ABSTRACT Plastics have transformed everyday life, usage is increasing and annual production is likely to exceed 300 million

tons by 2010. We synthesize current understanding of the benefits and concerns surrounding the use of plastics and look to future priorities. It is evident that plastics bring many societal benefits and offer future technological and medical advances. However, concerns about usage and disposal are diverse and include accumulation of waste in landfills and in natural habitats, physical problems for wildlife resulting from ingestion or entanglement in plastic, the leaching of chemicals from plastic products and the potential for plastics to transfer chemicals to wildlife and humans. However, perhaps the most important overriding concern, which is implicit throughout this volume, is that our current usage is not sustainable. Around 4 per cent of world oil production is used as a feedstock to make plastics and a similar amount is used as energy in the process. Yet over a third of current production is used to make items of packaging, which are then rapidly discarded. Given our declining reserves of fossil fuels, and finite capacity for disposal of waste to landfill, this linear use of hydrocarbons, via packaging and other short-lived applications of plastic, is simply not sustainable. There are solutions, including material reduction, design for end-of-life recyclability, increased recycling capacity, development of bio-based feed stocks, strategies to reduce littering, the application of green chemistry life-cycle analyses and revised risk assessment approaches. Such measures will be most effective through the combined actions of the public, industry, scientists and policymakers. There is some urgency, as the quantity of plastics produced in the first 10 years of the current century is likely to approach the quantity produced in the entire century that preceeded.

1. INTRODUCTION Many of the current applications and the predicted benefits of plastic follow those outlined by Yarsley and Couzens in the 1940s. Their account of the benefits that plastics would bring to a person born nearly 70 years ago, at the beginning of this plastic age, was told with much optimism. It is a world free from moth and rust and full of color, a world largely built up of synthetic materials made from the most universally distributed substances, a world in which nations are more and more independent of localized naturalized resources, a world in which man, like a magician, makes what he wants for almost every need out of what is beneath and around him. The durability of plastics and their potential for diverse applications, including widespread use as disposable items, were anticipated, but the problems associated with waste management and plastic debris were not. In fact the predictions were how much brighter and cleaner a world [it would be] than that which preceded this plastic age. Plastics are synthetic substances produced by chemical reactions. Almost all plastics are made from petroleum, except a few experimental resins derived from corn and other organic substances. "Plastics" derived their name from their properties to be molded, cast, extruded or processed into a variety of forms, including solid objects, films and filaments. These properties arise from their molecular structure. Plastics are polymers, very long chain molecules that consist of subunits (monomers) linked together by chemical bonds. The monomers of petrochemical plastics are inorganic materials (such as styrene) and are not biodegradable. Plastic has many properties which has made it a raw material of choice for Manufactures of plastic Bags and packing materials. Cost of production, lightweight, strength, easy process of manufacture, and availability are few of the properties. There is nothing wrong with plastic as a material. Plastics Plastics are synthetic substances produced by chemical reactions. Almost all plastics are made from petroleum, except a few experimental resins derived from corn and other organic substances. "Plastics" derived their name from their properties to be molded, cast, extruded or processed into a variety of forms, including solid objects, films and filaments. These properties arise from their molecular structure. Plastics are polymers, very long chain molecules that consist of subunits (monomers) linked together by chemical bonds. The monomers of petrochemical plastics are inorganic materials (such as styrene) and are not biodegradable. Fig.1

Plastic has many properties which has made it a raw material of choice for Manufactures of plastic Bags and packing materials. Cost of production, light weight, strength, easy process of manufacture, and availability are few of the properties. There is nothing wrong with plastic as a material. Man has simply not put the plastic to the right use/ or using it without taking proper care of other related norms of usage. According to the report of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), it is seen that the packaging and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe industry grows at 16-18% per year. In the day today practices we use different kind of plastics goods and this demand of plastics goods is increasing rapidly from domestic use to industrial applications also. It is growing at an annual rate of 22% annually. The polymers production has reached to 8.5 million tons in 2007. Table 1 provides the total plastics waste consumption in India during last decade. Table 1: PLASTICS CONSUMPTION IN INDIA S. No. Year Consumption (Tones) 1. 2. 3. 4. 1996 2000 2001 2007 61,000 3,00,000 4,00,000 8,500,000

National plastic waste management task force in 1997 projected the polymers demand in the country. Table 2 documents the demand of different polymers in India during years 1995-96, 2001-02 and 2006-07. The comparison of demand and consumption from Table 1 and Table 2 indicates that projections are correct. More than one fourth of the consumption in India is that of PVC which is being phased out in many countries. Poly bags and other plastic items except PET in particular have been a focus, because it has contributed to host of problems in India such as choked sewers, animal deaths and clogged soils. Table 2: POLYMERS DEMANDS IN INDIA (Million Tones) S. No. Type of polymer 1. 2. 3. 4. Polyethylene Polypropylene Polyvinyl chloride 1995-96 0.83 0.34 0.49 2001-02 1.83 0.88 0.87 0.14 2006-07 3.27 1.79 1.29 0.29

Poly Ethylene Tetra 0.03 phthalate

For the recycling of plastic wastes various literatures have been reviewed to estimate the present contribution of plastic waste in MSW and the recent practices that are being adopted worldwide for its recycling. There are two major categories of plastics; (i) (ii) Thermoplastics and Thermo set plastics.

In the MSW, the contribution of Thermoplastics is about 80% and Thermo set constitutes approximately 20% of the total plastics waste generated. Table 3 shows the types of typical thermoplastic and thermosetting resins: Table 3: TYPICAL THERMOPLASTIC AND THERMOSETTING RESINS S. No. THERMO PLASTIC 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. S. No. THERMOSET PLASTIC Polyethylene Tetra phthalate (PET) 1. Bakelite Polypropylene (PP) 2. Epoxy Poly Vinyl Acetate (PVA) 3. Melamine Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) 4. Polyester Polystyrene (PS) 5. Polyurethane Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) 6. Urea Formaldehyde High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

The advent of fuel based plastics has revolutionized the industrial world and there is no area of manufacturing which is untouched by plastics. Convenience and cost factors have pitch forked plastics as the most preferred material of choice till recently, a rethinking about its impact on environment and sustainability is slowly putting a brake on its continued use. While cheap petroleum fuels from which most plastics are derived was once justified to introduce them in place of traditional materials like glass and metals, this plea cannot hold any more since the cost of non-renewable fossil fuels increased several fold during the last 3 decades. Besides, playing an increasing role in packaging and consumer products plastics also take up a growing percentage of municipal solid waste streams and pose environmental challenges. Plastics have attracted severe criticism from the environmentalists because of its lack of biodegradability credentials. As widely known, plastic materials take about 100 to 1000 years to degrade when used in landfills besides polluting air and water around. Land availability will pose a challenge in many countries if landfill practice is continued and restrictions are now being put in place to curtail this approach. Besides, extremely thin plastic bags made from less than 20 micron thick films are choking the drains of many cities causing uncontrolled floods during rainy season. Plastics in garbage are estimated to be killing a million creatures in the sea every year. Plastic bags littering has lead to banned use of thin plastic bags by the consumer industry during retail sales of products in many countries. Here we want to say the plastic usage in environment, advantages and disadvantages of plastics, effects of plastics on human health, effects of plastics on wildlife, ways to reduce plastic usage, alternative materials used instead of plastics like biodegradable plastics, plastics from honey bees.

2. PLASTIC USAGE Plastics are inexpensive, lightweight, strong, durable, corrosion-resistant materials, with high thermal and electrical insulation properties. The diversity of polymers and the versatility of their properties are used to make a vast array of products that bring medical and technological advances, energy savings and numerous other societal benefits. As a consequence, the production of plastics has increased substantially over the last 60 years from around 0.5 million tons in 1950 to over 260 million tons today. In Europe alone the plastics industry has a turnover in excess of 300 million euros and employs 1.6 million people. Almost all aspects of daily life involve plastics, in transport, telecommunications, clothing, footwear and as packaging materials that facilitate the transport of a wide range of food, drink and other goods. There is considerable potential for new applications of plastics that will bring benefits in the future, for example as novel medical applications, in the generation of renewable energy and by reducing energy used in transport. If we look around our house, groceries, malls, and everywhere, we will see things and materials that are made from plastic. But why did plastic become so popular and common? The answer to that question very simple, plastic are light in weight which is easy to carry, plastic are very durable and can last a lifetime, plastic are very available and easy to produce. If we check the market, there are different types of plastics available and for different usage. There are tough quality plastics that are made as containers to store products, food, and liquids. Another type of plastic that you can see is the plastic bag which is use to pack things like your groceries, clothes, and other things that you use, and plastic that is use to make furniture like tables and chairs.

But where does plastic actually come from? Plastic are man-made products, where man uses chemicals to make plastic. They use carbon and oil to make plastic. If they want to put some color they also incorporate coloring into the mixture. There are several companies that actually produce plastic materials where they use a machine to mix the ingredients and also come up with the product that they want. Plastic has made great impact in human lives in both positive and negative. The positive impact of plastic is it made the life of man easy and convenient. You can know store your food using plastic containers. Most of the plastic products are disposable so reduce the work of. In most parties, they use plastic cups and plastic plates and utensils to avoid breakables, washing, and clutters after the party. If you use plastic materials you can easily dispose it without worrying about your washing the used utensils. All you need to have is black bag where you can put it all there and throw it away. The negative impact of plastic in human lives is its the number reason of clogged drainage. Since plastic are non-dissolvable, they are stocked inside the drainage and stops water from flowing which is the common cause of flood in one area. Most of the flood happens because the drainage is not working and when they check it its full of plastic products that were stocked in the hole. But this problem normally happens if the people in that area do not care about their surroundings and their environment.

There are other places and countries that are very strict when it comes to garbage disposal where the citizens are not allowed to throw any garbage on the street. They need to properly dispose it to the garbage can. Thats why most of the places that have this kind of law have minimal experience when it comes to flood because their drainage is perfectly working. Plastic can only be dissolved if you burn it but the smoke will also create pollution in the air where it could affect the lungs of the people. So, make sure that you know how to properly dispose your garbage, try to segregate your garbage so you can properly dispose them. Plastic are very useful and helpful but we need to know how to properly dispose it to avoid adding damage to the environment. Plastic were made to make our lives easy and not to make our life miserable because of carelessness. Plastic as packing material: Plastic has replaced the traditional material (paper/cloth etc) as packing and carry bags because of cost and convenience which is possibly a wrong choice of material for such use. Even though plastic bags can preserve food and can be used for growing vegetables in a controlled environment, their method of disposal has creates unprecedented pollution problem. Plastic has many more uses other than Plastic Bags and Packing material. It is used for manufacturing of protective covers and parts for many machines, which should be the preferred utility for plastic.

Shopping

culture

in

earlier

days

Before the advent of poly-bags, people did shop, buy things, bring eatables from the market, and did the same marketing as is done now. How did they did it? The raw material for the bag was decided by its usage. Cloth bags for lighter items, Gunny bags/Jute bags for voluminous and heavier goods. The cost did not justify use and discard attitude. These bags were washable and reusable lasting for six months to a year. Many household utility items like needle, scissors, blades can heart if not handled properly. Children need to be trained in their proper handling. These utility items are not banned. But because of throw away culture and no objection from passer by, the advise on sensible disposal of plastic bags are not heeded by general public forcing the government to consider banning of plastic bags all together. Fig.2 "Should plastic carry bags and bottles be banned in totality?" - is a heated issue today. Average Indian uses one kilogram (kg) of plastics per year, the world annual average is a alarming18kg.But too many do it as our cities have huge population. The country yet to take a serious view of the issue and have a uniform nation-wide law for indiscreet disposals of plastic bags. People should be educated on the proper ways of plastic bag usage and the disposal. The teaching should start right from the primary schools. "Plastic is an eco-friendly material. The real problem is littering", some claim. But there is hardly anybody who agrees with such viewpoint. Thinking rationally, the whole idea of educating people about plastic bags, although very ambitious, and it is as difficult as banning smoking The conventional older and tested alternatives offers an easy, if not fully equitable and practical solution. And all the hype that poly-bags pollute is not totally false. It is not that poly-bags are responsible for the ills, of course not, it is the humans. It is ignorance ( or who cares attitude). We have not banned sewing needles they pierce through the skin. It's a stupid idea. Whether it is the common citizen, the government official or the hard-hit plastic bag manufacturer, all of them agree on one point - firm steps are required to be taken against littering of plastic bags and bottles all around. More than a 100 million tonnes of plastic is produced world-wide each year. Though plastics have opened the way for a plethora of new inventions and devices it has also ended up clogging the drains and becoming a health hazard. Many countries, including India, are trying to increase the amount of plastic that is recycled. But commercial interests create hindrance for effective legislation to remove plastics from goods where they can threaten public health.

Also there is a clear trend of shipping off the plastic waste of developed countries to under developed and developing countries. India imported 7,841.8 metric tonnes of plastic waste from the US in the first half of 1994. India is the fourth highest Asian importer of plastic waste behind Hong Kong, Philippines, Indonesia. 3. DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS Environmental Damage Plastic bags have been known to cause a lot of environmental damage. A single plastic bag can take up to 1000 years, to decay completely. This makes the bags stay in environments longer, in turn leading to great build-up on the natural landscape (much more than degradable materials like paper). In other words, the more plastic bags you use, the greater the chances of environmental damage. Threat To Animal Life As per Marrickville Council of Australia, as many as 100,000 whales, turtles and birds die have been reported to die every year, mainly because of plastic in their environment. Plastic bags not only have adverse effects on our natural habitats, but have also been found to be responsible for the death of many animals, mainly on account of the suffocation encountered on eating them.

Fig.3

Fig.4

Fig.5

Fig.6

Suffocation Not only animals, infants and young children have also been reported to have lost their life, on account of plastic bags. Since plastic bags are thin and airtight as well, children often end up blocking their mouths and nostrils with them. In case they are not being monitored by an adult, this leads to suffocation and, in some cases, even death.

Fig.7

Pollution Plastic bags are extremely durable. In case you are thinking of this as an advantage, just bring to mind an image of the huge landfill that you visited on the city outskirts, the other day. In most probability, majority of the rubbish present there will comprise of plastic bags only. In other words, plastic bags have led to a great increase in the pollution levels.

Fig.8

Fig.9

Fig.10

Fumes Since plastic bags are not bio-degradable; the only way to get rid of them is to burn them up. Though lighting a match to them is easy, it has more than its fair share of disadvantages. The biggest of them is that smoldering plastics can release toxic fumes into the environment, in turn taking the air pollution to much higher levels. Non-renewable One of the main disadvantages of plastic bags is that they are not renewable. The reason behind this is that they are made of petrochemicals, a non-renewable source of energy. They can be recycled, but not as easily as paper bags. Plastic bags can last for as much as hundreds of years. In other words, long after you are no more, the plastic bag used by you will be in existence. Plastics are manufactured from petroleum. This brings a host of issues (destruction of habitat, extraction of crude oil, security issues from the volatile countries where oil is produced, processing of petroleum and chemical manipulation into various types of plastics). The manufacture involves many chemicals, many of which have not been sufficiently tested for their toxicological impact on humans or animals. The final plastic product is often a chemical entity that in and of itself has had insufficient toxicological and ecotoxicological testing. An example would be PVC, forms of which are banned in Europe but exist widely in children's toys in America. Recent controversies over plastic bottles (many toxicologists recommending not re-using plastic water bottles and not storing food in Tupperware) have highlighted the potential risks. Exacerbating the problem is that science is only now advancing to where it can detect plastic components in human blood and then trace concentrations and link them to human ailments and diseases. The plastics industry itself often spins plastic and related plastic chemicals into a variety of products, some of which are hazardous and controversial (Teflon, PVC, Polyethylene, polystyrene, various silicones in body and hair care). Plastic-producing companies are often chemical companies or subsidiaries of chemical companies, both with poor track records

when it comes to their adherence to regulatory compliance and their willingness to perform toxicological analysis on the products they make. Plastics often leech component chemicals, including hazardous chemicals, through common temperature changes. It is for this reason that toxicologists do not recommend storing very cold foods in plastics or heating foods (microwaving especially) in plastics. Plastics are durable materials. Thus, they are hard to eliminate once used and create tremendous waste. While some common plastics can be recycled, the vast majority cannot. They take up a lot of space in landfills and create air pollution when incinerated. It is a compound that is indestructible, even when it is melted the compound gas that is gives off is very harmful to our health and environment; it weakens the ozone layer. Most plastic is produced from oil. The world is gradually running out of oil. Scientists are now developing plastics that are made from vegetable oil and other organic matter. This means that the plastic is more likely to be degradable, so it will be less of a problem in future.

4. ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS Plastic is very useful in the building and construction, electronics (laptops wouldn't work well if they were made from glass), packaging (glad wrap), transportation industries. Very easy to make - water bottles, plastic bags, etc The main advantages of plastic materials are also the reason why plastic is such a problem. It lasts forever and it is very cheap to make. When I say it lasts forever, I mean it does not biodegrade. There is a flotilla of plastic the size of Texas in the Pacific Ocean. It gradually photo-degrades into tiny pieces that enter the marine food chain.

Fig.11 Plastic is good, light, strong and cheap to produce. There are many advantages to using plastic. It does not decompose but it can instead be recycled. This is done more easily than producing more plastic. Unlike aluminum cans, plastic bottles can be re-used and stored over and over again. Plastic is usually not breakable and it is see-through. It's light-weight and

odourless. Plastic comes from a natural resource (oil) but CAN'T be re-made into bottles (but they can be re-made into other items- WEIRD!) It takes a long time to break down... Plastic is used by many manufacturers. Almost all products use plastic for their packaging. To think of it, in a day there are hundred thousand tons of plastics garbage in the world. Long time ago, paper was used as packaging and many other things. It is later that plastic was discovered. Plastic is made of polymer. It has elements that are toxic to our environment. Plastic is not decomposable. It stays on the earth many years unlike with paper and other materials. Plastic is toxic when burnt. That is why it is a big mistake to burn a plastic because it will destroy our ozone layer. Plastics are used to manufacture an incredible number of products we use every day, such as beverage and food containers, trash bags and grocery bags, plastic cups and utensils, childrens toys and diapers, and bottles for everything from mouthwash and shampoo to glass cleaner and dish-washing liquid. It makes our life easier because we carry our grocery with plastic bags. It is useful during parties because we only use plastic utensils and throws them away afterwards. Childrens toys are made up of plastic that is safe for them. It is studied that it will not harm the child. There are many benefits of plastic. We can recycle it in our own backyard and make an ornament out of it. There are many products in the market that is made of recycled materials and it is very popular nowadays. Plastic reduces the amount of energy and natural resources (such as water, petroleum and natural) needed to create virgin plastic. Plastic recycling saves landfills over hectares of land. Plastic save environment nowadays. There are many ways to recycle a plastic. A plastic like medicine containers and plastic made up of polyethylene terephthalate can be recycled again to become new product like combs, ropes, bags, tapes, belts and other stuff. Styrofoam can be recycling to make another cassette tape out of it. There are also plastics that are hard to recycle. It is important to know the basic about recycling so that you can start to do it in your own home. it is very likely to be recycling things out from your trash. Skills will be developed as well as your mental ability. It is good to recycle things out of nothing because our planet needs to be saved from now on. RECYCLING OF PLASTIC: India recycles about 60% of its plastics, compared to worlds average of 22%. Plastic waste contains the calorific value equal to fuel. India has among the lowest per capita consumption of plastics and consequently the plastic waste generation is very low as seen from the Table 4. Table 4: PLASTIC WASTE CONSUMPTION S. No. Description 1. 2. 3. World India 6-7 60 9

Per capita per year 24 consumption of plastic (kg) Recycling (%) 15-20 Plastic in Solid Waste (%) 7

The technology employed is mechanical recycling. In this technique the PVC scrap is traditionally ground to convert it into the granules. Mechanical recycling is the most preferred and widely used method of recycling and it recycles particular type of polymers used in water and soft drink bottles. As it requires selected plastic waste, the cost for sorting, cleaning and separating selected polymers increases the operating cost. The existing mechanical recycling process may emit harmful gases due to its old design components and not having provision for pollution control. The plastic waste including laminated plastics and carry bags are still remains the challenge for the process. The technologies are still being developed by the researchers & the process of recycling is also under supervision. Extreme versatility and ability to be tailored to meet very specific technical needs. Lighter weight than competing materials, reducing fuel consumption during transportation. Extreme durability. Resistance to chemicals, water and impact. Good safety and hygiene properties for food packaging. Excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties. Relatively inexpensive to produce. Reusing plastic is preferable to recycling as it uses less energy and fewer resources. Long life, multi-trip plastics packaging has become more widespread in recent years, replacing less durable and single-trip alternatives, so reducing waste. For example, the major supermarkets have increased their use of returnable plastic crates for transport and display purposes fourfold from 8.5 million in 1992 to an estimated 35.8 million in 2002. They usually last up to 20 years and can be recycled at the end of their useful life. According to a 2001 Environment Agency report, 80% of post-consumer plastic waste is sent to landfill, 8% is incinerated and only 7% is recycled. In addition to reducing the amount of plastics waste requiring disposal, recycling plastic can have several other advantages: Conservation of non-renewable fossil fuels - Plastic production uses 8% of the world's oil production, 4% as feedstock and 4% during manufacture. Reduced consumption of energy. Reduced amounts of solid waste going to landfill. Reduced emissions of carbon-dioxide (CO2), nitrogen-oxide (NO) and sulphur-dioxide (SO2).

Fig.12

Hows, whats and wheres of recycling plastic: Plastics are used in a wide range of applications and some plastics items, such as food packaging, become waste only a short time after purchase. Other plastic items lend themselves to be reused many times over. Reusing plastic is preferable to recycling as it uses less energy and fewer resources. Long life, multitrip plastics packaging has become more widespread in recent years, replacing less durable and single-trip alternatives, so reducing waste. For example, the major supermarkets have increased their use of returnable plastic crates for transport and display purposes four-fold from 8.5 million in 1992 to an estimated 35.8 million in 2002. They usually last up to 20 years and can be recycled at the end of their useful life. According to a 2001 Environment Agency report, 80% of post-consumer plastic waste is sent to landfill, 8% is incinerated and only 7% is recycled. In addition to reducing the amount of plastics waste requiring disposal, recycling plastic can have several other advantages: Conservation of non-renewable fossil fuels - Plastic production uses 8% of the world's oil production, 4% as feedstock and 4% during manufacture. Reduced consumption of energy. Reduced amounts of solid waste going to landfill. Reduced emissions of carbon-dioxide (CO2), nitrogen-oxide (NO) and sulphur-dioxide (SO2). Plastic process scrap recycling Currently most plastic recycling in the UK is of 'process scrap' from industry, i.e. polymers left over from the production of plastics. This is relatively simple and economical to recycle, as there is a regular and reliable source and the material is relatively uncontaminated. Process scrap represents some 250,000 tonnes of the plastic waste arisings in the UK and approximately 95% of this is recycled. This is usually described as reprocessing rather than recycling.

Post-use plastic recycling Post-use plastic can be described as plastic material arising from products that have undergone a first full service life prior to being recovered. Households are the biggest source of plastic waste, but recycling household plastics presents a number of challenges. One of these relates to collection. With over 20 million UK households, kerbside recycling systems are required to regularly collect relatively small quantities of mixed plastics from a large number of sources. Currently, just over half of local authorities offer some form of plastic bottle collection service, and only an estimated 15% of UK households are served by kerbside collections that include plastic bottles. The densest network of plastic bottle collection schemes is found in the South and East of England and the Midlands. East Anglia, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have the least coverage. There are approximately 4,000 plastic bottle collection banks in the UK. RECOUP (RECycling Of Used Plastics Limited) undertakes an annual survey of plastic bottle recycling activity in the UK. Results of the most recent survey indicate that an estimated 24,000 tonnes of plastic bottles were collected in 2003. However, this still only amounts to approximately 5.5% of all plastic bottles sold. Mechanical recycling Mechanical recycling of plastics refers to processes which involve the melting, shredding or granulation of waste plastics. Plastics must be sorted prior to mechanical recycling. At the moment in the UK most sorting for mechanical recycling is done by trained staff who manually sort the plastics into polymer type and/or colour. Technology is being introduced to sort plastics automatically, using various techniques such as X-ray fluorescence, infrared and near infrared spectroscopy, electrostatics and flotation. Following sorting, the plastic is either melted down directly and moulded into a new shape, or melted down after being shredded into flakes and than processed into granules called regranulate. Chemical or feedstock recycling Feedstock recycling describes a range of plastic recovery techniques to make plastics, which break down polymers into their constituent monomers, which in turn can be used again in refineries, or petrochemical and chemical production. A range of feedstock recycling technologies is currently being explored. These include: pyrolysis, hydrogenation, gasification and thermal cracking. Feedstock recycling has a greater flexibility over composition and is more tolerant to impurities than mechanical recycling, although it is capital intensive and requires very large quantities of used plastic for reprocessing to be economically viable (e.g. 50,000 tonnes per year). Plastics recycling in the UK In 1998, a pilot feedstock recycling plant went operational at BP's Grangemouth site in Scotland, with a capacity to process 400 tonnes of mixed plastic waste per annum. A feasibility study into its viability concluded that a 25,000 tonnes per annum plant could be supported from the area's municipal waste sources alone. In 1991, LINPAC Plastics Recycling opened a unique plant with the ability to recycle postconsumer polystyrene products. The plant, based in Allerton Bywater, West Yorkshire, has a

capacity of over 14,000 tones per year, which is set to increase to 25,000 tonnes per year by 2005. The plant is able to process fast food boxes, meat trays, egg cartons, yoghurt pots, vending cups, and a range of other polystyrene products. In addition, the plant processes a range of polyethylene and polypropylene goods, such as bottles. 5. EFFECTS OF PLASTICS ON HUMAN LIFE "Looking to the future it is evident that in some applications plastics have the potential to help reduce our footprint on the planet. However, the evidence in this Theme Issue demonstrates that our current usage and disposal of plastics is not sustainable, is harmful to wildlife and potentially harmful to humans.

"There are solutions, including changes in production and usage and increased recycling, but these measures will only be successful with the combined actions of individuals, industry and government. There is some urgency for action as plastic production is growing at around 9 per cent per annum; as a consequence the quantity of plastics produced in the first ten years of the current century is likely to approach the quantity produced in the entire century that preceded."

Fig.13

Fig.14

Fig.15 History Scientists had been tinkering with plastic-like material based on cellulose compounds since the mid-1850s, reports The American Chemistry Council. New York chemist Leo Baekeland invented the first true plastic material in 1907, Bakelite, which people still use today. The effects of plastic waste became evident during the 1950s, according to PackagingToday.

Some children playing with discarded plastic bags suffocated, requiring a public campaign to warn people of plastic bag danger. Significance The effects of plastic waste disposal can readily be seen in the environment. Plastics account for 12 percent of all municipal waste, according to the EPA Fact Book on solid waste. Californians against waste reports that plastic waste constitutes 60 to 80 percent of the waste in our waters, and 90 percent of floating waste. Most of this marine plastic waste originates from land sources, such as landfills. Water current can spread this waste over a large area and many miles from its source. Effects Plastic wastes can break down and release toxins that harm the environment, animals and the general public, according to the International Plastics Task Force. Certain chemicals--such as bisphenolA--can cause some serious health concerns, according to an article on plastic bottles by Beth Daley of the Boston Globe. Even low doses of bisphenol may cause developmental problems in children. Prevention/Solution You can help reduce the effects of plastic waste disposal by recycling plastics and reducing their use, according to the Environmental Protection Agency. Many communities have recycling services that pick up plastic waste from your door. When you shop for products, consider buying economy size products and open-air fruit. Businesses can help by finding ways to make plastic packaging more efficient. Milk producers use 30 percent less plastic than they did 20 years ago. Misconceptions If you plan to reduce the effects of plastic waste by recycling, consider that just because a product has a "chasing arrow" symbol does not mean it can be recycled. The symbol simply contains a number relating to the type of plastic, according to Ecology Center. Not all recycled plastics go into new, recyclable products. Recycled plastic that goes into secondary products--such as plastic lumber and textiles--cannot themselves be recycled. Polyvinyl Chloride/PVC: Scientific research has found that phthalates, which are added to PVC to soften it for certain uses, leech out of PVC into the human body. Unfortunately for us all, studies have also found that PVC may cause side effects such as decreased lung function, increased weight, increased resistance to insulin, low sperm count, and DNA damage to sperm. It has also been found the exposure to phthalates in PVC may negatively affect the reproductive development of infant males, resulting in undescended testes, smaller scrota, and smaller penises. USES: PVC is used in products such as children's toys, vinyl floors, wallpaper, shower curtains, vinyl bibs, and cosmetics, including lotions, shampoos, and nail polish. It is also used in many medical products including plastic bags for storing blood, plasma and intravenous fluids, feeding, breathing and dialysis tubes, catheters, respiratory masks, and exam gloves. Polycarbonate Polycarbonate contains a chemical called biphenyl A that leeches into the foods that it comes in contact with. This chemical is widely known to mimic the human hormone estrogen. At

this point, very little research has investigated the effects of Biphenyl A on humans. Based on the limited number of studies that have examined everyday contact with biphenyl A, the chemical may increase the risk of miscarriages and polycystic ovarian syndrome, a condition that can cause infertility, ovarian cysts, and baldness in women. In animals however, biphenyl A has been widely researched. In the more than 150 studies on the effects of very low doses of biphenyl A in animals, the chemical has been linked to obesity, prostate and mammary gland cancers, early onset of puberty, reproductive-organ defects, reduced sperm counts, altered mammary glands, and difficulty getting pregnant. Scientists also found that low doses of biphenyl A received prenatally had lasting effects throughout an animal's lifespan. Note that high doses of biphenyl A have not been found to cause significant effects, and that special interests groups have conducted high dose studies that have allowed them to make claims contrary to low dose studies. USES: Polycarbonate is used in products such as baby bottles, aluminum cans, pop cans, nalgene bottles, generic polycarbonate water bottles, sunglasses, eyeglasses, safety glasses, coffee makers, consumer electronics, laptop computers, CDs, DVDs, and dental sealants. It's also used for many other products including car parts, water filters, textiles, and paper, and is a widely used flame retardant.

Fig.16
Plastic Production: Environmental Nightmare While the plastic industry promotes its new "environmentally friendly" products, they deliberately ignore the highly toxic nature of plastic production, whether the product is called "degradable," "recyclable" or any other "green marketing" catchword. Among the 47 chemical plants ranked highest in carcinogenic emissions by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 35 are involved in plastic production. Certain plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used for indoor and outdoor plumbing, electrical cables and countless other products, are potential sources of highly toxic dioxins when burned in municipal incinerators or in accidental fires. Polystyrene foam products are often made with chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), both of which are ozone-destroying chemicals. In sum, there is no good evidence that "degradable" plastics actually eliminate the environmental hazards associated with ordinary plastics. But there is good evidence that the real purpose of marketing these products is not so much environmental improvement as it is to cash in on the American public's desire for environmental improvement. "[Degradable bags] are not the answer to landfill crowding or littering . . . Degradability is just a marketing tool. We're talking out of both sides of our mouths because we want to sell

bags. I don't think the average consumer even knows what degradability means. Customers don't care if it even solves the solid-waste problem. It makes them feel good." -- Mobil Chemical Company spokesperson. Educated choices by both producers and consumers, followed by efficient recycling, can drastically reduce worldwide pollution. Right now we are recycling only one percent nationwide, although some communities do far better than that, recycling 50 percent or more of their solid waste. Every year, we throw out enough aluminum to quadruple the size of our air fleet, enough steel to literally rebuild Manhattan and enough wood and paper to heat 5 million homes for 200 years. With current technology we can recycle newspaper, office paper, cardboard, glass bottles, aluminum cans, scrap metals, large appliances, automobile tires and motor oil. 6. EFFECTS OF PLASTICS ON WILDLIFE Suffocation Suffocation of animals is a big problem that is caused by plastic. Wild animals prey at night for food, rummaging through our garbage stored outside in containers. They have to first tear open our garbage bags to get to the food inside. Some chew through, ingesting the plastic, some tear through and some even get caught in them, suffering a slow suffocation. Plastic bags in the home have also played a role in harming our animals. While it is cute to see your cat playing in and out of the plastic bag, it would not take long for its air supply to be cut off if the cat were to become trapped in the bag. Strangulation Plastic rings, such as those used to hold six packs of soda or beer, can become wrapped around an animal's neck causing a slow, suffering death. To prevent these incidents, slice the rings with a knife or cut them with scissors before you toss them in the garbage. It is no surprise that these rings end up in the ocean every year and animals get trapped and strangled. Ingestion Ingesting plastic can be just as detrimental, especially if the plastic does not pass through the animal's digestive system and to the animal's feces. The plastic will remain in the animal's stomach, causing adverse health effects and eventually death. The destruction does not stop there however, due to the components making up the plastic bag and the inability for it to break down, the animals, mammals, seabirds and many more species continue to die because once the bodies of these animals, mammals and sea birds begins to decay, they once again expose the plastic to yet another victim, creating an endless cycle of destruction. 7. WAYS TO REDUCE PLASTICS 1. Bring your own cloth bags to the grocery store (or any store!). 2. Don't buy beverages bottles in plastic. Glass is great. 3. Carry your own reusable steel or ceramic beverage container. If they're too pricey, use a glass mason jar! Heavy , but cheap. 4. Don't get to-go coffee or hot drinks. Your drink lid and cup will live on for over 100 years!

The lids and lining are plastic. Bring your own or ask for a ceramic, reusable cup. 5. Go to the farmer's market and purchase fresh fruits and veggies (not packaged in plastic). 6. Don't buy convenience foods packages in plastic. 7. Make your own bread. 8. Buy bread from bakeries that package in paper. 9. Clean with baking soda and vinegar instead of cleaners packaged in plastic. 10. Buy laundry detergent in boxes, not liquid in plastic containers. 11. Buy farm fresh eggs in reusable paper containers. 12. Get your cheese from the deli and place it in your own container or get it wrapped in paper. 13. Buy your meat from the deli and have it wrapped in paper. 14. Package your leftovers in corning ware. 15. Bring your own containers to restaurants to package leftovers. 16. Use bar soap to wash your dishes. Dr.Bronner's is perfect. 17. Stop using deodorant or antiperspirant. It's not natural to prevent yourself from sweating. Use perfume in a glass bottle if you want a nice smell. 18. Do not use air fresheners. Light a candle or incense instead. 19. Store all your food in glass containers. If you purchase something bottled in glass, clean it and reuse it! 20. Buy bulk cereal, bring your own paper bags. 21. Buy tortilla chips packaged in paper bags. 22. Buy bulk coffee packaged in paper or in cans, or bring your own bags. 23. Buy milk in paper cartons. 24. Buy peanut butter that is packaged in glass containers. 25. Buy bar soap, not liquid body wash. 26. Compost your trash, reduce your use of plastic trash bags. 27. Line small trash bins in your house with paper bags.

28. When ordering drinks, say "no straw please!" 29. Buy real maple syrup (comes in glass bottles) we get ours at Trader Joes. 30. Buy toilet paper that is wrapped in paper, not plastic. 31. Don't use Ziploc. If you need to keep things like half an onion use aluminum or waxy paper. 32. Use cloth rags for clean up around the house, no paper towels - reduces your trash and need for trash bags. 33. Use matches instead of plastic encased lighters. They usually give them to you for free at the liquor store. 34. Use cloth napkins. They feel nice and reduce your waste and use of plastic trash bags. 35. If you want a fun drink, buy chocolate milk in a carton or apple juice in glass bottle. You can also ferment your own drinks in glass mason jars. 36. Bring your own bag to all stores you shop in and say "no bag needed, thanks!" qew 37. Put empty cardboard boxes in your car to transport heavy items to and from your car without a bag. 38. Say "paper not plastic" at the grocery store. 39. Don't use plastic cutting boards. Use wood or glass. 40. Use baby bottles made of glass. 41. Use stainless steel sippy cups for kids. 42. Use cloth based toys for your pets, like catnip mice and soft squishy balls. 43. Buy cloth diapers. 44. Buy CDs packaged in cardboard sleeves or buy your music online. 45. Use junk mail and other paper to stuff into big packages to ship instead of bubble wrap or air filled plastics. 46. Use real silverware for parties instead of plastic. 47. Use rechargeable batteries to reduce buying batteries packaged in plastic. 48. Make a compost heap to reduce your food waste and put it back into the earth. 49. Use a reusable cloth bag or old fashioned steel lunch box to carry your lunch to work or

school. 50. Make your own yogurt in glass mason jars. It's easy! 8. ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS Biodegradable Plastic Once upon a time, household plastic products stayed unchanged in landfills, in forests, in oceans and along the side of the road for hundreds of years, creating environmental issues throughout the world. Finally, the technology is available to put this problem to rest. Recycling is beneficial when natural resources are truly saved. However, in many cases the recycling of products such as trash bags and food packaging consumes more natural resources than simply throwing the products away and making new. ECM Bio-Films, Inc., located in Painesville, Ohio, produces an additive that enables common plastics to naturally biodegrade. Since very small amounts of the additive are needed during manufacturing, the physical properties, functionality and appearance of the finished products remain the same.

While we recognize the need for plastic products in our homes, in light of the tremendous ecological impact throughout plastics life cycle, we are compelled to select plastic alternatives when possible. In many cases, we can elect to utilize a different material altogether; examples of plastic alternatives include using straw or cellulose-based insulation in walls and roofs and mineral board insulation below basement walls instead of foam insulation, using wood or cement-board siding or plaster as an exterior finish instead of vinyl, and using clay, lime, or casein-based finishes instead of acrylic or latex paints. In other cases, our best option may be to replace a more toxic plastic, such as PVC, with a less toxic one, such as polyethylene, ABS, or metallocene polyolefin (a newly developed plastic of lesser environmental footprint) pipe instead of PVC pipe, fiberglass instead of PVC window profiles, polyethylene instead of PVC-jacketed wire, or polyester instead of PVC commercial wall coverings. The field of bio-plastics is also growing rapidly. These products have the benefits of being nonpetroleum in feedstock, supportive of the farm sector (although LCA must also evaluate industrialized farming practices), and, perhaps most importantly, biodegradable. Additionally, vegetable oils such as soy have been proven to effectively replace phthalates as plasticizers in PVC, reducing its POP load. FUTURE ALTERNATIVE - ECO-FRIENDLY PLASTICS However newer technology is also being developed in this regard. This entails the use of DEGRADABLE PLASTICS. The principal is to incorporate into the plastic some chemical that is photodegradable/biodegradable or chemically treatable.

By adding starch, biodegradable plastics are generally made. On burial such plastics are attacked by bacteria feeding on starch, which breaks these down into tiny particles that disappear harmlessly into the soil. Some common examples of biodegradable plastics are the use of "non-removable" suture materials in surgery or capsules for drugs, which dissolve slowly in body fluids. Chemically degradable plastics can be broken up by spraying them with a solution that causes them to dissolve. For example such material can be used as a protective wax covering for new cars, that washes off at the dealer's garage by a specially formulated spray. This spray reacts with one of the components of the plastic and causes it to dissolve into harmless materials which can be flushed down the drain. Photo-degradable plastics contain chemicals that slowly disintegrate when exposed to light. In France, strips of photo-degradable plastic about 3 ft (1mtr) wide are used to retain heat in the soil and produce early crops. They last for about 1 to 3 years before rotting into the soil. But they have to be used in places with consistent amount of sunshine so that they decay at a predictable rate. In the USA, about one quarter of the plastic yokes that link beer cans in a six pack are made of plastic called Ecolyte, which is photo-degradable. But to stop them decaying too early, they must be stored away from direct sunlight, which can be of some inconvenience to the retailer. However degradable plastic can have a few other problems. For example, it cannot be recycled because there is no easy way to measure it's remaining life span. The biggest drawback is the cost of it's production. Japanese scientists however claim that they will soon be able to produce much cheaper multipurpose biodegradable plastic. In order to obviate the disposal problems and to prevent Environmental pollution caused by routinely used polythene packaging materials, it would be prudent , for the present, to use eco-friendly paper packaging. The manufacturers of plastic packaging like soft drink bottles/mineral water bottles etc must come forward and develop appropriate methods of disposal/own responsibility for disposal. A ban on plastic bags (below 20 microns) has already been imposed by various states and also in a few towns and districts in India. It is going to extend this to other parts of the country also. Plastic bags are so light and strong that they can carry normal weight, cheap and is used in all types of shops in our daily life. For example: bakeries, medical shops, grocery stores, hotels, etc. People are so accustomed to it, that they find it very difficult to part with it. Plastic bags have made it possible for people to go without bags to market or work place as these bags are availably for asking and can be thrown without a second thought. People who go on picnics, visiting historic places, hill stations etc., to enjoy their holidays or just for a change carry with them eatables in containers, plastic bags, mineral water bottles (plastic), plastic plates and plastic cups and generally leave it in the open air after consuming the contents. One can find this in tourist centres scattered all over. Road-side vendors also use plastic cups to serve coffee or tea. The customers throw these cups on foot paths or near drains after consuming the contents. Fig.18

These plastic materials are so light that they are carried away by the speed of the moving vehicle, wind etc., scattered all over, making the surroundings look ugly. There are instances wherein these materials have clogged the underground drains. People are in the habit of throwing things they don't need wherever they like irrespective of the final result. People should be specially educated regarding the use of plastic in our daily life, as it is environment unfriendly. Boys and girls, men and women with bags on their backs and a stick in one hand walking long distances, picking up plastic waste, paper, bottles etc., from dust bins, road sides, is a common sight in Bangalore. These rag pickers sell the waste collected, to the collection centre to earn their livelihood. These materials are recycled. Bangalorians must be grateful to them, as they dispose off a part of non-degradable waste material, 'plastic', in particular. The BMP has given on contract basis, the cleaning of roads in residential areas and other parts of the city. The waste materials collected are of all types including plastic materials, such as plastic bags, plastic cups, plastic bottles etc. Instead of carrying these wastes away, they are burnt on the road side polluting the area with thick smoke which produce toxic gases (because of burning of plastic material) posing a health hazard. Inhaling of such gases causes lung diseases and even cancer. They resort to burning of waste material with the main intention of reducing the number of trips a lorry has to take. Burning of waste material in public is a serious offence and violation of Corporation bylaws. This should be properly monitored by the Health Department of the BMP and immediate action taken on violators. Arrangements must be made to segregate recycling items such as plastic, paper, glass etc. Leaves and other degradable waste can be converted into manure. While traveling in trains, we generally find coffee and tea being served in plastic cups (use and throw) which the traveling public after consuming it throw them away in village fields and field channels on the way. There is the likelihood of this collecting near the outlet of the channel obstructing the free flow of water into the fields. Plastic being non-degradable, when buried under the ground, arrest the percolation of water into the ground. Animals grazing in the field consuming this plastic waste along with grass cannot be ruled out. Now-a-days, in almost all functions, it has become a practice to use thin plastic sheets to cover the dining tables to give it a good look and also so that it is easy to clean the table, as left over can be removed by rolling the sheet at a stretch. These are thrown near the dust bin. Besides this, thin plastic cups are also used for drinking water, which also finds a place in the dust bin. One can find near the dust bin, waiting slum children, crows, stray cows, dogs to share the leftovers. In this process, they fight amongst themselves and stray cows in majority of cases have consumed thin plastic sheets along with left over, leading to untold sufferings and also found dead on many occasions. It is therefore, suggested that a ban be placed on the use of plastic sheets, plastic cups, along with plastic bags. Plastic industries manufacturing plastic bags (below 20 microns) thin sheets, thin cups and thin bottles, should be informed about its ill-effects on the environment and advised not to manufacture such items. If the industry is located in a residential area, action should be taken to shift it immediately.

The factory management should take all measures to control the pollution created, within the stipulated norms by the KSPB and the pollution board should monitor it regularly. The public should be educated regarding littering dumping and unnecessary burning of wastes. The Health Department of the BMP, municipalities of cities and towns, Karnataka Pollution Board has a greater role to play in making Karnataka eco-friendly and a place to live in safely for the future generation. THE SOLUTION: The solution lies in finding 1. alternative suitable for making Bags and packing material at competitive rate and convenience without having any negative aspect. 2. R&d to make plastic more environment friendly. 3. Educate users to the right disposal methods. 4. Reduce the no of users by reducing the population in the long run. 5. Process vegetable. etc to higher density so as to reduce the no of bags required to pack and carry. 6. Encourage reusable bags from traditional materials by suitable advertisements to make it fashionable. ( this may be the overwhelming factor in favour of traditional material). ( Ladies use bags made of snake skin/ rabbit skin/lion skin etc only for fashion and looks ) 7. Cost of mfg bags with traditional material can be subsidized by printing advertisement on the bags. In recent times due to widespread awareness drive by NGOS and government and to lesser extent by educational institutions has resulted in increasing the consciousness among few shopkeepers they have shifted back to the old system of wrapping up goods in paper bags or newspapers, Some people are slowly getting habituated to going to the market with cloth bags. Besides a few NGOs, even school students have come forward to take up a promotion campaign for the use of paper or cloth bags. It has also been suggested "Rather than spending money on anti-plastic campaign, the authorities should gear up its machinery for effective waste management and disposal of plastic". Unfortunately, many states do not have units to recycle the plastic while the plastic manufacturers are not prepared to take it up as a social responsibility. The plastics industry is jumping on the "green" bandwagon with a new line of "environmentally safe" products. In reality, these products are no friend of the environment. Each year, as industry produces more and more nonessential products individually and excessively packaged, we throw away more and more trash. To a large extent, our garbage problem is a result of a corporate ethic that puts profits before people -- and the environment. Industry is pushing disposability because it pays. Plastic razors can only be used a few times before disposal, then more must be bought, making the plastic and razor industries rich and happy. Appliances designed to become obsolete guarantee you'll have to buy new ones next year. Over 84 percent (by weight) of municipal solid waste could be reused, recycled or composted instead of being buried or burned. An exception is plastic, which comprises about 7 percent

by weight or 20 percent by volume of municipal solid waste. Due to technical and financial limitations, less than ten percent of plastic is currently "recycled." Furthermore, "plastic recycling" only defers the plastic disposal problem, since most plastic items can only be manufactured from virgin plastic. Recycled polystyrene foam (also known by the brand name Styrofoam) can be used to build marine docks but not to make a new polystyrene foam cup. New plastic will have to be produced from non-renewable oil stocks to make those cups, and eventually all the plastic will have to be disposed of. In 1989, the U.S. used over twelve billion pounds of plastic for packaging designed to be thrown away as soon as the package is opened. In the 1990s, this figure doubled. Fortunately, more and more people are becoming aware of the damage plastic does to the environment. They are speaking out against it, protesting irresponsible industries and getting laws passed banning polystyrene and other plastics. However, the plastic itself, which generally comprises over 90 percent of the material, is not biodegradable. Although so-called "biodegradable" plastic products typically contain chemicals that help them fragment, the additives do not render the plastic biodegradable. The second technique is simply bad science. Manufacturers conclude from poorly designed tests that the actual plastic in a "degradable" plastic product is converted to fragments that can be consumed by microorganisms. Having examined data from actual tests of biodegradability, we only find evidence that plastics are not fully metabolized by microorganisms. Therefore they are not legitimately entitled to the term "biodegradable" and may leave behind harmful fragments of plastic and plastic additives.

9. CONCLUSION From 1988 onwards the damage caused due to plastics takes place.13 billion plastic bags are given every year. Though commodities made of plastic come handy it is time to be aware of the harm it causes to the life on earth. Plastic is one of the key ingredients that cause contamination of environment. Its disposal and production has increased the mortality rate of living beings. Man introduced plastic and used it in many forms. However, it has caused enough damage to the nature. It has killed many animals and introduced many health ailments in humans too. Before the picture turns uglier, it is better to take some effective preventive measures to reduce pollution. The disposal plastic can be recycled and used in many different ways such as tote bag, wallets or a pouch. There are biodegradable plastic bags available which can reduce the problem of pollution. These changes might be gradual and even seem micro against the huge problem; but taking such small steps can contribute to reduction of plastic pollution. As this article has displayed the consequences of pollution, it is time to take some preventive steps to stop it and make living better for the future generations. If we avoid usage of plastic we can save our environment.

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY Pictures are taken from the following:

1.http://www.123rf.com/stock-photo/pollution.html 2.http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/photos/ocean-pollution/#/alaska-dump 3.http://www.fotosearch.com/photos-images/pollution_2.html 4.http://www.ecopicoftheday.com/home/2010/10/14/india-cochin-plastic-pollution.html 5.http://www.google.co.in/#q=pictures+of+plastic+pollution&hl=en&safe=active&ei=hLNK

UduwAcfnrAesoIDIAw&start=10&sa=N&fp=1&biw=1366&bih=662&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.& cad=b
6.http://www.canstockphoto.com/plastic-waste-and-garbage-6845097.html 7.http://plasticpollutiontexas.com/photos

8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1037498/?