Energy & Fuels 2008, 22, 17071713

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Impact of the Driving Cycle on the NOx and Particulate Matter Exhaust Emissions of Diesel Passenger Cars
Efthimios Zervas*, and George Bikas,
Department of EnVironmental Engineering, Democritus UniVersity of Thrace, Vas. Soas 12, 67100 Xanthi, Greece, and Institut fr Technische Mechanik, Templergraben 64, 52056 Aachen, Germany ReceiVed NoVember 14, 2007. ReVised Manuscript ReceiVed January 18, 2008

The impact of driving cycle on NOx and particulate matter (PM) exhaust emissions of two different passenger cars equipped with the same Euro3 diesel engine is studied in this work. The driving cycles used are the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), the 11 and 15 modes Japanese cycles, and three U.S. driving cycles: Federal Test Procedure (FTP-75), US06, and Highway. The obtained results show that NOx and PM emissions increase with vehicle weight, as the engine has to operate to higher speed/load points, to satisfy the energy demand of the cycle. NOx emissions increase when a cycle forces the engine to operate at higher speeds and loads, especially in the case of the heavier vehicle. PM emissions generally increase with engine speed, as the load demand requires a higher fuel/air equivalence ratio, and consequently particulate emissions are higher. The indicator NOx + 10PM is used to classify the severity of each cycle: US06 is the highest pollutant emitter, followed by 11 modes, NEDC, FTP, 15 modes, and nally Highway. A driving cycle indicator is also developed in this work; NOx and NOx + 10PM emissions of both vehicles show a very good correlation with this indicator.

Introduction Passenger car legislation differs in different parts of the world. The three main legislations are the European, American (U.S.A.), and Japanese ones, while the other countries generally follow the above legislations, more or less adapted. Regulated exhaust emissions and CO2 emissions are currently measured on driving cycles. A driving cycle is an assumption that a vehicle runs on a at road using a specic speed prole. A driving cycle simulates a specic driving prole, for example, the prole of a driver who uses his or her car to go to work. Gear changes may be at specic points of the cycle or not. Even if the prole of a driving cycle takes into consideration the driving conditions of each country, it cannot be an average driving prole, but it must be considered at most as a reference for test approval. There are two types of driving cycles: the regulated and the nonregulated ones. The regulated ones are the driving cycles used from the legislation of a country or a group of countries, and the three main groups are the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) used in European Union, the Japanese driving cycles (11 and 15 modes), and the driving cycles used in U.S.A. (Federal Test Procedure (FTP-75), US06, Highway). Other institutions or laboratories have constructed other driving cycles, such as the ARTEMIS one;1 however, these cycles are used only for emission studies and not for approval type purposes. It is obvious that regulated exhaust emissions and CO2 emissions of passenger cars depend on the driving cycle; however, a direct comparison between driving cycles is not evident. As each cycle has a different driving prole, for
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Telephone: +30-24510 79392. E-mail: ezervas@env.duth.gr. Democritus University of Thrace. Institut fr Technische Mechanik. Present address: GE Global Research, Freisinger Landstrasse 50, 85748 Garching b. Munich, Germany. (1) Andr, M.; Joumard, R.; Vidon, R.; Tassel, P.; Perret, P. Atmos. EnViron. 2006, 40, 59445953.

example, NEDC and the 11 and 15 modes Japanese cycles have quite smooth accelerations in comparison with FTP-75 which has quite sharp ones, engine response, emissions, and fuel consumption are expected to be different. A lot of work on emissions, regulated or not, has been done on driving cycles, as in, for example, regulated emissions,2,3 detailed hydrocarbons,4 carbonyl compounds,4 nanoparticles emissions,5,6 and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.7 Some works compare the impact of the driving cycle (especially not regulated driving cycles) on some unregulated emissions.4,7 However, there is no work in the literature comparing the exhaust emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) of diesel passenger cars on different regulatory driving cycles. This work uses two different passenger cars equipped with the same diesel engine to study the NOx and PM emissions of several regulated driving cycles. To satisfy the energy needs of each cycle, the same engine has to operate at different load/ engine speed points for each passenger car. The impact of this change, and thus of the driving cycle, is studied in this work. Experimental Section
Figure 1 shows the driving cycles used in this study: the NEDC, the 11 and 15 modes Japanese cycles, and the three U.S.A. driving cycles: Federal Test Procedure (FTP-75), US06, and Highway. The NEDC is composed of the urban part (ECE) and the extra-urban
(2) Joumard, R.; Andr, M.; Vidon, R.; Tassel, P.; Pruvost, C. Atmos. EnViron. 2000, 34, 46214628. (3) Soltic, P.; Weilenmann, M. Atmos. EnViron. 2003, 37, 52075216. (4) Caplain, I.; Cazier, F.; Nouali, H.; Mercier, A.; Dchaux, J. C.; Nollet, V.; Joumard, R.; Andre, J. M.; Vidon, R. Atmos. EnViron. 2006, 40, 5954 5966. (5) Zervas, E.; Dorlhne, P.; Forti, L.; Perrin, C.; Momique, J. C.; Monier, R.; Ing, H.; Lopez, B. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 333346. (6) Zervas, E.; Dorlhne, P. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 977984. (7) Devos, O.; Combet, P.; Tassel, P.; Paturel, L. Polycyclic Aromat. Compd. 2006, 26, 6978.

10.1021/ef700679m CCC: $40.75 2008 American Chemical Society Published on Web 02/19/2008

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Figure 1. Driving cycles used in this study. Table 1. Some Characteristics of the Six Driving Cycles Used in This Study
duration (T, s) NEDC ECE EUDC 11 modes 15 modes FTP-75 Phase-1 Phase-2 US06 Highway 1180 780 300 505 660 2477 (with stop) 505 867 600 765 distance (S, km) 11.07 4.052 6.955 4.084 4.16 17.86 5.8 6.3 12.87 16.5 max speed (Vmax, km/h) 120 60 70 91.2 129 96.4 average speed (Vav., km/h) 33.6 18.9 62.2 29.1 22.7 34.2 (without stop) 41.2 25.8 77.2 77.4 indicator (I) (dV/dt)i / Vi T 1.3 1.4 0.9 1.5 1.2 2 2.7 2.4 6.3 0.6

)/

driving cycle (EUDC) while the FPT-75 is composed of three phases (phase-3 is identical to phase-1). Some characteristics of each driving cycle, such as total duration, average speed, and so forth, are shown in Table 1. As each cycle has a different running distance, the comparison of the exhaust emissions is made on the basis of g/km. In this work we developed an indicator for each driving cycle. This driving cycle indicator expresses the severity of each acceleration. It is calculated as follows: at each point (every second) of the cycle the acceleration and the average speed are calculated. The driving cycle indicator is the sum of each acceleration divided by the average speed of this acceleration. As each driving cycle has a different duration, this sum is nally divided by the total duration of the cycle. This driving cycle indicator is I ) [((dV/dt)i/Vi)]/T , where (dV/dt)i is the acceleration at each point, Vi is the average speed at this point, and T is the total duration of the driving cycle. The driving cycle indicator has no units, and the corresponding value of each driving cycle is shown in Table 1. Two different passenger cars equipped with the same engine (a Euro3 diesel engine of 1.9 L) are used in this study. The two vehicles are a Renault Laguna and a Renault Espace with inertia of 1387 and 1510 kg, respectively. These passenger cars are named

PC1 and PC2 in the rest of this study. Both vehicles are not equipped with any NOx or PM after-treatment device; consequently, NOx and PM are understood as engine-out emissions. The NOx and PM measurements were performed using the current European regulations.8

Results and Discussion Comparison of Each Cycle. The driving cycles used in this study are presented in Figure 1 and Table 1. These cycles are quite different from each other. Their running distance is from 4.16 km in the case of 15 modes to 17.86 km in the case of FTP-75. Their duration varies from 505 s in the case of the 11 modes to 2477 s (with stop) in the case of FTP-75. Their maximum speed comprises from 60 km/h in the case of 11 modes to 129 km/h in the case of US06 while the average speed comprises from 29.1 km/h (11 modes) to 77.4 km/h (Highway). The FTP is designed to address shortcomings in the representation of aggressive, high speed driving behavior. The entire
(8) European Union Directive 70/220. www.europa.eu.int (accessed Mar 15, 2007).

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Figure 2. NOx emissions of the two passenger cars as a function of the driving cycle (left bars) and the ratio of NOx emissions of each cycle over the NOx emissions of the NEDC (right bars, classied by decreasing order of PC2 results).

FTP-75 cycle consists of the following segments: (i) cold start phase, (ii) transient phase, and (iii) hot start phase. The emissions from each phase are collected in a separate Teon bag, analyzed, and expressed in g/km. The weighting factors of each phase are, according to U.S. regulations, 0.43 for the cold start, 1.0 for the transient phase, and 0.57 for the hot start phase. The US06 is the representation of high speed and/or high acceleration with rapid speed uctuation and driving behavior following start-up. The cycle represents a 12.87 km route with an average speed of 77.2 km/h, maximum speed of 129 km/h, and a duration of 600 s. The 11 modes is a quite simple driving cycle; it includes four simple elementary cycles. The 1015 modes cycle is derived from the 10 mode cycle by adding another 15 mode segment of a maximum speed of 70 km/h. The entire cycle includes a sequence of a 15 min warm-up at 60 km/h, idle test, 5 min warm-up at 60 km/h, and one 15 mode segment followed by three repetitions of a 10 mode segment and one 15 mode segment. Emissions are measured over the last four segments (3 10 mode and 1 15 mode). The entire NEDC includes four ECE modes repeated without interruption, followed by one EUDC segment. The urban driving cycle ECE was devised to represent city driving conditions, for example, in Paris or Berlin. It is characterized by low vehicle speed and low engine load and exhaust gas temperature. The EUDC segment has been added after the fourth ECE cycle to account for more aggressive, high speed driving modes. The maximum speed of the EUDC is 120 km/h. These three last cycles have a non-negligible part of steady speeds, and their accelerations/decelerations are quite smooth and constant. The three American driving cycles are more sophisticated. They are characterized by a high number of accelerations/decelerations and have no part with steady speeds. FTP-75 is composed almost of only sharp accelerations/ decelerations. US06 and Highway have smoother accelerations/ decelerations than FTP-75 and have parts where, even if there is no steady speed, the speed variations are not very high. It is expected that the behavior of an engine/vehicle, and consequently its exhaust emissions, would be different at these driving cycles. The value of the driving cycle indicator is high (value ) 2.0) in the case of FTP-75 as this driving cycle has very sharp

accelerations. The driving cycle indicator is even higher in the case of phase-1 (2.7) and phase-2 (2.4) of FPT-75 as the total FTP-75 contains also some parts of the idle conditions decreasing the value of its indicator. The US06 driving cycle gives the impression that it is smoother than FTP-75; however, it has the higher value of 6.3. This results from the fewer but sharper accelerations of the US06 cycle in combination with the average speed of each acceleration. The 11 modes and 15 modes have lower values (1.5 and 1.2, respectively) as they have less sharp accelerations. The 11 modes driving cycle is sharper than the 15 modes, and this statement is reected in the values of their indicators. As the NEDC has a prole quite similar to that of the two Japanese driving cycles, the value of its indicator is quite similar, namely, 1.3. ECE has a higher value (1.4) than the EUDC (0.9) as this latter is smoother than the rst one. Finally, Highway has the lower value, only 0.6, as it has the smoothest prole. Later in this paper, the driving cycle indicator is correlated with NOx and PM emissions. NOx and PM Emissions. Figure 2 presents the NOx emissions as a function of the driving cycle for the two different passenger cars used in this study. As the two vehicles are NEDC tuned, the comparison of NOx and PM results are done on an NEDC basis. It is clearly shown that the NOx emissions of the PC2 are always higher than the corresponding emissions of the PC1. This is because the PC2 is a heavier passenger car, and the engine has to run at higher loads to satisfy the power needs of each cycle. As a higher load induces a higher combustion temperature and NOx emissions increase with temperature, NOx emissions are higher at higher loads. The average increase of PC2 NOx emissions compared with PC1 is 41%; however, signicant differences are found between each cycle. On the basis of comparisons of the NOx emissions of each driving cycle, several remarks can be drawn. PC1, which is quite a light car, emits more of its NOx at the ECE cycle and less at the EUDC (Figure 2). Although the engine of the lighter vehicle is operating at lower speed in the ECE cycle, NOx emissions are higher compared to the EUDC. This result is not intuitively expected as the combustion temperature and, consequently, the exhaust temperature in this operation mode are low. On the basis of the well-known dependency of NOx on temperature, one would expect low NOx emissions. Taking a careful look at the operating points of the engine in the entire ECE cycle (Figure

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Figure 3. Percentage of each speed/load operation point on the NEDC of PC1 (upper bars) and PC2 (lower bars).

3), by doing a statistic of the time of operation at each single speed-load point during the driving cycle, we can make valuable observations. The engine is operating longer than 20% of the time at idle conditions (750 rpm, 0 bar bmep). The frequent stop and go behavior which characterizes the driving condition of the ECE cycle forces the engine during acceleration to operate for short times at higher load points, which are responsible for the higher NOx emissions. It is well-known that exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is utilized at lower loads to control the NOx emissions. This EGR has to be removed as fast as possible from the air path during acceleration; otherwise, the soot limit is reached. This is a challenge because of the volume of the intake system, which denes a physical dead time that is necessary to remove EGR. By examining the engine behavior during acceleration, we can observe that the particulates are increasing because EGR cannot be removed immediately from the air path while the demand for power is increasing, and this causes the engine to operate closer to the soot limit. During deceleration, the required EGR amount is introduced into the intake manifold with a short time delay because of the inertia of the system. A careful look at the special characteristics of the entire driving cycle is required to explain the emission behavior of any engine-vehicle-gearbox combination rather than only the indications given by the average speed, load, and exhaust temperature. Comparing the two vehicles PC1 and PC2 with each other, we see that the engine of the lighter vehicle operates at lower engine speeds and loads to satisfy the NEDC energy demands, and thus, the NOx emissions of the EUDC are lower than for PC2. In the case of the heavier vehicle, its engine has to operate at higher load/engine speeds to satisfy the NEDC energy

demands, and thus, the NOx emissions of the EUDC are higher than those of PC1. The US06 cycle exhibits the typical soot-NOx tradeoff. During this cycle, both engines operate over 55% of the time in a speed between 2000 and 3000 rpm and a load between 5 and 8 bar bmep. For 14.31% of the time, the engine operates above 3000 rpm. At these engine speeds and loads, there is a limitation in the EGR that could be utilized for a good operation with the consequence of an NOx emissions increase: 3.4 and 3.1 times more than the NEDC for the PC1 and PC2, respectively (Figure 2). The two Japanese driving cycles, which have structure quite similar to that of the NEDC, have closer NOx emissions to the NEDC than US06: the 11 modes driving cycle has slightly more NOx emitted than the NEDC: +30% and +6% NOx for PC1 and PC2, respectively, while the 15 modes has +2% and -17% NOx emitted for the same cars. FTP-75 has also more NOx emitted than the NEDC: +4% and +23% for the PC1 and PC2, respectively. This is mainly for phase-1 NOx emissions, where high speeds and sharp transitory states are observed. Phase-2 has lower speeds, so NOx emissions are lower than in phase-1. NOx emissions of phase-3 are lower than those of phase-1 because, as the engine is now warmed, the energy demand is lower because of decreased friction and, thus, lower engine load. The Highway cycle has the less NOx emitted: -18% and -14% for the PC1 and the PC2 compared to the NEDC because of its lower maximum speed and quite steady speed conditions. During the Highway cycle, the engine operates between 2000 and 2250 rpm and at a rather low load in a range between 3 to 6 bar bmep. Of course, the gear ratio plays an important role in determining in which range of speeds and loads the engine operates, and consequently, its impact in the emissions behavior is quite important. Figure 4 presents the PM emissions of each vehicle on the tested driving cycles. As in the case of NOx, it is again clearly shown that PM emissions of the PC2 are always higher than the corresponding emissions of the PC1. However, the differences are now lower than in the case of NOx emissions. The average increase of PC2 PM emissions compared to PC1 is 7%; however, once more signicant differences are found between each cycle. PM emissions depend on many parameters of the combustion within the cylinder. Comparing the two engines, the most important parameter seems to be the air/fuel ratio in the combustion chamber, as well as the thermodynamic conditions (pressure and temperature) at the injection timing. In general, we can state that a reduction in compression ratio in combination with an advanced boosting system and a fast response of the EGR system with advanced EGR cooling leads to a reduction of the emission level. As NOx emissions increase, more EGR is used to control them. Traditionally, this is leading to increased PM emissions. However, as the EGR ratio is different at the different operating points, there is no evident relationship between NOx and PM emissions on these driving cycles (Figures 5 and 6). Figure 6 shows that the NOx versus PM emissions of all driving cycles do not form a regular curve, with the US06 and the Highway driving cycles and phase-1 of FTP-75 appearing to be quite far from this curve. Comparing the PM emissions of each driving cycle, the same type of remarks as in the case of NOx emissions can be made. For NOx emissions, PC1 emits more of its PM at the ECE and less at the EUDC (Figure 4), and the opposite trend exists in the case of PC2. As NOx emissions increase, more EGR is used to control them, leading to increased PM emissions. In the case

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Figure 4. PM emissions of the two passenger cars as a function of the driving cycle (left bars) and the ratio of PM emissions of each cycle over the PM emissions of the NEDC (right bars, classied by decreasing order of PC2 results).

Figure 5. NOx/PM and NOx*PM emissions of the two passenger cars as a function of the driving cycle.

Figure 6. NOx versus PM emissions of the two passenger cars as a function of the driving cycle.

of these two vehicles on the NEDC, NOx and PM emissions both increase or decrease. Three other driving cycles show generally the same trends as the ECE and the EUDC; it means that increased NOx leads to increased PM emissions (Figures 2 and 4). For the two Japanese driving cycles, the 11 modes driving cycle is the only cycle emitting more PM than in the NEDC: +11% and +8% NOx for PC1 and PC2, respectively, while the 15 modes emits 14% and 11% less, respectively. The Highway cycle, which has the least NOx emitted, has also the least PM emitted: -39% and -41% for the PC1 and PC2, respectively, compared to the NEDC. However, two other driving cycles present the classical soot-NOx tradeoff. It means that increased NOx emissions lead to decreased PM emissions (Figures 2 and 4). The US06 cycle, which also has high NOx emissions, emits 48% and 33% less PM than the NEDC for the PC1 and PC2, respectively. FTP75 also emits 20% and 19% less PM than the NEDC for the two vehicles used. Phase-3 has the higher contribution as it emits 31% and 30% less than the NEDC while the contributions of phase-1 and phase-2 are similar.

NOx + 10PM Indicator. To compare each cycle, the indicator NOx + 10PM is used. Figure 7 shows this indicator as a function of the cycle for the two passenger cars used. As NOx and PM emissions are always higher in the case of the PC2 vehicle, this indicator shows the same trends as those presented in Figures 2 and 3. The average difference between the indicators of the two vehicles is 22%. Figure 7 clearly shows that the cycle with higher pollutant emissions is US06, as this indicator is 1.63 and 1.84 times more than that of the NEDC because of the high speeds. The 11 modes cycle is slightly more severe than the NEDC (1.18 times and 1.07 times) while FTP-75 is quite similar (1.03 times and 1.01 times). The most severe part of FTP-75 is phase-1 (1.22 and 1.17 times more than the NEDC), while phase-2 and phase-3 are slightly less severe (0.99 and 0.97 times for PC1 and PC2, respectively, for phase-2 and 0.95 and 0.93 for phase-3). This is due to the higher NOx and PM emissions of phase-1, which is cold, has higher speeds, and has more severe accelerations than phase-2. The 15 modes cycle and the Highway are the less severe cycles with ratios to the NEDC of 0.92 and 0.86 for the 15 modes and 0.69 and 0.73 for the Highway.

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Figure 7. NOx + 10PM indicator of the two passenger cars as a function of the driving cycle (left bars) and the ratio of NOx + 10PM indicator of each cycle over the NOx + 10PM indicator of the NEDC (right bars, classied by decreasing order of PC2 results).

Figure 8. NOx (lower curves) and PM (middle curves) emissions and NOx + 10PM indicator (upper curves) of the two passenger cars as a function of the average speed of each driving cycle. The best t lines (dashed) of the NOx curves do not use the EUDC and Highway points.

Figure 9. NOx (lower curves) and PM (middle curves) emissions and NOx + 10PM indicator (upper curves) of the two passenger cars as a function of the indicator of each driving cycle.

It must be noted that, in accordance with NOx and PM emissions, the EUDC is globally less severe than the ECE in the case of PC1, which is a quite light vehicle, while the opposite trend is observed in the case of PC2. Driving Cycle Indicator. To explain the severity of each driving cycle, NOx and PM emissions and the NOx + 10PM indicator are correlated with the average speed of each driving cycle (Figure 8). As expected, NOx emissions increase with the average speed for both passenger cars. However, the EUDC and Highway cycles have NOx emissions much lower than the best t line. Without these two cycles, the remaining points show a very good linear correlation with r2 values of 0.91 and 0.96 for the PC1 and PC2, respectively. As also expected, PM emissions decrease with the average speed; however, the points are quite scattered. The NOx + 10PM indicator shows also an

important point scattering, with the two previous cycles, EUDC and Highway, again far from the best linear relationship. The use of the driving cycle indicator instead of the average speed gives much better results. Figure 9 shows the NOx and PM emissions and the NOx + 10PM indicator as a function of the driving cycle indicator. NOx emissions show a remarkably good linear correlation with this indicator, with r2 values of 0.97 and 0.95 for the PC1 and PC2, respectively. The use of this indicator instead of the average speed brings the two cycles, EUDC and Highway, very close to the best t line. This gure shows that the NOx emissions depend linearly on this indicator rather than on the average speed of the driving cycle. PM emissions decrease with the driving cycle indicator; however, they show a small amount of data scattering. For both cars, the Highway point is found much lower than the best t line, and the 11 modes point is found a little higher. The upper

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curves of Figure 9 show that the NOx + 10PM indicator is also very linear with the driving cycle indicator. However, the r2 values of the best t lines are lower than in the case of NOx emissions: 0.81 and 0.90 for the PC1 and PC2, respectively. Figures 8 and 9 show that the NOx and NOx + 10PM emissions are not correlated with the average speed of the cycle but are correlated with the driving cycle indicator which takes into account the accelerations in each driving cycle. Conclusions This work uses two different passenger cars equipped with the same Euro3 diesel engine to study the impact of driving cycle on the emissions of NOx and PM. The obtained results

indicate that NOx and PM emissions increase with vehicle weight as the engine operation is shifted to higher speed/load points, having higher emissions. NOx emissions increase when a cycle has high driving speeds, especially in the case of the heavier vehicle. PM emissions are generally increased with speed, leading to a higher fuel/air equivalence ratio and consequently to higher PM emissions. The indicator NOx + 10PM is used to classify the severity of each cycle: US06 is the highest pollutant emitter followed by 11 modes, NEDC, FTP, 15 modes, and, nally, Highway. A driving cycle indicator is developed in this work; NOx and NOx + 10PM emissions of each vehicle show a very good correlation to this indicator.
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