to Burkitt (1997), emotions can be viewed not simply as things or mere expressions of inner processes, but as multi-dimensional complexes or modes of communication. As such, they are both embodied and socio-cultural, arising in interpersonal relationships of power and interdependence (Burkitt, 1997, p.37;
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Bendelow and Williams, 1998, p.137). According to this relational approach, emotions are co-constituted by various factors and relationships that can be understood as a network of ongoing processes of meaning, identity formation and sharing, as well as directing and energising activity (George and Brief, 1992).
1.2 Embodied and social emotions

One central attribute of emotions is that they are directed towards or engaged with the world in a moving way. The very word emotion is derived from the Latin, e-movere, e-motum, (e = out, + movere = to move). Thus, e-motion basically means to move out. This etymological kinaesthetic understanding refers directly to the fact that to experience an emotion is to engage in and bodily enact intentional and expressive relations with the world. In contrast to moods, as a more passive situated state-of-mind (Morris, 1989), emotions can be considered to be embodied dynamic dispositions for, and realisations of, intentions, enacted in various ways of expressions and actions. In addition to body-based personal feelings (Mazis, 1993) encompassing subjectively felt sensation emotions refer to interactive relations within social interactions (Kpers and Weibler, 2005). Thus, emotions are brought into play by the actions of others, and as such they influence and are influenced by interpersonal relationships and social situations (de Rivera, 1984; Ekman, 1984; Frijda and Mesquita, 1994; Waldron, 2000).
1.3 Basic functions of emotions

Functionally, emotions coordinate structure and regulate human perception and understanding of events, other people and the world in general (Frijda et al., 2000). They inform us about our social surroundings and concomitant attitudes and expectations, as well as about possible actions. In particular, emotions cause us to direct and adjust our level of attention selectively. That is, they make us more or less likely to pursue specific courses of action (tendencies) or to engage in specific behaviours. These behaviours and their consequences then affect the relationships we have with others, as others will react according to the signals they receive (Frijda and Mesquita, 1994). Therefore, emotions are not only prime motivators of human action, but also aid, and are media for, personal and social orientations and practices. For example, the expressive characteristics of emotion in voice, face, gesture and posture serve as an important signalling function in communicating emotional states to others. With all its various impacts, emotional processes not only influence thoughts, beliefs, actions and social relations, they cannot be separated from them (Frijda et al., 2000). Moreover, emotions are products of the way social systems of meaning are created and negotiated between people (Fineman, 2000, p.2). Furthermore, emotional processes can also be interpreted as evaluative activities (de Sousa, 1987) or better, as a web of constitutive judgements through which things appear in a certain way (Solomon, 2003). This evaluative function helps people find, create and employ appropriate strategies, e.g., of deciding and acting (Solomon, 1980; Solomon and Calhoun, 1984). Through this evaluative orientation, emotions facilitate inferences about the consequences associated with alternative courses of action. Moreover, in addition to automatic effective responses, emotion influences behaviour as a diagnostic feedback system that may be useful for
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sophisticated goal pursuit and learning to behave effectively in complex social and cultural situations (Baumeister et al., 2007). Given the various functions and qualities of emotions discussed above, researchers have converged on a definition of emotions as phenomena involving different subsystems and complex components of functioning (Frijda, 1994; Izard, 1991), grouped as multicomponent patterns of appraisals and emotion families (Scherer, 1984, 1994, 2000). As such, they are of utmost relevance for human existence, in general, and in an organisational context, in particular.
Neglect and disregard of emotions in organisations
Organisations are sites of joy, satisfaction and pleasure, as they are life-worlds of anger, dissatisfaction and worry. Members of organisations can be anxious because of work problems or because of a fear of being made redundant, frustrated by perceived injustice, ashamed of their behaviour or envious of the success of colleagues. But, they can also be excited by the prospect of a challenging project, content with the outcome of an appraisal interview or happy due to honest praise of colleagues or managers. Much of our individual and social life in organisations is emotional as well, as organisations are co-constituted and influenced by emotional dimensions. Vibrating as they do with intense processes of experienced emotions, organisations are a kind of emotional arena, providing a stage for a broad range of feelings and passions (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Even more, emotions do not just have an impact on social life in organisations: they co-constitute and are interdependent with the organisational life itself, i.e., co-determining and being determined by organisational order and culture (van Maanen and Kunda, 1989). Given the impact that emotions have on organisational life, why have they been largely neglected and ignored in organisational studies until recently? Fineman (1993) argues that scholars and researchers have failed to examine the interaction between emotions and organisations for four reasons: First, because researchers wanted to separate conceptions of people from those of organisations, second, because they wanted to reify organisations, third, because it was seen as important to separate processes of rationality from those of emotion, and fourth, because they wanted to suppress, deny or minimise emotions (Fineman, 1993, p.180). One of the main reasons why emotions have been neglected is that they challenge the myth of rationality prevailing in economic reasoning and acting (Putnam and Mumby, 1993). Emotions represent the other; the opposite side of the rational. This dualistic orientation is deep-rooted in Western thinking, which has a tendency to conceive of ideas in a polarised, adversarial fashion. Just as Western thought conceives of dualities between culture and nature, mind and body, male and female, objective and subjective, or order and disorder, public and private (to name but a few), it conceives emotionality as diametrically opposed to rationality. The two concepts are divorced and thought of as being yet another pair of binary opposites (Albrow, 1997; Parkin, 1993). Accordingly, irrational emotions are seen as opposed to rational organisations; a dualism that also prevails in conventional understanding in organisation research and practice. Rationality has been (and is still) revered because it involves objectivity and cognition, which are taken as features of masculinity, in contrast to emotionality, which is characterised by subjectivity, chaos and bodily drives, all of which are taken as feminine and negative.
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Thus, emotions have been and are still seen as disruptive (Oatley and Johnson-Laird, 1987, p.30) or as a barrier to rational and effective organisation and management (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Owing to a bias towards rationality, many research investigations disregarded concrete emotional processes or approached them as reductionalists. For example, investigating cognitively based cold, rather than hot emotional processes has been predominant in scholarly understandings of work motivation (Forgas and George, 2001) or organisational behaviour (Brief and Weiss, 2002b; Barsade et al., 2003). Consequently, emotions have been consistently marginalised or devalued as illegitimate or inappropriate to organisational life (Putman and Mumby, 1993, p.39). Moreover, they have been seen as a threatening or unwanted influence, deflecting objective and rational functioning in the economy and organisations, seen mechanistically as a machine. Max Weber, for example, writing about the bureaucratic mode of organising as part of modern rationalisation, described organisation as something that systematically eliminates from official business love, hatred and all personal irrational elements (Weber, 1968, p.973). Correspondingly, emotions have been evaluated as incalculable and irrational and as unruly, undesirable, hence as something that needs to be contained or controlled and managed in the workplace to reduce unpredictability and ensure rationality and order (Fulop and Linstead, 1999). Accordingly, feelings and emotions collide with the underlying paradigms of modern economic theory. Specifically, they conflict with the idea of man as homo oeconomicus, that is acting merely in accordance with the economic principles of rationality and instrumental reason; disregarding homo sentiens (Archer, 2000) and eliding emotional man (Flam, 1990). Consequently, scientific theorising has ignored for a long time the role of emotions in organisations as a subject unsuitable for rigorous research (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Following a one-sided cognitive bias and focus on performance, output or efficiency, emotions have not been considered systematically in studies of business administration. With only a few exceptions (e.g., Schreygg and Sydow, 2001; Kpers and Weibler, 2005), emotions have not been investigated as a genuine topic in traditional economic business administration thinking and organisational studies. However, to overlook or underestimate the influences of situated emotions e.g., on work and motivation is to miss important experiential dimensions of organisational life that are required in order to thrive (George and Brief, 1996; Seo et al., 2004; Rafaeli, 2001).
Impact and different influences of emotions in organisations
The essential role of feelings and emotions is related to the fact that they in fact inform, shape, and reflect the life of organisations in various ways. Importantly, feelings and emotions influence the way members of organisations perceive, interpret, control and evaluate their own and shared states and actions (Waldron, 1994, 2000). Accordingly, there are various positive and negative influences and effects that emotions exert on relevant organisational processes as summarised in the example in the Appendix.
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Moreover, emotions affect organisations at all levels and in all spheres, including the organisations external relations. For example, the degree to which members of an organisation are free to express or are pressured to suppress their emotions influences the quality of the work and life that goes on in the organisation and in all contacts with relevant customers and stakeholders. Furthermore, dysfunctional emotional reactions as well as emotional dissonances and conflicts may lead to tremendous limitations of performances and can cause various direct and indirect shortcomings and costs for the individual, the group and the entire organisation (Ostell, 1996, p.552). In view of these impacts, there is an urgent need to incorporate emotional dimensions into theorising and empirical investigations of organisational realities. Among other research endeavours, recent insights of neuroscientific research (e.g., Damasio, 1999; Le Doux, 1996) have helped to counteract the long-standing bias against studying emotions in organisations. In particular, neuroscience and neuro-economics enhanced the knowledge about the role of embodied and socio-cultural influences of emotion in the workplace (Carter, 2005). Likewise, developments in the sociology of emotions (Turner and Stets, 2005) and social science research on emotions (e.g., Williams, 2001) have shown the relevance of emotionality in organisations. Emotions are no longer regarded as a cumbersome by-product of organised activity (Fayol, 1949), but as a resource to be harnessed to the emerging roles of emotions in working life (Fisher and Ashkanasy, 2000). Consequently, they are increasingly valued as a means of engendering employee commitment and gaining competitive advantage (Barley and Kunda, 1992). Now that the climate for research into emotions and the organisation has become more favourable, more scholars have taken up the topic, clearing the way for organisational research on emotions, growing into a vital part of the discipline, generating important insights and findings.
Some findings of studies about emotions in organisations
In the following, some of the main findings and research streams concerning the relation between emotion and various organisational phenomena are presented and discussed. With historical hindsight, Brief and Weiss (2002a) note that the study of effect in the workplace became widespread once it emerged as a legitimate area of enquiry in the early 1930s. However, soon after its emergence, it narrowed to an almost exclusive focus on stress (Schuler, 1980) or job satisfaction (Weiss and Brief, 2001) and commitment (Locke, 1976). Treating emotion as a dependent variable, researchers focused mainly on the nuisance role of effect and simple assessments of positive or negative states, and failed to examine the possible substantive roles of discrete emotions (Brief and Weiss, 2002a). This negligence may also be due to over-reliance on cognitive appraisal and a corresponding oversight of its emotional elements (Fisher, 2000). Today, distinctive streams of research study the expression, exploitation and management of feelings and emotions (e.g., Martin et al., 2000; Morris and Feldman, 1996, 1997; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1990; Schaubroeck and Jones, 2000; van Maanen and Kunda, 1989). One primary focus of research has been the relationship between emotion and performance in an individual, between people and in groups (Ashkanasy, 2004; Fisher and Noble, 2004; Pekrun and Frese, 1992). Thus, emotions are significant, since they influence the performance of employees on an individual as well as on a collective level
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(Ashkanasy, 2003). Research examining the relationship between workers interest in a task or skills and the effort they put into it show real-time correlations between momentary performance and emotions while working (Fisher and Noble, 2004). It has been shown, in particular, that effect influences creative performance at work (James et al., 2004). However, those emotions that trigger and support or constrain and impede performance are highly situation-dependent, requiring deliberate attention and discretion. As a consequence, there have been several studies of the relationship between effective disposition and individual and social performance (e.g., Cropanzano et al., 1993; Staw and Barsade, 1993; Staw et al., 1986). Furthermore, various studies have tried to explain the antecedents of momentary effective experiences and their consequences for the organisation (e.g., Brockner and Higgins, 2001; Elsbach and Barr, 1999; Forgas and George, 2001; George and Brief, 1996; Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996; Weiss et al., 1999). Emotions also play influential roles in the process of motivation and demotivation (Wunderer and Kpers, 2003). Furthermore, they are important factors in the sense of commitment and organisational citizenship of members of the organisation, in their consequent behaviour and in negotiation outcomes (Briner, 1999a, 1999b). In addition, volitional and attributional processes and flow are co-determined by emotions, as is the level of stress and conflict in organisations (Kpers and Weibler, 2005). One of the most important areas of contemporary research is the relation between emotions and organisational change and transformation (Huy, 2002; Kiefer, 2002; Mossholder et al., 2000; Vince and Broussine, 1996). Emotions are an especially strong force during change in particular, emotions relating to job insecurity and layoffs (Brockner et al., 1992), downsizing (Paterson and Hrtel, 2002) and resistance (Bovey and Hede, 2001; Dent and Galloway-Goldberg, 1999; Ford et al., 2002; Piderit, 2000). Employees ambivalence towards management change initiatives is often linked to conflict during change and associated with negative outcomes such as job dissatisfaction and grievances (Kirkman et al., 2000) or loss of energy (Bruch and Ghoshal, 2003). Although change can be perceived as a challenge or an opportunity and may stimulate positive emotions such as excitement, enthusiasm (Goleman et al., 2002), it is more often experienced as threatening, creating negative feelings such as anger, fear, anxiety, cynicism, resentment and withdrawal (French, 2001). Other research has examined the relation between emotions and knowledge management (Kpers, 2005a; Spender, 2003) and organisational learning (Tran, 1998; Vince, 2002). Correspondingly, links have been made between positive emotional states based on trust and team learning, innovation and creative problem-solving (de Dreu et al., 2001). Furthermore, the role of emotions and emotional climate in employee creativity and creative performance has been studied (Amabile et al., 2005; Fong, 2006; Higgins et al., 1992; James et al., 2004; Prince, 2003).
4.1 The importance of emotional labour

One of the most studied areas of research concerns emotions as part of working life that is emotional labour. It can be defined as a form of emotional regulation in which workers are expected to display certain emotions as part of their job and to promote organisational goals. The effects of emotional displays are on other target people who can be clients, customers, subordinates or co-workers (Grandey, 2000). Research has found that peoples complex, dynamic and interactive work feelings emerge alongside thoughts as a form of activity while working, rather than being imposed by instrumental
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goals and bureaucratic pseudo-rationality (Hirschhorn, 1988; Hochschild, 1983; Mumby and Putnam, 1992; Sandelands, 1988). Emergent work feelings give people the power to negotiate the meaning of various identities (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993), roles and relationships, rather than merely conforming to predetermined rules or prescribed norms (Wharton, 1993; Wharton and Erickson, 1993). Taking into account other roles in life and the psychodynamic context (Carr, 1999; James, 1989; Fineman, 1993; Wharton and Erickson, 1993), or informal realms of a division of emotional labour (James, 1993; Hochschild, 1983), furnishes an extension of the concept of work-feelings. However, emotions are appraised and displayed during emotional labour, for example, by disciplining feeling rules and expression rules, which are often violating life-world values (Alvesson and Willmott, 1996, p.107) and appropriating emotions. As implicit emotional norms, feeling-rules specify the range, intensity, duration and object of private emotion that should be experienced. Being institutionalised in organisationally sanctioned scripts (Humphrey and Ashforth, 1994) and through neutralising, buffering, prescribing and normalising the felt experience and its expression, emotions are often compelled to conform to the norms of rationality (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993, p.109). Such organisational control of emotions can lead to the suppression of feelings during interactions, resulting in emotional dissonance, altered relational perceptions, changed communication patterns and various negative and counter-productive effects (Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987), personal and work-related maladjustment and physical and psychological dysfunction (King and Emmons, 1990), including stress, demotivation and burnout. For instance, the often indoctrinating requests by service companies that call for friendly treatment of customers (conveyed via slogans such as the customer is king or service with a smile) can be a questionable way of dealing with people as a form of symbolic violence (Tracy, 2000; Schweingruber and Berns, 2005). However, other researches have found that personalised role enactment and emotional interpersonal role-making can contribute to a more satisfying self-expressive sense of personal accomplishment (Zapf et al., 1999, p.396) or performance game of mutual winners (Wouters, 1989), thus enhancing the work experience as well (Shuler and Sypher, 2000). Accordingly, emotional labour is a Janus-faced reality, as it can have both positive and negative effects or outcomes (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1989; Tolich, 1993; Zapf and Holz, 2006) for both the actor and the target. This means that emotion work is not per se either positive or negative; rather, the display of emotion and sensitivity requirements are related not only to emotional exhaustion, but also to successful organisational performance. What appears to be crucial, besides adequate emotion management (Zerbe et al., 2006), are ways to mitigate the negative effects and support the positive effects of emotional labour, e.g., positive identification with work (Karabanow, 1999) or social support (Abraham, 1998). The challenge for emotional work appears to be to catch the emotional fire without burning it (Kruml and Geddes, 2000).
4.2 Emotional intelligence and links to leadership

Emotional intelligence in relation to the workplace and its effects on individuals, teams and organisational performance has also been increasingly investigated (e.g., Goleman, 1996, 1998; Goleman et al., 2002; Huy, 1999; Weisinger, 1998; Offermann et al., 2004).
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However, the concept of emotional intelligence and its applications for organisation has also been criticised for being problematically defined and poorly measured and its claims overblown (e.g., Fineman, 2006; Landy, 2005; Locke, 2005; Murphy, 2006; Rastetter, 2005). Promising are approaches that investigate the emotional intelligence of groups (Druskat and Wolff, 2006) and emotional capability, referring to the organisational ability to acknowledge, recognise and regulate emotions on both the individual and collective levels (Gross, 1998; Huy, 1999; Reus and Liu, 2004). Researchers in the field of leadership and management studies have become interested not only in examining the importance of positive effect for leadership (Ashkanasy and Tse, 2000; Frost, 2003; George, 2000), but also in learning how leaders manage both their own emotions and those of others (Erickson, 1997; Francis, 1994; Lively, 2000; Mizuno et al., 1994; Thoits, 1996). Leaders who are adept at emotion management (Bolton, 2005) engender power through mobilising and directing emotions. In other words, they influence emotional expression towards personalised manageremployee relationships (Freund, 1998). Conversely, managerial acting and judging is influenced by emotions in various ways (Park et al., 1986). For example, emotions serve to lubricate or empoison decision-making processes (Maitlis and zelik 2004), making even impossible decisions possible by helping to prioritise, ease dilemmas and cueing or interpenetrating mental processes (Fineman, 2000). The link between charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion has also been explored (Bono and Ilies, 2006). Empirical research has additionally explored how the experience, display and interpretation of emotion drives or counteracts strategising (Brundin and Melin, 2006). The scope of this paper does not allow us to give details of further findings and the multiplicity of interrelated findings. However, what will be important is to develop a heuristic with which the various findings can be collated. But before we outline the basic ideas of a corresponding integral framework, we first need to discuss the ambivalence of emotions.
4.3 Ambivalence of emotions

A further overarching characteristic of emotions refers to its ambivalence in organisational settings. As Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) argued, workplace experiences comprise a succession of work events that can be pleasing and invigorating, or stressful and frustrating. Because the effect of emotions may be either advantageous or disadvantageous, their role in the organisation also may be positive or negative (Pratt and Doucet, 2000). Positively, emotions can support a sense of belonging (Collins, 1990) or bring positive benefits, such as learning new interpersonal skills from experience. Positive emotions such as joy, pleasure and passion for ones work drive individuals to action in ways that enhance their own self-worth while also benefiting organisational goals (Palmer and Hardy, 2000). Moreover, the social sharing of positive effect generates various benefits (Barsade et al., 2003, p.19), e.g., mutual understanding and identity (Bosma and Kunnen, 2001) or cooperative behaviours of organisational members (Isen and Baron, 1991). On the other hand, emotions also carry the stereotype of causing people to behave in foolish, illogical and sometimes destructive ways. Negative affectivity (Watson and Clark, 1984) or emotional dissonances (Abraham, 1998) display the encumbering sides of emotions. Emotional problems affect the mental and physical health of employees, leading to distress and burnout (King and Emmons, 1990; Maslach and Leiter, 1997).
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In more extreme situations, negative emotional states can lead to oppositional practices (Collinson, 1994) and organisational retaliatory or anti-citizenship behaviours. These dysfunctional, antisocial (Folger and Cropanzano, 1998; Giacalone and Greenberg, 1997), and recalcitrant behaviours include sabotage, absenteeism, disobedience and decreased productivity (Ackroyd and Thompson, 1999; Robinson and Bennett, 1995, 1997). The decreased performance, climate of distrust, stifled innovation and reduced creativity render the organisation passive and debilitated, undermining the best intentions and change initiatives, as well as incurring significant costs (Ostell, 1996). Furthermore, emotions can also be manipulated to serve vested interests or to maintain power relations, and in doing so may maintain stifling or unhelpful ideologies (Cameron, 2000). In other words, emotions can be powerful agents of social control (Lewis, 1993; Scheff, 1990, 1997) and coercion in (micro-)political action within omnipresent organisational micro-hierarchies (Clark, 1997). As a kind of productive power, emotions and their management can thus become a key micro-political instrument, used either to energise or de-energise (Downing, 1997). Negative effectivity (Watson and Clark, 1984) and dysfunctional emotional expressions and behaviours can result in poor work performance and disturbed relations with colleagues. Additionally, emotions do not always lead to unidirectional effects. For example, disproportionately displayed pride about an achievement might elicit enviousness in other colleagues (e.g., Lazarus and Cohen-Charash, 2004), or too much joy may actually distract people and hinder task completion (Parrot and Spackman, 2000). Contrary to the common belief that negative emotions tend to pull people apart, they can also draw them closer together. For example, both group cohesion and respect increase when a group faces major dilemmas (Thompson et al., 1998). These ambivalences, and the various research findings referred to above, indicate that recognising and dealing with the complex emotional processes present in organisations requires a more integrated understanding of emotions. Such integral orientation needs to frame the richness of single findings of conceptually disparate research and theoretically consolidate them for further advancing emotion research in organisation and leadership studies.
Integral understanding of emotions and emotional dimensions
Methodologically, researchers have taken different conceptual approaches. For example, some have focused on a more individual-oriented psychodynamic exploration of emotions at work (e.g., French and Vince, 1999; Hirschhorn, 1988; Hoggett, 1992; Kets de Vries and Miller, 1985; Obholzer and Roberts, 1994; Trist and Murray, 1990), while others have taken a more interpersonal and context-oriented position, often based on a social-constructionist standpoint (e.g., Averill, 1980; Fineman, 1993, 2000; Harr, 1986; Hochschild, 1983). The first approach stresses the influence of unconscious dynamics in emotional experience of the emotional self (Lupton, 1998), while the latter sees emotions as derivatives of social scripts, signs and scenarios; that is as intersubjective, a product of the way systems of meaning are created and negotiated between people (Fineman, 2000, p.2). This influential approach takes emotions, people and organisations as social mediations and socially mediated (Hearn, 1993, p.148). Both individual-based and interpersonal orientations contribute to organisational behaviour and processes, and hence both are important for understanding the emotional dimensions in organisations and for specific fields and results of applied research.
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Although most organisation emotion research to date has focused at individual or group level, approaches considering the organisational level are emerging, such as effective organisational socialisation (Gibson, 1995) or emotional climate (zelik et al., 2001; Barbalet, 1995). Levels of analysis in emotion research, therefore, vary according to the perspective on which emotions are investigated, either at individual, group, community or organisational levels (Waldron, 2000). However, what is needed is to integrate different levels (Ashkanasy, 2003; Weiss, 2003) and constituencies of feelings and emotions into an integral framework. The following outlines this kind of comprehensive conceptualisation of how emotions operate in organisations. An integral orientation helps to prevent falling into the pitfalls of reductive approaches, but covering the various complex fields of emotional dimensions in organisations. As any single perspective on emotions is likely to be partial, limited and, perhaps, distorted, what is needed is a multi-paradigm and multi-level analysis, and thus integral research. Correspondingly, the integral framework we follow and put forward (Wilber, 1999, 2000a, 2000b) accommodates equally the subjective, intersubjective and objective dimensions of emotions. By applying this integral framework, researchers develop multi-sided accounts that both depict diversity and complexity, as well as facilitating a more reflexive exploration of pluralism and ambiguity and an inclusive understanding (Brocklesby, 1997; Lewis and Kelemen, 2002) of emotions in organisations. Based on the aforementioned holistic interpretation of emotions, the integral framework differentiates and relates the interior and exterior dimensions of emotions as well as their individual and collective spheres and does this within intentional, behavioural, cultural and systemic domains. A framework of this kind makes it possible to assess and interpret the various aspects of emotions and their interplay within an organisation. With these dimensions, the integral framework posits four quadrants representing four different perspectives: 1 2 3 4 interior agency, or self and consciousness: the I exterior agency, or behaviour as enactment: the My, and individual It interior communal, or culture: the We exterior communal, or system: the Our, and collective It.
While the first quadrant (I) is concerned with the intra-personal realm that is a persons internal reality of feelings, the second quadrant (II) is concerned with how peoples feelings are objectified in their action and performance. The third quadrant (III) deals with internal group or collective emotional issues in relation within a shared community and organisational culture; and the fourth quadrant (IV) covers the external collective aspects of emotions as a part of a systemic-structural realm. The interior quadrants lead to a subjective identity, but the exterior quadrants point to an objective identity pole. Figure 1 shows the multi-dimensional integral framework of individual feelings and collective emotions in organisations.
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Figure 1

Multi-dimensional integral framework of individual feelings and collective emotions in organisations (see online version for colours)
Specifics of the four quadrants
The first consciousness quadrant refers to individual internal aspects of feelings, encompassing subjectively felt sensation, emotional unconsciousness (Barsade et al., 2003, p.26; Kihlstrom et al., 2000) and implicit knowing and memory, as well as pre-social levels of emotions (e.g., Hinshelwood and Skogstad, 2000; Gabriel and Griffits, 2002; Sievers, 2003). Furthermore, personal feelings as a personal resource need to be related to other inner faculties of the individual, such as cognition, intentions, volition, etc., and their interplay. The intra-personal or internal emotional reality of organisational members implies an authentic relation to their own feelings. This means that they must develop the ability to be aware, acknowledging and sincere about full range of their own feelings and those of others without fear of reprisal. To do so, members need to project a sense of honesty, fairness, justice and respect for themselves as well for those with whom they are dealing. Those who are insecure about their own emotional capacity and identity will create organisational settings that tend to deprive others of theirs. Therefore, all members consistently need to balance their emotional needs and health with the needs of the organisation. Some researchers in the field of organisation studies (Abraham, 1998) have shown that there is a significant correlation between emotional maturity, self-esteem and personal effectiveness. The second behaviour quadrant relates to the external matter/body and brain-related base as well as to the enactment and expression of feelings. The dimensions involved here concern, in particular, emotional competencies (Goleman, 1998; Salovey and Mayer, 1990) and expressed and manifested feelings in the nexus to external knowledge, behavioural action, gestures and performance. Organisational members who are skilled in emotion competencies also recognise the impact of the timing, pacing and sequencing of various actions, while they are also aware of different emotional styles, and are adaptable,
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lively and flexible. A corresponding emotion-management keeps emotional relations and ways of expressing them open and prevents a gradual bottling-up of negative feelings, which can hamper organisational functioning if it is unchecked. Also, a deliberate emotionally competent role modelling, teaching and coaching and consistent walking their talk through the personal example of a leader can send a powerful message to the other members of an organisation. As this sphere is related to the behavioural realm, the emotional labour discussed above and the link to individual performance marks another important field of application here. In the third culture-quadrant, inter-subjective emotions relate to the various socio-cultural dimensions of shared emotions arising from the organisations culture, history, stories, unwritten beliefs and rules, values and worldviews. Here, emotions are part of an inter-personal community that is constituted, developed, expressed and evaluated at a collective level within the culture of an organisation (Pizer and Hrtel, 2005). In this inter-subjective quadrant, emotions represent a medium of social communication (Wentworth and Ryan, 1994) in organisations, including, e.g., collective negotiation and joint decision processes and corresponding practices. Accordingly, emotions are here a product of a dynamic attributive relationship among members and within groups of an organisation. For example, solidarity related to power and status interaction is a form of emotional energy that is derived from (resonant) social interaction among group members (Collins, 1990; Hess and Kirouac, 2000; Kelly and Barsade, 2001), creating collective trust and enthusiasm or, if deficient, distrust and depression. The ripple effect of emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviour (Barsade, 2002) also plays an important role in this realm. Finally, the fourth inter-objective system quadrant links emotions to external dimensions and organisational conditions and artefacts. This is the world of the Its, that is of resources, tools, information and communication technologies, organisational design and workflow procedures, but also of institutional conditions such as formal policies and norms, in particular feeling rules that affect emotional dimensions and behaviour. Furthermore, this sphere covers additional external constraints and influences as well as strategic plans, financial processes and compensation programs. Moreover, covering quantities and qualities of outputs, productivity and efficiency, this realm is where thinking about the link between emotions and organisation as a performance system is important. With all these aspects, this sphere refers as well to an emotional atmosphere or climate (Tran, 1998; zelik et al., 2001) as determined by structural or functional order and systemic mechanisms. An integral approach explores the embeddedness of these various spheres within and between one another and the degree to which the levels mutually influence each other. As each level and sphere influences and constrains the others, they need to be considered in their interdependencies and interrelations. This orientation allows an understanding of how emotions translate and impact across levels. Figure 2 provides an overview of the different spheres and their interplay. Furthermore, all four quadrants show growth, development or evolution. That is, they all show some stages or levels of development, not as rigid rungs on a ladder but unfolding as fluid and flowing waves. Thus, the quadrant model can be extended dynamically by a series of different developmental stages or levels and lines of development (Kegan, 1982, 1994; Wilber, 2000c) of organisational members and organisations within an integral cycle (Edwards, 2005).2
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Figure 2

Integral emotional dimensions and its inter-relationships (see online version for colours)
On the basis of the outlined integral understanding, it will be important to consider the emotional relatedness (Vince, 1996; French and Vince, 1999). This relatedness can be understood as the emotional process of experiences, behaviours, social and systemic dimensions that exist within and between members of organisations. With this interrelational capacity, an emotional dimension on all of the outlined spheres may support, mediate or intervene and conflict all relations in organisations. Following the relational interpretation of emotions mentioned above (Burkitt, 1997), integral emotional dimensions could be understood as a network of ongoing processes within an emotional ecology (Frost et al., 2000). In such ecology, more emotion-sensitive connections are enabled or disabled and hence facilitate or retard compassionate practices (Frost et al., 2000, pp.26, 35) and integration. Correspondingly, specific practical implications can be derived (Kpers and Weibler, 2005) for each of these spheres within this integral framework. These implications which are beyond the scope of this paper concern various approaches such as selective tasks, interventions and measurements for organisational and managerial practices. In particular, they serve to contribute mitigating emotional problems by reducing encumbering and inculpatory factors while enhancing positive emotions by creating supportive conditions and facilitating processes.
Theoretical and methodological implications and research perspectives
Although emotion has grown more popular as a topic of study, there are a number of issues that remain to be investigated. That is, there are many unanswered empirical questions and issues on emotion in organisation research awaiting investigation, as well as different avenues of research to be delineated and pursued. As a differentiated reminder of the life-worlds multi-faceted wholeness and tremendous multi-dimensionality, a further integral investigation of feelings emotions is likely to serve as a helpful antidote to biased approaches and one-sided investigations. As it
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is in its infant stage, the proposed framework provides the bedrock for more rigorous theory-building, further analysis and empirical testing of organisational emotion research. Methodologically, it will be challenging to investigate and integrate various perspectives, i.e., the first, second and third persons (singular and plural forms) in relation to emotions in organisational affairs. These three perspectives, each with their inherent methodologies or modes of enquiry, help to inform the way research seeks out different approaches for understanding the complex emotional dimensions in organisations. A first person perspective would be related to subjective awareness and the meaning of personal experience and action as spheres of influence via self-reporting techniques or biographic ethnomethodologies and phenomenological enquiries about what people perceive and understand for themselves and personally express. Experience Sampling Methodology (Hektner et al., 2007; Scollon et al., 2003) may be useful as a method to gin a more precise view of how emotion influences organisational everyday life. This approved methodology (it is applied, for example, in happiness studies, Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter, 2003) allows closer tracking of the antecedents and consequences of feelings. By sampling experience the moment it occurs, this method combines the validity of naturalistic behavioural observation with the non-intrusive nature of self-reporting and the precision of scaled questionnaire measures. For the second person stance, interpersonal perspectives seek insight and understanding through qualitative interpretive approaches (Fineman, 2005), including, e.g., dialogue and direct empathic communication. Corresponding interview techniques, such as depth or narrative interviewing or participant observation, serve to disclose multiple voices for making sense of emotion (Parkinson and Manstead, 1993). For an innovative qualitative approach to access and interpret social emotion, narrative techniques such as storytelling and metaphor analysis are becoming established as valuable complements to more conventional research approaches (Ashkanasy and Tse, 2000; Meyerson, 2000). Finally, the third person level may use empirical observation and methods of behavioural or systemic sciences to investigate quantitative data with rigor, e.g., to explain emotional climate via advanced climate questionnaire variables (Brown and Brooks, 2002). Bringing these perspectives together highlights the different possibilities that exist for investigating how they might interrelate for a better understanding of emotions in organisations on multiple levels. Specifically, the integral research approach suggests that it would be beneficial to conduct emotion research on the outlined four interrelated quadrants and their interdependent effects. By examining all four dimensions in an integrated fashion, research attains a more integral comprehension of the causes, developments and effects of emotions in organisations, including ways for evaluating and dealing with them. Integrally, research may then further explore ways in which diversely situated individuals and groups and systems in various inter-relational arrangements and organisational settings constitute, experience, influence and process feelings and emotions. Further research is needed, for example into how negative consequences of emotion can be minimised, while authentic emotional expressions such as nurturing and supportiveness can be enhanced across levels. This topic is linked to the question of how to develop positive emotional personal experiences, intersubjective processes and inter-objective capabilities, conditions or climates supporting knowledge sharing, learning, but also (emotional) well-being (Diener and Lucas, 2000; Kpers, 2005b). As far as content is concerned, it would also be worthwhile to investigate what effect power and (micro- and socio-)political tensions and practices have on the connections
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between inner feelings and their external enactment at both individual and collective levels (Poder, 2004). Research could also examine how the interaction between individual and organisational priorities affects the character and development of the emotions present in the organisation. One essential research avenue could be the role of organisational communication (Eisenberg and Goodall, 2003) for improving processes of coordinating and integrating emotions within and between the above-mentioned spheres. Another field to which the outlined approach could be applied is improvisation (Crossan, 1998; Eisenberg and Goodall, 2003; Mirvis, 1998; Moorman and Miner, 1998). Improvising as an emotion-based creative way for organisations and their members can be linked to all the aforementioned spheres and its interrelations seems highly relevant to enhance emotional flexibility, vigour and performances on individual as well as collective levels. All in all, the more comprehensive approach of proposed integral framework permits a systematical investigation and critical analysis of multiple perspectives, while at the same time recognising the unique contributions of various approaches and fields to explaining complex phenomena of emotions in organisations. Using different levels and inclusive orientation, the integral framework serves as a kind of map for conceptualising and theorising, but also for empirically investigating and analysing emotional phenomena and data more adequately. Considering the multi-various dimensions of emotions, corresponding factors and processes may be conceptualised as a dependent or independent variables, respectively, as mediating or moderating variables. Likewise, emotion may be investigated as a characteristic or outcome at the interior or exterior individual or collective group levels, or at the structuralorganisation levels of analysis. Basically, the development of further integral investigations and theory is always unfinished business in that theory-building research is an ongoing process, where new focuses are continually sought out, tested and combined with other integral theory components to arrive at more comprehensive understanding and explanations, and more appropriate methodological approaches. Moreover, an integral approach contributes to a multi-paradigm or pluralism strategy that has been proposed in organisation theory (e.g., Evered and Louis, 1981; Gioia and Pitre, 1990; Grimes and Rood, 1995; Schultz and Mary, 1996; Lewis and Kelemen, 2002), leading to not only an interpretative and rigorous, but also a relevant approach towards organisational phenomena in general (Gioia and Pitre, 1990) and emotional dimensions, in particular.
Conclusion
This paper has explored the significance of emotions for organisational life and examined the way in which they are relevant and influential, as well as why they have been neglected in organisational research and practice. Various important findings and insights of studies of emotions have been summarised and an integral framework was proposed for a more comprehensive understanding of emotions and their interrelations. Seen from an integral perspective, organisations probably become dysfunctional and unhealthy when they refuse to acknowledge and integrate feelings and emotions adequately. Finally, some theoretical and methodological implications have been outlined. We have hoped to show that the proposed integral framework can contribute to the effective revolution and the need for a mature hybrid paradigm (Barsade et al., 2003, p.31),
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incorporating various sources, findings and explanations and understandings of feelings and emotions in organisations. As such, it can provide further support for more integral, theoretical, methodological and empirical research work on emotional dimensions in the context of organisations. On a practical level, organisations increase their chances of becoming more creative, and productive, if their management and members recognise integrally that feelings and emotions play an important role in constituting, shaping and processing the realities and meanings of working life and corporations. In view of both the challenging theoretical and practical avenues ahead, there is a long road to be travelled before feelings and emotions, hitherto subordinated, are restored and acknowledged as a truly warranted object in scientific investigations and equal partners in practices of organisations. However, the integration of personal feelings and interpersonal emotions with cognitions and actions and the intertwined nexus of all these dimensions in organisational communities and systems offer a tremendous potential for an extended research and more effective practice of organisations and their members. Accordingly, employing the proposed integral framework in organisational theory and practice provides a base on which to build a more emotional, sensitive and competent, and thus sustainable, healthy and fulfilling organisational life-world on both the individual and the collective level and their interplay.
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Notes
1
In view of the limitation of conventional economic reasoning, an impressive body of experimental evidence has served to undermine the model of the rational homo economicus. As this conventional model does not consider essential determinants of (emotional) human behaviour and generates incorrect, or at least inadequate, recommendations, the so-called homo reciprocans (Bowles and Gintis, 2002; Gchter and Fehr, 2001) is suggested. This extension implies that social relations practise informal mechanisms for the enforcement of norms and rules that cannot be explained by traditional economic assumptions. Placing value on reciprocity in relationships with others and pursuing reciprocal fairness, homo reciprocans is willing to incur personal costs in order to cooperate with others similarly disposed and to punish those who treat him unfairly. Linked to this, homo reciprocans is also characterised by basic needs generosity, that is, willingness to ensure others, more or less unconditionally, enough goods to meet minimal standards, manifestations of compassion. 2 The levels of development refer to what is being developed (matter, body, mind, soul and spirit) as generalised waves of existence. Thus, the levels are stages of development through which human beings proceed by transcendence, but which include embracement and enfoldment. With this, the levels mark out new capacities and emergent qualities through the lives of members and leaders of the organisation situated in their specific context (e.g., acquiring, competing, conforming achieving, including, visioning). Furthermore, these basic levels of consciousness, though unfolding at different rates, can be seen as fluid, flowing, overlapping waves in an overall spectrum of consciousness. The lines of development reflect innate capacities and functions within the stages. As such, they co-determine a human beings capacity to perform successfully in various circumstances. The developmental lines concern complex developments, such as cognitive (e.g., strategic thinking), emotional (e.g., emotional intelligence), interpersonal (e.g., social awareness, empathy), behavioural (e.g., managerial acting), knowledge and learning developments or ethical/moral lines here of organisational members. Most of these lines develop in a relatively independent fashion at their own rate with their own dynamics. Some lines are necessary but not sufficient for others; while some develop closely together. As consciousness increases in a developmental line, it progresses to a higher stage in the overall spectrum. Accordingly, the lines develop over time through increasingly complex levels of maturity, education and skill. But there are also lagging lines of development that represent specific weaknesses or non-strengths of organisational members and their processes. These under-developed capacities may be a limiting factor for their effectiveness or success and that of their operations. Both levels and lines of development are essential aspects that, for instance, leaders need to understand for themselves as well as for influencing and motivating followers. In addition, holonistically they can also be applied to collective spheres such as groups or entire organisations in relation to organisation and leadership as a decentral process.
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Appendix: Positive and negative influences and effects of emotions

Positive influences and effects Increasing self-efficacy in performance Improved creative problem solving Enhancement of quality and consistency of decision-making processes Development of a sense of community Support for proactive behaviour and prosocial engagement More effective negotiations Baron (1990) Negative influences and effects Fear as a cost factor Panse and Stegmann (1996) and Runge (1990) Begley (1994) and Bergknapp (2002) Boiney (1995)
Isen (1999) Isen (2000) and Simon (1989)
Health problems Hindrance of decision making processes
Putnam and Mumby (1993)
Paralysis of Bedeian (1995) performance behaviour
Fredrickson (1998) and Limitations on Vince and Saleem Isen and Baron (1991) organisational learning (2004) Forgas (1998) Poor corporate governance Velayutham and Perera (2004) and Walsh (1999)
287
Appendix: Positive and negative influences and effects of emotions (continued)

Positive influences and effects Decreased absenteeism Enabling and unfolding of flow Increased creativity and productivity Increased overall satisfaction Negative influences and effects Pelled and Xin (1999) Loss of trust, increased Eriksson (2004) and Harter et al. (2003) depression Csikszentmihalyi (1990) Learned helplessness Alloy and Abramson (1982) Fisher (1993) and Gemmill and Oakley (1992) Temme and Trnkle (1996) and Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) Paine (1982) and Enzmann (2005) Wunderer and Kpers (2003)
Spector (1997), Boredom Harter et al. (2003) and Keyes (2000) Spector (1997), Suh et al. (1998) and Warr (1999) Frese (1990) Ashkanasy (2004), Seo et al. (2004) and Staw et al. (1994) Increased dissatisfaction with work Increased stress, emotional burnout Demotivation, alienation, increased inner withdrawl, dismissal
Decreased stress, improved health Increased motivation and performance

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Int. J. Work Organisation and Emotion, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2008

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective Wendelin Kpers

Copyright 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

1.1 Understanding emotions

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

1.2 Embodied and social emotions

1.3 Basic functions of emotions

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Neglect and disregard of emotions in organisations

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

Impact and different influences of emotions in organisations

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Some findings of studies about emotions in organisations

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

4.1 The importance of emotional labour

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

4.2 Emotional intelligence and links to leadership

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

4.3 Ambivalence of emotions

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Integral understanding of emotions and emotional dimensions

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Specifics of the four quadrants

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Theoretical and methodological implications and research perspectives

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

W. Kpers and J. Weibler

Appendix: Positive and negative influences and effects of emotions

Isen (1999) Isen (2000) and Simon (1989)

Health problems Hindrance of decision making processes

Putnam and Mumby (1993)

Paralysis of Bedeian (1995) performance behaviour

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

Appendix: Positive and negative influences and effects of emotions (continued)

Decreased stress, improved health Increased motivation and performance

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