Disaster

A disaster is a natural or man-made (or technological) hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. A disaster can be ostensively defined as any tragic event stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions. t is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people. n contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. !hese risks are the product of a combination of both hazard"s and vulnerability. #azards that strike in areas $ith lo$ vulnerability $ill never become disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions. %&' (eveloping countries suffer the greatest costs $hen a disaster hits ) more than *+ percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are ,- times greater (as a percentage of .(/) in developing countries than in industrialized countries Etymology !he $ord disaster is derived from 0iddle 1rench dsastre and that from 2ld talian disastro, $hich in turn comes from the .reek pe3orative prefix -, (dus-) 4bad4%5' 6 (aster), 4star4.%+' !he root of the $ord disaster (4bad star4 in .reek) comes from an astrological theme in $hich the ancients used to refer to the destruction or deconstruction of a star as a disaster %citation needed' or a calamity blamed on an unfavorable position of a planet

Classifications 7esearchers have been studying disasters for more than a century, and for more than forty years disaster research. !he studies reflect a common opinion $hen they argue that all disasters can be seen as being human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing into a disaster. All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriate disaster management measures.%8' #azards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, $here there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may spa$n a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding. A natural disaster is a consequence $hen a natural hazard affects humans and"or the built environment. #uman vulnerability, and lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, environmental, or human impact. !he resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster9 their resilience. !his understanding is concentrated in the formulation9 4disasters occur $hen hazards meet vulnerability4. A natural hazard $ill hence never result in a natural disaster in areas $ithout vulnerability. 1

NATURAL DISASTER

A natural disaster is a ma3or adverse event resulting from natural processes of the :arth; examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves some economic damage in its $ake, the severity of $hich depends on the affected population<s resilience, or ability to recover.%&' An adverse event $ill not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area $ithout vulnerable population.%,'%='%5' n a vulnerable area, ho$ever, such as >an 1rancisco, an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, requiring years to repair. n ,-&,, there $ere *-+ natural catastrophes $orld$ide, *=? of $hich $ere $eatherrelated disasters. 2verall costs $ere @>A&8- billion and insured losses A8- billion. ,-&, $as a moderate year. 5+? $ere meteorological (storms), =B? $ere hydrological (floods),&,? $ere climatological (heat $aves, cold $aves, droughts, $ildfires) and 8 ? $ere geophysical events (earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Cet$een &*D- and ,-&& geophysical events accounted for &5? of all natural catastrophes. /eople and the environment are increasingly suffering from the effects of natural disasters. !here are a number of reasons for this such as high population gro$th and density, migration and unplanned urbanization, environmental degradation and possibly global climate change. !he sheer scope of the socioeconomic impacts of natural disasters has brought about a shift in the political approach to dealing $ith the concept of risk in modern societies. Eomparing the past t$o decades, the number of people killed in natural and non-natural disasters $as higher in the &*D-s (DB =,D annually) than in the &**-s (8+ ,+, annually). #o$ever, more people $ere affected by disasters in the &**-s F up from an average of &58 million a year in the &*D-s to ,&& million people a year in the &**-s. Ghile the number of geophysical disasters has remained fairly steady, the number of hydrometeorological disasters (those caused by $ater and $eather) has increased (see figure on page ,8&). n the &**-s, more than *- per cent of those killed in natural disasters lost their lives in hydrometeorological events such as droughts, $indstorms and floods. Ghile floods accounted for more than t$o-thirds of people affected by natural disasters, they are less deadly than many other types of disaster, accounting for only &+ per cent of deaths ( 17E ,--&). !he social and economic costs of disasters vary $idely and are difficult to estimate on a global basis. nsurance claims tend to be misleading as an estimate of the economic impact of disasters. Eonsidering insured damage claims for the &*** floods in Austria, .ermany and >$itzerland, at least 5,.+ per cent of damage $as covered by disaster insurance. Cut in Henezuela the same year, only 5 per cent of flood damage $as covered (E7:(21(A ,--,). !here is a need for reliable and systematic data on disasters to help assess their socio-economic and environmental impacts in both the short and the long term. Cut although communities in developing countries suffer from numerous local-scale disasters such as $ildfires, small floods, droughts and pest infestations, these are often not reflected in disaster statistics. 2

!sunami
A tsunami (plural9 tsunamis or tsunami; from Iapanese9 , lit. 4harbour $ave4;%&' :nglish pronunciation9 /sunmi/soo-NAH-mee or /tsunmi/ tsoo-NAH-mee%,') is a series of $ater $aves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of $ater, generally an ocean or a large lake. :arthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other under$ater explosions(including detonations of under$ater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or belo$ $ater all have the potential to generate a tsunami. %=' !sunami $aves do not resemble normal sea $aves, because their $avelength is far longer. 7ather than appearing as a breaking $ave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide, and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves. !sunamis generally consist of a series of $aves $ith periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called 4$ave train4. %5' Gave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their destructive po$er can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the ,--5 ndian 2cean tsunami $as among the deadliest natural disasters in human history $ith over ,=-,--- people killed in &5 countries bordering the ndian 2cean. !he .reek historian !hucydides suggested in his late +th century CE, History of the Peloponnesian War , that tsunamis $ere related to submarine earthquakes,%+'%B' but the understanding of a tsunami<s nature remained slim until the ,-th century and much remains unkno$n. 0a3or areas of current research include trying to determine $hy some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis $hile other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and also to forecast ho$ tsunami $aves $ould interact $ith specific shorelines. !he term tsunami comes from the Iapanese , composed of the t$o kan3i (tsu) meaning 4harbour4 and (nami), meaning 4$ave4. (1or the plural, one can either follo$ ordinary :nglish practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in the Iapanese.%8') !sunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves, $hich are unusually high sea $aves that are triggered especially by earthquakes. %D' n recent years, this term has fallen out of favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do $ithtides. !he once-popular term derives from their most common appearance, $hich is that of an extraordinarily high tidal bore. !sunami and tides both produce $aves of $ater that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of $ater is much greater and lasts for a longer period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of 4tidal4 include 4resembling4 %*' or 4having the form or character of4 %&-' the tides, and the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged by geologists and oceanographers. !here are only a fe$ other languages that have an equivalent native $ord. n Acehnese language, the $ords are i !euna%&&' or al"n !ulu #%&,' (depending on the dialect). n !amil language, it is aa$hi peralai. 2n >imeulue island, off the $estern coast of >umatra in ndonesia, in (evayan language the $ord is smon%, $hile in >igulai language it is emon%.%&=' n >ingkil (in Aceh province) and surrounding, the people name tsunami $ith $ord %loro !he principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of $ater or perturbation of the sea. %&*' !his displacement of $ater is usually attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests.%,-'%,&' !he $aves formed in this $ay are then sustained by gravity. !ides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis.

(rought
Drought is an extended period $hen a region notes a deficiency in its $ater supply $hether surface or underground $ater. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as fe$ as &+ days. %&' .enerally, this occurs $hen a region receives consistently belo$ averageprecipitation. t can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region. Although droughts can persist for several years, even a short, intense drought can cause significant damage %,' and harm to the local economy.%=' 0any plant species, such as cacti, have adaptations such as reduced leaf area and $axy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought. >ome others survive dry periods as buried seeds. >emipermanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands. %5' 0ost arid ecosystems have inherently lo$ productivity. !his global phenomenon has a $idespread impact on agriculture. Jengthy periods of drought have long been a key trigger for mass migration and played a key role in a number of ongoing migrations and other humanitarian crises in the #orn of Africa and the >ahel. According to 1. Cagouls and #enri .aussen<s definition, a month is dry $hen the mean monthly precipitation in millimeters is equal to or lo$er than t$ice the mean monthly temperature in KE.

Globally
(rought is a normal, recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the $orld. t is among the earliest documented climatic events, present in the :pic of .ilgamesh and tied to thebiblical story of Ioseph<s arrival in and the later :xodus from Ancient :gypt.%&&' #unter-gatherer migrations in *,+-- CE Ehile have been linked to the phenomenon, %&,' as has the exodus of early humans out of Africa and into the rest of the $orld around &=+,--- years ago.%&=' 0odern people can effectively mitigate much of the impact of drought through irrigation and crop rotation. 1ailure to develop adequate drought mitigation strategies carries a grave human cost in the modern era, exacerbated by ever-increasing population densities. .enerally, rainfall is related to the amount and de$ point %determined by air temperature' of $ater vapour carried by regional atmosphere, combined $ith the up$ard forcing of the air mass containing that $ater vapour. f these combined factors do not support precipitation volumes sufficient to reach the surface, the result is a drought. !his can be triggered by high level of reflected sunlight, %high albedo', and above average prevalence of high pressure systems, $inds carrying continental, rather than oceanic air masses (i.e. reduced $ater content), and ridges of high pressure areas from behaviors $hich prevent or restrict the developing of thunderstorm activity or rainfall over one certain region. 2ceanic and atmospheric $eather cycles such as the :l LiMo->outhern 2scillation (:L>2) make drought a regular recurring feature of the Americas along the 0id$est and Australia. &uns' &erms' and (teel author Iared (iamond sees the stark impact of the multi-year :L>2 cycles on Australian $eather patterns as a key reason that Australian aborigines remained a hunter-gatherer society rather than adopting agriculture. %=+' Another climate oscillation kno$n as the Lorth Atlantic 2scillation has been tied to droughts in northeast >pain.%=B' #uman activity can directly trigger exacerbating factors such as over farming, excessive irrigation, %=8' deforestation, and erosion adversely impact the ability of the land to capture and hold $ater. %=D' Ghile these tend to be relatively isolated in their scope, activities resulting in global climate change are expected to trigger droughts $ith a substantial impact on agriculture %=*' throughout the $orld, and especially in developing nations.%5-'%5&'%5,' 2verall, global $arming $ill result in increased $orld rainfall. %5=' Along $ith drought in some areas, flooding and erosion $ill increase in others. /aradoxically, some proposed solutions to global $arming that focus on more active techniques, solar radiation

managementthrough the use of a space sunshade for one, may also carry $ith them increased chances of drough

1lood
A flood is an overflo$ of $ater that submerges land $hich is usually dry. %&' !he :uropean @nion (:@) 1loods (irective defines a flood as a covering by $ater of land not normally covered by $ater. %,' n the sense of 4flo$ing $ater4, the $ord may also be applied to the inflo$ of the tide. 1looding may occur as an overflo$ of $ater from $ater bodies, such as a river or lake, in $hich the $ater overtops or breakslevees, resulting in some of that $ater escaping its usual boundaries, %=' or it may occur due to an accumulation of rain$ater on saturated ground in an areal flood. Ghile the size of a lake or other body of $ater $ill vary $ith seasonal changes in precipitation and sno$ melt, these changes in size are unlikely to be considered significant unless they flood property or dro$n domestic animals. 1loods can also occur in rivers $hen the flo$ rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders in the $ater$ay. 1loods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. Ghile riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving a$ay from rivers and other bodies of $ater, people have traditionally lived and $orked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry. >ome floods develop slo$ly, $hile others such as flash floods, can develop in 3ust a fe$ minutes and $ithout visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighbourhood or community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.

Primary effects
!he primary effects of flooding include loss of life, damage to buildings and other structures, including bridges, se$erage systems,road$ays, and canals. 1loods also frequently damage po$er transmission and sometimes po$er generation, $hich then has knock-on effects caused by the loss of po$er. !his includes loss of drinking $ater treatment and $ater supply, $hich may result in loss of drinking $ater or severe $ater contamination. t may also cause the loss of se$age disposal facilities. Jack of clean $ater combined $ith human se$age in the flood $aters raises the risk of $aterborne diseases, $hich can include typhoid, giardia, cryptosporidium, cholera and many other diseases depending upon the location of the flood. (amage to roads and transport infrastructure may make it difficult to mobilise aid to those affected or to provide emergency health treatment. 1lood $aters typically inundate farm land, making the land un$orkable and preventing crops from being planted or harvested, $hich can lead to shortages of food both for humans and farm animals. :ntire harvests for a country can be lost in extreme flood circumstances. >ome tree species may not survive prolonged flooding of their root systems %+'

Secondary and long term effects

:conomic hardship due to a temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, or food shortages leading to price increases is a common after-effect of severe flooding. !he impact on those affected may cause psychological damage to those affected, in particular $here deaths, serious in3uries and loss of property occur. @rban flooding can lead to chronically $et houses, $hich are linked to an increase in respiratory problems and other illnesses.%B' @rban flooding also has significant economic implications for affected neighborhoods. n the @nited >tates, industry experts estimate that $et basements can lo$er property values by &--,+ percent and are cited among the top reasons for not purchasing a home. %8' According to the @.>. 1ederal :mergency 0anagement Agency (1:0A), almost 5- percent of small businesses never reopen their doors follo$ing a flooding disaster

!AN !ADE DISASTER

A disaster, which is intentionally caused by human intervention (i.e. vandalism,terrorism or industrial sabotage).Or in other words we can say that: an!made disasters are events which, either intentionally or by accident causesevere threats to "ublic health and well!being. #ecause disasters "ose an their occurrence isun"redictable, man!made es"ecially

challenging threat thatmust be dealt with through vigilance, and "ro"er "re"aredness and res"onse.$n%ormation on the ma&or sources o% man!made disasters is "rovided here tohel" educate the "ublic on their cause and e%%ects as they relate to emergency"lanning. an'ind has %re(uently created catastro"hes that devastate the environment and ta'en lives. )he *+ worst man!made disasters o% all time are di%%icult to determine with so many blunders. ,owever, e-cluding the loss o% li%e resulting %rom war, terrorism or trans"ortation disaster, this list includes the incidents that have had the most a%%ect on "eo"le and the environment )his "ortion o% the thesis %ocuses "rimarily on two ty"es o% man!made disasters. )he %irst is the broad category o% incidents involving ha.ardous materials, "rimarily in the %orm o% s"ills or discharges. An e-am"le o% this ty"e o% disaster would be a tan'er truc' carrying gasoline overturning on the highway during a winter storm. )he second category %ocuses on criminal activity, "rimarily in the %orm o% terrorism or violence. #ombings are a common %orm o% terrorist attac', both in the /nited 0tates and abroad. 1e should also note that a single incident might have characteristics o% both. )he classic e-am"les o% this were the attac's on 0e"tember **, 2++* in 3ew 4or' and at the 5entagon. 6riminal activity in the %orm o% terrorists hi&ac'ing air"lanes resulted in the discharge o% large (uantities o% aviation %uel in a manner that resulted in %ire and the loss o% lives and "ro"erty. A (ualitative assessment o% the di%%erent ty"es o% disasters was included in the

0tate o%

ontana

ulti!ha.ard 5re!7isaster

itigation (57 ) 5lan that was

com"leted in 2++8. $t should be no sur"rise that the "artici"ants ran'ed the combined im"act o% these disasters below any o% the di%%erent ty"es o% natural disasters. $n %act, terrorism was ran'ed below volcanic eru"tions as a threat to ontana. )he "lan included a table listing s"eci%ic incidents o% this ontana during the "eriod o% *9:9 to 2++8. ty"e that occurred in

A ha.ardous material incident, whether accidental or intentional, is a much more li'ely situation and can ha""en almost anywhere in ontana. ;irst o% all, ha.ardous materials are stored and/or used %or a multitude o% "ur"oses throughout the state. 0econdly, large (uantities o% ha.ardous materials are trans"orted across ontana via the thousands o% miles o% highways and railways located here. )his situation is made even more serious by the %act that many o% the ma&or trans"ortation routes "ass near the largest "o"ulation centers in the state. Other im"ortant natural resources or critical in%rastructure can be a%%ected as well, creating a sort o% domino a%%ect. )he state 57 "lan indicates that *9+ accidental releases e-ceeding *++ gallons "lanning and accidental or o% ha.ardous materials occurred in ontana between *99< and 2++8. ;or the "ur"oses o% 57 mitigation (whether a ha.ardous material incident is

intentional) may not be o% critical im"ortance. 3umerous agencies are involved in the e%%orts to insure ha.ardous materials o% all ty"es are labeled, stored, "rotected, trans"orted, and used in accordance with the a""ro"riate guidelines and regulations. )his is the critical %irst ste" in "reventing incidents o% this ty"e or at least minimi.ing their a%%ects. ,owever, the 57 "lanning and mitigation "rocess must o"erate on the assum"tion that ha.ardous material incidents will occur. =iven that, areas o% res"onsibility and "rocedures must be established that are clear %or all to see. )raining must be geared to address worst!case scenarios. >urisdictional issues, memorandums o% agreement, noti%ication "rocesses, sources o% assistance, and the li'e are wor'ed out in advance. ?i'ewise, 'nown sources o% ha.ardous materials and/or li'ely

misha" locations are identi%ied whenever "ossible. )he research conducted on this sub&ect indicated that these issues have been addressed in detail throughout the state. ;irst res"onders and others involved in emergency management at the local level 'now the answers to these (uestions. ,owever, other government o%%icials and the general "ublic may not. )he cartogra"hic "roducts constructed here are intended to "rovide basic in%ormation on this sub&ect.