Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle The Key Roles of Cell Division

1. Explain how cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair. Mitosis causes growth and repair by providing more identical cells to replace old, damaged or missing cells for repair or to produce more tissue for growth. It also helps with reproduction by creating haploid cells to form zygotes for reproduction. 2.Describe the structural organization of the genome. Prokaryotic genomes are found in a single strand of DNA in a circular shape. Eukaryotic are packed into chromosomes in a double helix shape. 3.Describe the major events of cell division that enable the genome of one cell to be passed onto two daughter cells. In cell division, the S phase ensures that all 46 chromosomes are duplicated for the cell to give to each daughter cell. G2 phase checks them for error, and then mitosis happens in which the cell divides to give each daughter cell the same genome. 4.Describe how the chromosome number changes throughout the human life cycle. The egg cell starting out has n genomic content. When the zygote enters and attaches, it has 2n genomic content.

The Mitotic Cell Cycle

5.List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs during each phase. In the G1 Phase, all cellular contents of the cell, excluding the chromosomes are duplicated. The cell grows, ensures it has enough nutrients, and space. Then in the S phase, the chromosomes are all duplicated. After S phase, the chromosomes are all duplicated. After S phase, is the G2 phase, where the cell double checks for error and ensure the chromosomes were duplicated properly. After it gets OK signal, Mitosis occurs, and then cytokenisis. 6. List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase. In Mitosis, the DNA is replicated during the S phase of Mitosis. This ensures that the DNA of the original genome is copied. In prophase, the chromatin condense to form chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope disappears. Then in Metaphase, the chromosomes line up into the middle of the cell, and spindle fibers attach to them. In anaphase, the chromosomes are pulled apart giving each new daughter cell a copy of the original genome. 7. Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams and micrographs.

8. Draw or describe the spindle apparatus, including centrosomes, kinetochore microtubules, nonkinetochore microtubules, asters, and centrioles (in animal cells).
The cellular spindle apparatus includes the spindle microtubules, associated proteins, and any centrosomes or asters present at the spindle

poles.[3] The spindle apparatus is vaguely ellipsoid in cross section and tapers at the ends. In the wide middle portion, known as the spindle midzone, antiparallel microtubules are bundled by kinesins. At the pointed ends, known as spindle poles, microtubules are nucleated by the centrosomes in most animal cells. Acentrosomal or anastral spindles lack centrosomes or asters at the spindle poles, respectively, and occur for example during gametogenesis in animals.[4] In fungi, spindles form between spindle pole bodies embedded in the nuclear envelope. Plants lack centrosomes or spindle pole bodies and instead spindle microtubules are nucleated on their nuclear envelopes.

9. Describe what characteristic changes occur in the spindle apparatus during each phase of mitosis.
In prophase, the mitotic spindle apparatus is formed. In prometaphase, the spindle fibers interact with the sister chromatids. In metaphase, the two pair chromosomes attach to the spindles two poles. In anaphase, the spindles begin to separate from each other. In telophase, the spindles are with the centrioles on opposite poles.

10. Explain the current models for poleward chromosomal movement and elongation of the cells polar axis. Motor proteins appear to walk a chromosome along the kinetochore microtubules as these shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore end. Motor protein at the spindle poles also appear to reel in the chromosomes, with the microtubules depolymerizing at the poles. The extension of the spindle poles away from each other as an animal elongates is probably due to the overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules walking past each other, also using motor proteins. How nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen the cell during anaphase is by pulling the centrosomes (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell. The force that causes the centrosomes to move towards the ends of the cell. 11. Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants. In cytokinesis in animals, the cell splits into two with a cleavage furrow in the middle, in plants, a cell plate forms in between the splitting cells. 12. Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria and how this process may have evolved in eukaryotic mitosis. Regulation of the Cell Cycle. Single-celled eukaryotes reproduce asexually, which includes mitosis the binary fission of prokaryotes does not mitosis. The bacterial chromosome, a single circular DNA molecule, begins to replicate at the origin of replication and one of these duplicated origins moves to the opposite pole of the cell. Replication is completed as the cell doubles in size and the plasma membrane grows inward to divide the two identical daughter cells. The mechanism of chromosome movement is not fully understood.

Evolution, Unity, and Diversity

13. Describe the roles of checkpoints, cyclin, Cdk, and MPF in the cell cycle control system. MPF is a complex of cyclin and Cdk. Cyclin levels rise and fall throughout the cell cycle; cdk levels remain constant, when a checkpoint approaches, cyclin levels rise until there is enough cyclin to make many cyclin-cdk complexes (MPF). This rise in MPF triggers the cell to pass through the checkpoints (providing nothing blocks progression, eg. Unrepaired DNA damage) to the next stage of the cell cycle, different cyclins are involved in progression through different checkpoints, eg cyclins D, B, E, and H. 14. Describe the internal and external factors that influence the cell cycle control system. An internal factor that influences the cell cycle control system is for instance in the M phase; the cell cannot split the chromosomes until they are all aligned at the metaphase plate. An external factor could be the fibroblasts which give a signal for the cell to go past the G1 checkpoint.

Science as a Process
15. Explain how the abnormal cell division of cancerous cells differs from normal cell division. The cancer cells ignore checkpoints and signals and keep dividing without any regulation. Because of this an overabundances of cells is created and tumors may appear.