Axial Compressor (Adiabatic Compression) An axial compressor has a rotor and a stator which performs the function of air

compression Rotor Blades Function The rotor blades increase the air velocity and the ram pressure of the air. When the air is forced past the thick sections of the rotor blades the static pressure also increases, because the larger area at the rear of the blades (due to their airfoil shape) acts as a diffuser. Stator Blades Function In the stators, the air velocity, ram pressure decreases while the static pressure increases. As explained earlier, total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the pressure due to ram. Velocity: Only slightly greater than the velocity of the air at the entrance to the compressor (500 ft/s) Temperature: Temperature increases from inlet to exit in a compressor (700 deg Celsius) Pressure: Increases from inlet to exit ( Pressure Ratio- 40:1) Rotor Blades Construction The rotor blades are of airfoil section. They are designed to give a uniform pressure gradient along their length and to ensure a uniform axial velocity of air. The higher pressure towards the tip balances out the centrifugal action of the rotor on the airstream. To obtain these conditions, it is necessary to twist the blade from root to tip to give the correct angle of incidence at each point. Stator vanes Construction The stator vanes are again of airfoil section and are secured into the compressor casing or into stator vane retaining rings, which are themselves secured to the casing. The vanes are often assembled in segments in the front stages and may be shrouded at their inner ends to minimize the vibrational effect of flow variations on the longer vanes. It is also necessary to lock the stator vanes in such a manner that they will not rotate around the casing.

Effect of Diffusion (Why does an axial compressor have so many stages?) The airflow in an axial compressor is diffusing, which is very unstable. In order to aerodynamically stabilize the diffusing airflow we have to keep lot of compressor stages and accelerate the flow slightly to achieve the desired pressure increase. So an axial compressor must have many stages than the turbine which drives it.

Exit Guide Vanes The air leaving an axial compressor passes through compressor exit guide-vanes, which remove some of the swirl of the air, then through a diffuser section. Diffuser Section The diffuser has an expanding internal diameter to decrease the velocity and increase the static pressure of the air. This prepares the air for entry into the combustion section at low velocity to permit proper mixing with fuel. Combustion Liner The criteria for an acceptable burner are a) b) c) d) e) Minimum pressure loss as the gases pass through the burner High combustion efficiency Combustion Intensity: Heat released by the combustor liner Low risk of flame blow-out. No burning should occur after the gases leave the burner exit, which means that combustion must take place entirely within the burner. f) The gases must have satisfactory temperature distribution acceptable maximum temperature as they enter the turbine. g) Less Emissions h) Less Combustion Instability Fortunately a burner which satisfies these conditions and is suitable for continuous operation also has satisfactory engine starting characteristics. Because of their proximity to the flames, all types of burner liners are short-lived in comparison with other engine components, requiring more frequent inspection and replacement. Air Fuel ratio: A ratio of 60:1 is about average, Temperature: 2100 deg Celsius Can-Type Burner

Air is divided as it leaves the diffuser, and is ducted to individual combustion cans arranged around the circumference of the burner section of the engine. Each burner contains its own fuel nozzle and burner liner. Primary air, introduced at the nozzle, supports the initial phase of combustion. Cooling, or secondary, air passes between the liner and the burner case. The liner has several series of holes or axial slots through which some of the secondary air enters from the outside. These holes furnish a layer of cooling air that flows along the inside of the liner and supplies additional air for combustion. After combustion is completed, the heated airstreams from the multiple burners converge immediately upstream of the turbine. At this point, the secondary air, which bypassed the fuel nozzles, mixes with the products of combustion, cooling them to a temperature at which the turbine can tolerate. Advantages a) Because of the smaller diameter of each can relative to the annular type of combustion chamber, each can has structural strength and light weight. b) This burner also has excellent serviceability. c) Individual units may be removed from the engine for inspection or replacement without disturbing the engine installation. Can-Annular Combustion Chamber Individual burner cans are placed side by side to form a circle of cans inside an annular chamber. The cans are essentially individual combustion chambers with concentric rings of perforated holes to admit air for cooling. On some engine models, each can has a round, perforated tube which runs down the middle of the can. The tube carries additional air which enters the can through the perforations to provide more air for combustion and cooling. The effect is to permit more burning per inch of can length than could otherwise be accomplished. Several fuel nozzles are placed around the perimeter of the forward end of the can. The burner cans are relatively small in diameter, which makes them resistant to the buckling caused by heat. Each can has two holes which are opposite each other near the forward end of the can. One hole has a collar called a flame tube. When the cans are assembled in the annular chamber, these holes and their collars form open tubes between adjacent cans to enable a flame to pass from one can to the next during engine starting. Advantages a) A removable or telescoping shroud covers the entire burner assembly. This permits access to the individual cans, which can be removed for inspection and replacement without taking the engine out of the aircraft. b) The short burner length that is possible with a can-annular combustion chamber prevents an excessive drop in the pressure of the gases between the compressor outlet and the flame area. The design has an even temperature distribution at the turbine inlet, minimizing the danger of hot spots if one of the fuel nozzles becomes clogged

Annular combustion chamber This type of combustion chamber consists of a single flame tube, completely annular in form, which is contained in an inner and outer casing. The airflow through the flame tube is similar to that already described, the chamber being open at the front to the compressor and at the rear to the turbine nozzles. Advantage of the annular chamber is:a) For the same power output, the length of the chamber is only 75 per cent of that of a can-annular system of the same diameter, resulting in considerable saving of weight and production cost. b) Elimination of combustion propagation problems from chamber to chamber. c) Wall area of a comparable annular chamber is much less d) The amount of cooling air required to prevent the burning of the flame tube wall is less, by approximately 15 per cent, e) Reduction in cooling air raises the combustion efficiency to virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidizes the carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon dioxide, thus reducing air pollution. f) The design also tends to prevent heat-warping
Burner Smoke Reduction Low Temperature will produce smoke, High Temperature more oxides of nitrogen

Turbines Turbines are of two types, impulse and reaction, and a combination of these two is sometimes used. In the impulse type, there is no net change in pressure between the rotor inlet and the rotor exit .The blades relative discharge velocity will be the same as its relative inlet velocity. In the reaction type, there is decrease in pressure and increase in velocity of the gases which are accomplished by the convergent shape of the passage between the rotor blades. Shrouds The shrouded blades form a band around the perimeter of the turbine wheel and reduce blade vibration. The shrouds also reduce gas leakage around the tips of the turbine blades.

Factors of Turbine Performance

If turbines are to operate at maximum efficiency, they must be designed and manufactured to minimize the following sources of lost performance: 1) Profile loss results from friction on the surface of airfoils. Airfoil turning and loading are predominant factors influencing profile loss. 2) End loss occurs from friction and secondary flows in the end wall region of a passage(the outer wall of the turbine case past which the airfoils rotate, and the aerodynamic flow path near the bases of the blades and vanes). Aspect ratio and the distance available for loss buildup influence the end loss. 3) Cooling air flow entering the mainstream generally causes a momentum drop. Mainstream Mach number and the ratio of coolant temperature and mainstream temperature have a strong influence on this loss. Cooling flow mixing loss can be reduced by directing coolant velocities in the direction of the mainstream. 4) Tip leakage results from the inability to form a perfect seal between the rotating blade tip and the static outer case. Very small changes in tip clearance have a large effect on turbine performance; the blade tip clearance systems in modern engines minimize these losses. 5) Leakage also occurs between the other parts of the turbine, such as between disks, seals, and vanes. Care is taken not only to seal all unnecessary leakage, but also to maintain a detailed accounting of all flows and pressures. Without accurate cooling flow management, neither cooling nor performance goals can be achieved. 6) Shock losses occur when normal shockwaves interact with the boundary layer. These losses are nonexistent at low Mach numbers but become significant as Mach number approaches transonic levels.
Turbine airfoils are designed to withstand three modes of failure: creep, metal fatigue, and corrosion.

Creep the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and near their melting point. Creep always increases with temperature. Metal fatigue is another factor in turbine durability. Fatigue is the weakening of a material as it is subjected to repeated cyclic loading. Periodic temperature variations are experienced by the engine as it is throttled through the flight cycle. Typical engines go from idle to takeoff, to cruise to descent, to reverse thrust, and back to idle many times a day. Military fighter engines experience many more cycles within a given mission. Because of the temperature gradients that exist within an airfoil, some elements experience thermal strains which are caused by adjacent elements with different temperatures pulling or pushing the original element. Corrosion as well as deformation can result from high temperature loads. Turbine blades are

made of nickel-base alloys which contain chromium cobalt, and other age hardening materials to increase strength. The addition of these materials makes the material corrosion resistant at atmospheric temperatures. At the high temperatures experienced in turbines, corrosion still affects the life of the airfoil. Sulfidation is a corrosion which results from the condensation of sodium sulfate on the surface of a material. Engines used near oceans ingest sodium sulfate, which is a component of sea salt. When airfoil surface temperatures are less than the boiling temperature of liquid sodium sulfate condensation occurs and the liquid attacks the surface of the airfoil. With increasing surface temperature the corrosion rate due to sulfidation first increases and then decreases. The region of the airfoil with temperatures below the minimum life portion of the curve actually corrode at a slower rate than the cooler regions. This happens because the temperatures are nearer the vapor pressure of sodium sulfate and less condensation occurs. Finally, in regions where surface temperatures are extremely high, surface atoms react with the oxygen in the air and oxidation occurs. An understanding of airfoil surface temperatures is necessary for estimating where corrosion rates will be higher. Exhaust unit Inner Cone The cone also prevents the exhaust gases from flowing across the rear face of the turbine disc. Turbine Rear Struts The turbine rear struts in the exhaust unit are designed to straighten out the flow before the gases pass into the jet pipe.