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William D. Willis, Jr.Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Marine Biomedical Institute,University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555 Pain that originates from the limbs and the body wall is signaled by a neural system, the pain system (88), that includes nociceptors, a processing circuit in the dorsal horn, several parallel ascending tracts, and higher-level processors in several regions of the brain, including the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. The emphasis here will be on the initial stages of the pain system, including the nociceptors and the dorsal horn. In addition, reference will be made to changes in the initial processing of nociceptive signals that result from pathological events.
Articular Nociceptors
Joint nerves contain about twice as many unmyelinated afferent axons as myelinated ones (48). For joint and muscle nerves, the nomenclature is different than for cutaneous nerves. Group III afferent fibers are small myelinated axons and group IV unmyelinated axons. Many fibers in both size ranges with receptive fields to local mechanical stimulation respond best or only to strong rotation of the joint into the noxious range (74,75). Some joint nociceptors are normally silent with respect to joint movements; however, they can be sensitized by inflammation, after which they respond even to slight movements of the joint (76).
Muscle Nociceptors
Fine muscle afferents in groups III and IV ranges also appear to serve as nociceptors (59). They respond to mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli (40,57,58), and some group IV muscle afferent fibers are activated more strongly during muscle ischemia (60). It is likely that a subgroup of fine muscle afferent fibers are ergoreceptors, rather than nociceptors (57). Ergoreceptors signal the workload of the muscle.
Sensitization
An important point of distinction between nociceptors and other types of somatic receptors is that repeated or strong stimulation tends to cause fatigue of most types of receptors (8) but may sensitize nociceptors (6). Sensitization of nociceptors can be produced by exposure of the nerve terminals to any of several chemical substances known to be released in somatic tissues by noxious stimuli, including prostaglandins, bradykinin, serotonin, and histamine (3,14,29,47). Sensitized nociceptors become more responsive to previously effective stimuli. They discharge more in response to a given stimulus intensity, and they develop a lower threshold
(6,46,62). Furthermore, they may become responsive to new forms of stimulation. For example, it was mentioned earlier that A mechanical nociceptors are normally responsive only to intense mechanical stimuli. However, after sensitization by a cutaneous burn, A mechanical nociceptors become responsive to noxious heat (26). It has been proposed that sensitized nociceptors are responsible for primary hyperalgesia (45,46,62). Primary hyperalgesia is distributed in the area of damage and is an increase in the pain provoked by a particular type of noxious stimulus following damage (31). Other forms of noxious stimuli may become more effective, and the pain threshold may also be lowered. For example, when the skin undergoes a mild burn, primary hyperalgesia for both mechanical and thermal stimuli may develop. Under some experimental conditions, this is best explained by sensitization of A mechanical nociceptors (62). Under other experimental conditions, sensitization of C fibers contributes to the primary hyperalgesia (45).
higher centers by ascending tract cells, such as STT neurons. On the other hand, inhibitory events limit those discharges, shape the receptive fields of nociceptive neurons at all levels of the pain system, and provide opportunities for therapeutic interventions. Inhibitory circuits are found both in the dorsal horn and in supraspinal control systems activated by discharges in ascending tracts. The local inhibitory circuits presumably involve interneurons that contain inhibitory amino acid neurotransmitters (10,72). Peptides are also likely to contribute to inhibitory events in the dorsal horn. Candidate inhibitory peptides present in dorsal horn neurons include the opioid peptides, enkephalin and dynorphin (35,41,64,80). Inhibitory substances in the terminals of descending control systems include serotonin and norepinephrine (42,63,86,87). Descending excitatory pathways can also produce inhibition by activation of inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn. Because of this inhibitory circuitry, ascending tract cells, such as STT neurons, have inhibitory (as well as excitatory) receptive fields (29). The most powerful inhibition of STT cells is produced by noxious stimulation of the skin in areas separate from the excitatory receptive field. Much of the inhibition remains after transection of the spinal cord and so depends on inhibitory circuitry in the dorsal horn (29). However, some of the inhibition arising from the inhibitory receptive field depends on supraspinal circuits, perhaps like those responsible for the ``diffuse noxious inhibitory controls'' described by Le Bars and colleagues for dorsal horn neurons in general (49,50). The inhibition in this case depends on the activation of the ``endogenous analgesia system'' (89). Inhibition of nociceptive dorsal horn cells can also result from activation of mechanoreceptors (92). This is the type of inhibition that led to the Gate Control Theory of Melzack and Wall (56). This inhibition probably depends on dorsal horn inhibitory interneurons.
Pain that originates from deep tissues, such as muscle or the viscera, is often subjectively referred to the body wall (33). Several explanations for this have been offered, but the most attractive seems to be the convergence of afferent input from nociceptors in the body wall and in deep tissue onto the same dorsal horn neurons (73). A number of studies have shown that STT cells receive a convergent input from muscle or viscera and from the skin. For example, STT cells in the upper thoracic spinal cord can be activated by stimulation of the left upper extremity and left side of the chest, as well as by activation of cardiopulmonary nociceptors (7). Similarly, STT cells in the upper lumbar spinal cord can be excited by stimulation of the flank and also of the testicle or urinary bladder (65). The receptive fields match well-known areas of distribution of the referred pain originating from such organs as the heart, testicle, and bladder (33).
ALTERATIONS IN NOCICEPTIVE PROCESSING BY INJURY OR INFLAMMATION Enhanced Responses Following Injury or Inflammation
The responses of STT cells can be shown to increase following cutaneous damage, provided that the damage is severe enough (68). For example, the STT cell in figure 1 was initially almost unresponsive to innocuous brushing of the skin (BR) in its excitatory receptive field (Fig. 1A, right), and there was a graded response to a graded series of compressive stimuli (PRESS, PINCH, SQUEEZE). After the same stimuli were applied repeatedly, causing progressive injury, the STT cell became responsive to the BR stimulus, and its responses to the weaker two compressive stimuli increased (Fig. 1B, right). These events reflected changes in the responses to stimuli applied to the damaged area. However, in addition, the STT cell became responsive to BR applied to undamaged skin (compare Fig. 1A, left, and B, left). Similar changes occur when the skin is damaged by noxious heat (37). For example, in Figure 2 , a series of STT cells responded in a graded fashion to innocuous indentations of the skin, using a controlled mechanical vibrator. After the skin was damaged by noxious heat, the responses to the indentations of the skin were increased, whether the stimulus was applied to the damaged skin (Fig. 2A) or to an undamaged area 1 cm away (Fig. 2B). Intradermal injection of capsaicin can have a comparable effect on the responses of STT cells to mechanical stimuli (24,78). For example, in Figure 3 , the responses of an STT cell to innocuous and noxious intensities of mechanical stimuli are shown to increase following an injection of capsaicin into the skin well away from the sites tested (in Fig. 3, compare parts C, E, and G with D, F, and H ) . Responses to noxious heat applied near the injection site are also increased and the threshold lowered (78). The same kinds of changes produced in these experiments by damage to the skin can also result during the course of acute experimental arthritis (23). For example, in Figure 4 , the responses of an STT cell to flexing the knee and to mechanical stimulation of the skin are shown before
and after injection of the knee joint capsule with kaolin and carrageenan. As the inflammation developed, the STT cells began to respond to knee flexion, its responses to stimulation of the cutaneous receptive field on the foot increased, and the cutaneous receptive field expanded. The alterations in the response properties of primate STT cells that result from skin damage or the induction of inflammation appear to parallel the development of primary and secondary hyperalgesia in humans subjected to comparable pathological events. Skin damage causes primary and secondary hyperalgesia (31,51). The primary hyperalgesia is restricted to the damaged area and is characterized by an increase in responses to noxious mechanical and thermal stimuli and a lowered heat pain threshold (43,44). The secondary hyperalgesia is characterized by an increased pain following noxious mechanical stimuli and a mechanical allodynia, but no change in the sensation produced by noxious heat stimuli (44,83). These are exactly the characteristics of the changed responses of primate STT cells following intradermal injection of capsaicin (24,78). Elements of this same picture are found in experiments involving mechanical and thermal damage of the skin, as well as experimental arthritis. Secondary hyperalgesia was attributed by Lewis (51) to sensitization of a previously undescribed system of ``nocifensor axons'' in the skin. However, tests of the responsiveness of nociceptors supplying the skin in the area of secondary hyperalgesia caused by intradermal injection of capsaicin fail to show any changes (2,43). Instead, secondary hyperalgesia appears to be due to a sensitization of central nociceptive neurons, as proposed by Hardy et al. (31). Evidence that primate STT cells are sensitized at a time when secondary hyperalgesia would occur in humans comes from two kinds of experiments. In one set of experiments, the responses of the STT cells to volleys in large dorsal root axons were shown to increase (78), and in the other set the responses to iontophoretically released excitatory amino acids (EAAs) were enhanced (24). In the latter study, the time course of the increased responses was shown to resemble that of secondary hyperalgesia. The mechanism of sensitization of central nociceptive neurons has been under active investigation in several laboratories. One contributing factor seems to be the release of EAAs in the dorsal horn, either from the synaptic terminals of nociceptors or from excitatory interneurons activated by nociceptive volleys. The EAAs act on both non-NMDA and NMDA forms of glutamate receptors. The NMDA receptors play an important role in the central summation of nociceptive events in the phenomenon known as wind-up, since NMDA receptor antagonists block wind-up (18,21). The activation of STT cells by noxious mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli is virtually eliminated by administration of the non-NMDA receptor antagonist, CNQX, into the dorsal horn through a microdialysis tube, but sensitization of the responses of STT cells by intradermal capsaicin injections is blocked by the NMDA receptor antagonist, AP7 (22). In addition, AP7 reduces the responses of STT cells to noxious mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli. Thus, the responses of STT cells to noxious stimuli depend on the activation of both non-NMDA and NMDA receptors, but sensitization of STT cells depends on NMDA receptors. In addition to EAAs, peptides appear to play an important role in central sensitization. This has now been investigated by introducing the NK1 antagonist, CP96,345, into the dorsal horn by microdialysis. This agent should prevent the effect of SP on NK1 receptors on dorsal horn neurons. The NK1 antagonist has an action very similar to that of AP7 in that it reduces the
responses to noxious stimuli and it prevents the sensitization of STT cells (91). The inactive isomer (CP96,344) is without effect.
animals without spinal nerve ligation. Of particular note were increased responses to innocuous and noxious mechanical stimuli, heating, and cooling.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks K. Gondesen and G. Gonzales for their technical assistance and Margie Watson for help with the manuscript. The work done in my laboratory was supported by NIH grants NS 09743 and NS 11255 and by an unrestricted grant from the Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.
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