Prejudice and Discrimination

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice: Attitude toward the members of some group based solely on their membership in that group (can be positive or negative) Discrimination: Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc. Stereotyping: Stereotypes involve generalizations about the "typical" characteristics of members of the groups. Terms that often overlaps
Prejudice
Discrimination
Stereotyping
Attitude An Attitude is a distinct combination of feelings, inclinations to act, and beliefs
A B C
Affect (feelings) behavioral tendencies Cognition (beliefs)
The Difference between Prejudice and Discrimination A prejudiced person may not act on their attitude. Therefore, someone can be prejudiced towards a certain group but not discriminate against them. Also, prejudice includes all three components of an attitude (affective, behavioral and affective), whereas discrimination just involves behavior.
Roots of Prejudice The roots of prejudice are found in three sources. 1. Social source 2. Emotional source 3. Cognitive source
Social Sources of Prejudice: The social sources of the prejudice are conformity, unequal status, the self fulfilling prophecy, stereotype threat, social identity and intergroup bias
Unequal Status
Social Identity
. Unequal Status People view enemies as subhuman and depersonalize them with labels. For example, masters view slaves as lazy, irresponsible, lacking ambition-as having those traits that justify slavery. Once these inequalities exist, prejudice helps justify the economic and social superiority of those who have wealth and power. The self fulfilling prophecy This is also known as the Pygmalion effect. Negative beliefs predict negative behavior, if a person thinks we are claver or stupid or whatever, they will treat us that way. If we are treated as if we are claver, stupid or whatever, we will act, and even become, this way. The person has had their prophecy about us fulfilled. Stereotype Threat 1. a self-conforming apprehension that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype 2. refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
3. Black college freshmen and sophomores performed more poorly on standardized tests than White students when their race was emphasized. 4. When race was not emphasized, however, Black students performed better and equivalently with White students. 5. The results showed that performance in academic contexts can be harmed by the awareness that one's behavior might be viewed through the lens of racial stereotypes. Social identity Self concept -our sense of who we are-contains not just personal identity but also social identity. For example, a person may identify his self a man, a Pakistani, a psychology student, a chess player Ingroup bias The group definition of who you are--your race, religion, gender, academic major-implies a definition of who you are not. The circle that includes us (the in-group) excludes them (the out-group). Thus, a mere experience of being formed into groups may promote in-group bias. Conformity If prejudice is socially accepted, many people will follow the path of least resistance and conform to fashion. They will act not so much out of a need to hate as out of a need to be liked and accepted. Emotional Sources of Prejudice
Personality dynamic: The need for status, self-regard and belonging, to perceive ourselves as having status, we need people below us. Psychological benefit of status is superiority. Authoritarian personality: Andorno identified the authoritarian personality type as having these characteristics: The authoritarian personality does not want to give orders; their personality type wants to take orders. People with this type of personality seek conformity, security, and stability. They become anxious and insecure when events or circumstances upset their previously existing world view. They are very intolerant of any divergence from what they consider to be the normal (which is usually conceptualized in terms of their religion, race, history, nationality, culture, language, etc.) Frustration & Aggression: 1. Pain and frustration (a blocking of a goal) often evoke hostility. 2. When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, we often redirect our hostility (displaced aggression) Cognitive Sources of Prejudice: Categorization One way we simplify our environment is to categorize- to organize the world by clustering objects into groups (Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000). It perceived similarities and differences. Distinctiveness: Distinctive people and vivid or extreme occurrences often draw attention and distort judgment. We define people by their most distinctive traits and behaviors.
Attribution: In explaining others actions, we frequently commit the fundamental attribution error. We attribute peoples behavior so much to their inner disposition that we discount important situational forces. The error occurs partly because our attention focuses on the persons, and not the situation. Essentially, the fundamental attribution error involves placing a heavy emphasis on internal personality characteristics to explain someones behavior in a given situation, rather than thinking about external situation factors. Types of prejudice The most common types of prejudice are those based on race, gender, sexual orientation and disability. Racism: Racial prejudice and discrimination can occur in different ways. These attitudes are often seen in hate groups, such as white supremacists. Examples of overt racism include hate crimes, segregation and genocide. These types of racial prejudice are less common today. Covert racism is a social system of advantage based on race. In covert racism, stereotypes about people of color are connected to a larger cultural belief that white people are superior. Sexism: Prejudice based on sex or sexism involves the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other; usually that men are better than women and therefore should have more power. Sexism puts women at a disadvantage in many areas of society. For instance, the prejudice that men are smarter than women leads to greater opportunities for men in the workforce. Homophobia: Homophobia is an aversion to or hostility towards people thought to be gay,
lesbian or bisexual. Since heterosexuality is considered superior to homosexuality, stereotypes about homosexuals persist. Ableism: Ableism is discrimination against or mistreatment of people with mental, emotional or physical disabilities. The disabilities include physical or mental conditions that limit a person's everyday activities. People with these prejudices believe that they are superior to people with disabilities. Types of Discrimination Personal / Individual Discrimination Farley contends that individual discrimination can refer to any act that leads to the unequal treatment because of race or ethnicity that is directed at a specific individual. Examples: 1. A home owner refusing to sell to a Jew 2. A taxi driver refusing to pick up African American fares 3. An employer paying Chicano workers a lower wage than white workers. Legal: Robertson contended that legal discrimination is "unequal treatment, on the grounds of group membership, that is upheld by law." Racial Discrimination: Deliberate racial discrimination in virtually every form has been illegal for years. None-the-less discrimination is still prevalent in our society. Discrimination can occur within institutions in society.
Institutional Discrimination:
Institutional discrimination on the other hand, is much more insidious and, therefore, more difficult to rectify. Institutional discrimination resides within the fabric of society. Harrington (1984) poetically called institutional discrimination "structures of misery." Institutional discrimination explains much inequality in gender (and race and ethnicity) found in the workplace. Institutional discrimination is unequal treatment that is entrenched in basic social institutions. It refers to those practices in social institutions that favor one group over another. Age Discrimination: Age discrimination is discrimination against a person or group on the grounds of age. Gender Discrimination: In Western societies while women are often discriminated against in the workplace, men are often discriminated against in the home and family environments. For instance after a divorce women receive primary custody of the children far more often than men. Women on average earn less pay than men for doing the same job Legal Discrimination: Legal discrimination is, after all, illegal. Presumably, if one can document legal discrimination, one can remove such discrimination through the courts or legislatures. Historical Approaches: The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in the 1920s. This research was done to attempt to prove white supremacy. One article from 1925 reviewing 73 studies on race concluded that the studies take all together seem to indicate the mental
superiority of the white race. This research among others led many psychologists to view prejudice as a natural response to inferior races. In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to the increasing concern about anti-Semitism. Theorists of this time viewed prejudice as pathological and looked for personality syndromes linked with racism. Theorist Theodor Adorno believed prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality. Adorno described authoritarians as rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw the world as black and white, and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies. Adorno believed people with authoritarian personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status. In 1954, Gordon Allport linked prejudice and categorical thinking. Allport claims prejudice is in part a normal process for humans. According to him, "The human mind must think with the aid of categories.Once formed, categories are the basis for normal prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it. In the 1970s, research began to show that much of prejudice is based not on negative feelings towards other groups but favoritism towards ones own groups. According to Marilyn Brewer, prejudice "may develop not because out groups are hated, but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for the in group." Factors That Contribute To Prejudice Social scientists have also identified some common social factors that may contribute to the presence of prejudice and discrimination: 1. Socialization: Many prejudices seem to be passed along from parents to children. The mediaincluding television, movies, and advertisingalso perpetuate demeaning images and stereotypes about assorted groups, such as ethnic minorities, women, gays and lesbians, the disabled, and the elderly.
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2. Conforming behaviors: Prejudices may bring support from significant others, so rejecting prejudices may lead to losing social support. The pressures to conform to the views of families, friends, and associates can be formidable. 3. Economic Benefits: Social studies have confirmed that prejudice especially rises when groups are in direct competition for jobs. This may help to explain why prejudice increases dramatically during times of economic and social stress. 4. Authoritarian personality: In response to early socialization, some people are especially prone to stereotypical thinking and projection based on unconscious fears. People with an authoritarian personality rigidly conform, submit without question to their superiors, reject those they consider to be inferiors, and express intolerant sexual and religious opinions. The authoritarian personality may have its roots in parents who are unloving and aloof disciplinarians. The child then learns to control his or her anxieties via rigid attitudes. 5. Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate others' cultures by one's own cultural norms and values. It also includes a suspicion of outsiders. Most cultures have their ethnocentric tendencies, which usually involve stereotypical thinking. 6. Group closure: Group closure is the process whereby groups keep clear boundaries between themselves and others. Refusing to marry outside an ethnic group is an example of how group closure is accomplished. 7. Conflict theory: Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their distinctive social status, power, and possessions, privileged groups are invested in seeing that no competition for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may even be ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against others to protect their interests. As
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a result, members of underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an attempt to improve their circumstances. Functions Prejudice is a destructive phenomenon, and it is pervasive because it serves many psychological, social, and economic functions: 1. Prejudice allows people to avoid doubt and fear. Example: Rachels parents came from a working-class background but are now wealthy business owners. Rachel might develop a dislike of the working class because she does not want to be identified with working-class people. She believes such an association would damage her claim to upper-class social status. 2. Prejudice gives people scapegoats to blame in times of trouble. Example: Glen blames his unemployment on foreign nationals whom he believes are incompetent but willing to work for low wages. 3. Prejudice can boost self-esteem. Example: A poor white farmer in the nineteenth-century South could feel better about his own meager existence by insisting on his superiority to African-American slaves. 4. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that prejudice allows people to bond with their own group by contrasting their own groups to outsider groups. Example: Most religious and ethnic groups maintain some prejudices against other groups, which help to make their own group seem more special. 5. Prejudice legitimizes discrimination because it apparently justifies one groups dominance over another. Example: Pseudoscientific arguments about the mental inferiority of African Americans allowed whites to feel justified in owning slaves.
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Theories of Prejudice: Normative Theory: This perspective on prejudice formation identifies core socialization experiences as Primarily responsible for the creation and reinforcement of prejudices. In this view the Family, one is circle of friends, one is community, and the mass media all systematically teach attitudes---some of which are prejudices. Scapegoat Theory: This perspective on prejudice formation identifies the human need to displace blame for personal shortcomings and misfortunes onto some relatively powerless target group. This group typically will serve to bear the brunt of blame for a whole host of wrongs perceived by the individual. In this view, prejudice is rooted in human nature and therefore can never be fully eradicated. Justification-Suppression Model: The justification-suppression model of prejudice was created by Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman. This model explains that people face a conflict between the desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept. This conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings (cognitive dissonance) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group. Exploitation Theory This perspective on prejudice formation identifies conflicting economic interests as the root source of prejudice. In this view, when people are in competition for jobs and Business clients, there is a tendency to subscribe to various prejudices that might help them to justify actions and policies that would discriminate against racial and ethnic groups different from ones own and with whom one is in competition.
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Authoritarian Personality Theory: This perspective on prejudice formation identifies a particular type of personality as the root source of a tendency to look upon the world in dichotomous terms of good and evil, right and wrong. This personality type is allegedly created by a harsh, punitive childhood upbringing. Persons with such a personality type are allegedly disposed to adopt prejudicial attitudes about all sorts of things. Realistic Conflict Theory: The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when the resource is insignificant. In the Robbers Cave experiment, negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal. Integrated Threat Theory (ITT): Integrated Threat Theory (ITT) developed by Walter G Stephan. It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and in group/out group behavior, such as Realistic Group Conflict Threat and symbolic racism. It also uses the Social Identity Theory perspective as the basis for its validity, that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that out group prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an out group to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats: 1. Realistic threats 2. Symbolic threats 3. Intergroup anxiety 4. Negative stereotypes
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Realistic threats are tangible, such as competition for a natural resource or a threat to income. Symbolic threats arise from a perceived difference in cultural values between groups or a perceived imbalance of powerfor example, an in group perceiving an out groups religion as incompatible with theirs. Intergroup anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness experienced in the presence of an out group or out group member, which constitutes a threat because interactions with other groups cause negative feelings (e.g., a threat to comfortable interactions). Negative stereotypes are similarly threats, in that individuals anticipate negative behavior from out group members in line with the perceived stereotype, for example, that the out group is violent. Often these stereotypes are associated with emotions such as fear and anger. ITT differs from other threat theories by including intergroup anxiety and negative stereotypes as threat types. Social Dominance Theory: Social Dominance Theory states that society can be viewed as group-based hierarchies. In competition for scarce resources such as housing or employment, dominant groups create prejudiced "legitimizing myths" to provide moral and intellectual justification for their dominant position over other groups and validate their claim over the limited resources. Legitimizing myths, such as discriminatory hiring practices or biased merit norms, work to maintain these prejudiced hierarchies. Prejudice can be a central contributing factor to depression. This can occur in someone who is a prejudice victim, being the target of someone's else's prejudice, or when people have prejudice against themselves that causes their own depression. Culture Theory: This theory says that extreme prejudice may be characteristic of certain people, but some prejudice is found in everyone because it is embedded in culture. Think of a child growing up and their parents telling them they should marry from the same ethnic group.
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Conflict Theory: Part of this theory is when powerful people use prejudice to justify oppression others. Another great example is when minorities claim that they are victims and therefore are entitled to special consideration based on their race. Impression Management Theory: Rosenfield (1981) argues that much attitude change is seen as an attempt to avoid social anxiety and embarrassment, or to protect the positive view of one's own identity. Devine (1989) found that even when a person considers himself/herself to be low in prejudice, when put into contact with a member of a stereotyped group, the person will immediately react according to the cultural norms. Biological Theory: When white and black participants were given brief subliminal glimpses of faces of individuals from other ethnic groups, both showed increased activity in the amygdale, the part of the brain that is responsible for processing emotional responses to stimuli even though the participants reported that they had no noticeable change in their emotional state during the study. (Hart, 2000) Attribution-Value Model The attribution-value model is a framework for understanding individual differences in prejudice, developed by Chris Crandall and colleagues. It states that not only do minorities possess undesirable characteristics incongruent with the majority, but also that minorities are also responsible for them. For example, overweight individuals are viewed as lazy and unable to control themselves. This belief that targeted groups should be held accountable for their status arouses negative emotional reactions towards them. Intersection Theory: Feminist sociologist Patricia Hill Collins (1990) developed intersection theory, which
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suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes. When we examine race and how it can bring us both advantages and disadvantages, it is important to acknowledge that the way we experience race is shaped, for example, by our gender and class. Multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way we experience race. For example, if we want to understand prejudice, we must understand that the prejudice focused on a white woman because of her gender is very different from the layered prejudice focused on a poor Asian woman, who is affected by stereotypes related to being poor, being a woman, and her ethnic status. Contact Hypothesis: Allport (1956) "It has sometimes been held that merely by assembling people without regard for race, color, religion, or national origin, we can thereby destroy stereotypes and develop friendly attitudes." Amir (2000) prejudice is strengthened or increased if contract between two group produces competition and is unpleasant. Measuring Prejudice Researchers find it difficult to measure prejudice. One reason for this is that people differ in the type and extent of prejudice they harbor. For example, a person who makes demeaning comments about a particular ethnic group may be bigoted or just ignorant. Also, people often do not admit to being prejudiced. People may often have implicit unconscious prejudices even when they do not have explicit prejudices. Researchers assess implicit prejudice in three ways: 1. Some researchers assess attitudes that suggest prejudice, such as a strong emotional objection to affirmative action. 2. Some researchers observe behavior rather than assess attitudes. Peoples behavior in stressful situations may be particularly useful at revealing implicit prejudice.
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3. Some researchers assess the unconscious associations people have about particular groups. In-groups and Out groups Peoples social identities depend on the groups they belong to. From a persons perspective, any group he belongs to is an in group, and any group he doesnt belong to is an out group. People generally have a lower opinion of out group members and a higher opinion of members of their own group. People who identify strongly with a particular group are more likely to be prejudiced against people in competing out groups. People tend to think that their own groups are composed of different sorts of people. At the same time, they often think that everyone in an out group is the same. According to the contact hypothesis, prejudice declines when people in an in group become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an out group. Contact with the out group helps people to see the diversity among its members. Competition and Cooperation Hostility between an in group and an out group increases when groups compete. Researchers have found that hostility between groups decreases when those groups have to cooperate in order to reach a shared goal. In such a situation, people in the two groups tend to feel that they belong to one larger group rather than two separate groups. Ways to Reduce Prejudice Reducing prejudices needs to be more than an organizational goal; it needs to be a personal goal for each of us. The following list contains things we can do as individuals to help reduce prejudices within ourselves and in those around us 1. Acknowledge that you have learned prejudicial information about other people. Without this acknowledgment nothing can change. Only through an acknowledgment of the prejudicial learnings can the misinformation be openly
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discussed and dealt with in a way which is likely to bring about change. It is clear that if we cant talk about it, we surely cant change it. 2. Confront without guilt or blame the stereotypes that you have learned. Guilt for having learned information is not really appropriate. It would have been difficult or nearly impossible to avoid learning this information. You probably learned it before you were able to think about the information critically. 3. Enter a supportive group or a supportive relationship for making the needed changes. We tend to change our interpersonal behaviors and beliefs most effectively in an interpersonal context. Another person or other people can help us to test new learnings, gain new information, hold us to our insights and our commitments. They can do all this while providing us with support as we try new ideas, behaviors and beliefs. 4. Make a commitment to change and make a commitment to a process of change. The commitment made to others is a stronger commitment than the one made alone or to oneself. The commitment should be to working on a change process. Simply making a commitment to change is not as likely to result in the modification of behavior as a commitment to change that includes a commitment to a process. It is most effective to make an agreement to meet regularly with someone to discuss how you are both changing. Mutual commitments are both powerful and healthy. 5. Become aware of your own "self-talk" about other groups of people. Becoming aware of one's own "self-talk" is critical in the process of changing the early stereotyped beliefs that one has learned. Talk about where those messages came from and the messages' limiting effect with a person who will be accepting and non-
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judgmental. Knowing what those messages are is critical to changing them and replacing them with positive messages. 6. Challenge the irrationality of the prejudicial thoughts or "self-talk" statements. Get information to disprove each prejudicial thought. Most general statements about a population of people are untrue. One only needs to look more closely to see that almost any statement about "them" will fall apart under examination. Take the time to examine and challenge the thoughts that limit or devalue other people. 7. Increase your exposure to or contact with those who belong to the group(s) toward which you have learned some prejudicial stereotypes. Misconceptions remain effective only when you avoid contact with those about whom you have misconceptions. It is always helpful to increase your exposure to people that belong to the group about which you have stereotyped thoughts. When you are doing this, besure that you are not making contact in a way which will only affirm your stereotypedbeliefs. In finding people who are representative of this group, you might ask yourself, "Is this the method I would want someone to use who wanted to learn about people of my nationality, race, age, religious belief, or culture?" As you enter this process, keep in mind the tremendous diversity within any group. 8. Thought-stopping is a valuable process for changing one's "self-talk" about others. It is often helpful to have a pleasant image to focus upon to use as an abrupt interruption to your thoughts whenever you discover that you have started to think stereotypical thoughts about a member of another group.
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9. Make use of the Premack Principle, a small rule that has power for change. Making something one does often or something one likes to do contingent upon doing one's positive practice is one of the most effective ways of ensuring it gets done 10. Learn how other groups see your own identity group. Learn from those in other groups how your own group is seen. This may take time because one needs to develop a trusting relationship. 11. Feeling good about ourselves is important in being able to accept people who are different from us. We need to develop a strong sense of security. People need to feel secure enough to be self-critical and to accept and learn from critical feedback by others. Those who are unable to accept critical feedback often project blame onto those who are different from themselves. 12. Accepting indecision is an important learning style. We need to develop an acceptance within ourselves for indecision. To be undecided is not only acceptable, but often desirable over having fast answers before all the needed information is available. To be in a position of not knowing and not reaching a conclusion is a valid position. 13. Developing empathy skills is an effective way of increasing our acceptance of others. The ability to empathize with others is a teachable skill and is highly related to tolerance. There is no other skill that has been so clearly shown as being related to acceptance of others. 14. Develop listening skills so that we can really hear other people. We need to develop listening skills and an appreciation for listening to other people. 15. Develop an appreciation for the complexities of the universe.
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Knowing that one truth does not preclude another is an important concept. We need to develop and nurture our own appreciation for the complexities of the universe. Our ability to accept contradictory truths is related to our tolerance for others 16. Developing our own ability to experience caring about other people Is not only important for them, but allows us to be touch with our own connectedness and adds meaning to our lives. We need to show caring, even for those people who are unable to return the caring at this time. 17. Learning about other groups is an important way to develop understanding. We need to learn about those groups we might feel prejudice toward. It is helpful to read about these groups in books the members of the groups have written, and it's also helpful to go out of our way to visit with members of these groups. 18. Valuing diversity in human appearance and in nature is important. Diversity is the reality of nature and the strength of a species. We need to think and behave in ways which value and learn from diversity. This is not only in the area of racial diversity, but also in diverse ways of thinking, problem-solving and the many other ways in which people differ that affect human interactions. 19. Seeking self-understanding increases the ability to accept one and others. We need to personally value and seek self-understanding. Those who are self-aware and self-critical are less likely to blame others. They know their own shortcomings and capabilities and have the self-esteem to accept responsibility for their behaviors.

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PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION