INTRODUCTION

The quality of castings depends to a large extent on the

technology of mould making and characteristics of moulding materials.
According to the production data on an average 40-70 percent of casting
defects arises due to improper mould properties. Thus, it is imperative for
the foundry men to have the accurate selection of the moulding sand
composition to get the desired properties.

MOULDING SAND
A high grade of molding sand should be fat, i. e., strongly mixed
with clay. Naturally the molds of this sand should be employed only in a
perfectly dry state. The fat molding sand is prepared artificially from quartz
sand (fine sprinkling sand), fat clay, free from lime and ferric oxide (red
ocher). The molding sand is fixed by breaking up the loose pieces in which
it is partly dug; next it is passed through a fine sieve and mixed up to one-
third of its volume with charcoal dust, or, better still, with lampblack, which,
owing to its looseness and fatness, does not detract so much from the
binding qualities of the sand. The utility of the sand may be tested by
pressing the finger into it, whereupon the fine lines of the skin should
appear sharply defined; its binding power is ascertained by dropping a
lump pressed together with the hand from a height, which is increased until
it breaks.

WATER BONDED SAND

Water bonded sand or Green Sand has been around forever and
is the traditional molding sand. It is made with fine sand, Bentonite Clay
and water.
OIL BONDED SAND

Commercially sold as Petrobond and homemade as K-bond. Fine

sand is combined with Benton Clay, oil and a Catalyst. If you’re in a hurry to
get casting/ want excellent results / have the budget, use Petrobond.

SUFFICIENT POROSITY

Sufficient porosity to allow the escape of gas and steam generated

in the body of the mould by the heat of the molten metal. The greater the
bulk of metal the coarser the sand used, and the greater the need for careful
venting.

SUFFICIENT PLASTICITY

Sufficient plasticity and tenacity to hold its form in the mould and to
resist the erosive action of hot metal. These qualities are due to clay, which
is more or less detrimental, because it fills the spaces, or pores, between
the silica grains. A high enough fusing point not to melt and stick to the
face of the casting.

There are many trade names for foundry sands, but all must fulfill
the requirements mentioned. Vegetable or other combustible matter, sea
salt, lime, and substances easily decomposed by heat should not exist
naturally in moulding sand, as they may cause failure in casting.

Brass sand is green sand of fine grain used in moulds for brass
castings. Facing sand is also fine-grained sand placed next to the pattern in
small moulds to make a smooth casting. Core sand is used for cores. Loam
is a very course moulding sand made up for loam moulds.

PERMEABILITY IN GREEN SAND MOLDING

 Sand moulds evolve volatile gases when filled with molten metal.
Thus sufficient permeability is necessary to prevent the gases from
developing high pressures and blowing into and through the metal.
Permeability is the venting quality with which the sand permits free escape
of gases through its pores between sand grains. Permeability therefore
depends on the number and size of the pores, or on their number and total
volume. The volume of pores in a granular material depends on the size,
distribution of the grains and on the way in which they are packed. In
addition to base sand, permeability also depends on the additives made to
the sand mix, binder, water additions, mulling time and the bulk density of
the sand mix. When water and clay content of sand increases density
increases. Higher the density, lower is the permeability. Good mulling
increases permeability, which should be as high as necessary, not as high
as possible.

MOLDING MATERIAL AND PROPERTIES

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for
manufacturing molds and cores. They include molding sand, system sand
or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of
molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties
those are generally required in molding materials

REFRACTORINESS

It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of

the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal.
The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

GREEN STRENGTH
 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand.
The green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to
impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.

DRY STRENGTH

When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the
mold cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand
evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding
sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the
mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metalloid
static pressure of the liquid material.

HOT STRENGTH

As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a

high temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The
strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called
hot strength.

COLLAPSIBILITY

The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the
contraction of the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance,
which may result in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific
properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have
good thermal conductivity.

MOLDING SAND COMPOSITION

 The main ingredients of any molding sand

• Base sand,
• Binder, and
• Moisture

BASE SAND

Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands
that are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromites sand, and
olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is
easily available.

BINDER

Binders are of many types such as:

1. Clay binders,

2. Organic binders and

3. Inorganic binders

Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the
molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular clay types are:

Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)

Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its
bonding power.

MOISTURE
 Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the
required amount of moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the
mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the
clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is
because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes,
helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A
typical composition of molding sand

MOLDING SAND CONSTITUENT WEIGHT PERCENT

Silica sand 92

Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8

Water 4

LATEST METHOD OF SAND PREPARTION

The high quality of cast pieces requires the implementation of

automation solution down to the foundry sand processing of any sand
casting foundry. Operational analyses and technical literature show that
approximately 45-55% of the cast piece rejections are due to inferior
moulded material characteristics. The separation of casting and sand must
commence as early on in the process as possible, so as to increase the
remaining moisture in the moulded material whilst simultaneously reducing
the temperature. The effectiveness of the processing facility can only be
guaranteed in this way. In the following, systems and sensors for
monitoring the processing from the shake out to the foundry machine, and
supply the desired sand characteristics, with the aim of supplying the
foundry facility with high-quality and homogeneous moulded material.
PERMEABILITY

The rate of flow of air passing through a standard specimen

under a standard pressure is termed as permeability number. The standard
permeability test is to measure time taken by a 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure
typically of 980 Pa to pass through a standard sand specimen confined in a
specimen tube. The standard specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a
length of 50.8 mm. Then, the permeability number, P is obtained by

Where V = volume of air = 2000 cm3

H = height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm
p = air pressure, g/cm2
A = cross sectional area of sand specimen= 20.268 cm2
T = time in minutes for the complete air to pas through
Inserting the above standard values into the expression, we get

PERMEABILITY IN GREEN SAND MOULDING

 Sand moulds evolve volatile gases when filled with molten metal.
Thus sufficient permeability is necessary to prevent the gases from
developing high pressures and blowing into and through the metal.
Permeability is the venting quality with which the sand permits free escape
of gases through its pores between sand grains. Permeability therefore
depends on the number and size of the pores, or on their number and total
volume. The volume of pores in a granular material depends on the size,
distribution of the grains and on the way in which they are packed. In
addition to base sand, permeability also depends on the additives made to
the sand mix, binder, water additions, mulling time and the bulk density of
the sand mix. When water and clay content of sand increases density
increases. Higher the density, lower is the permeability. Good mulling
increases permeability, which should be as high as necessary, not as high
as possible.

CONCLUSION
 The percentage increment in permeability of moulding sand
increases with increase in depth size of venting rod, grain size and number
of venting holes. By keeping the depth and size of vent rod constant, the
permeability is improved. This is achieved by increasing the number of
holes. The sand used was found to be as good as those sands currently
employed in some Nigerian Foundries for the casting of heavy brass or
iron, steel green sand and steel dry facing sand. Permeability is found to be
dependent on number of holes, depth of vent, position or distribution of
vents on the jig and diameter of venting rods. Engineering properties of
systems such as backing sand is useful in understanding materials
applicable everyday life. This facilitates knowledge and technology transfer
and should encourage active collaboration between industries and
engineering research institutions including universities. This should will in
no small measure contribute to improvement in engineering education
especially in developing countries. In manufacturing processes especially
in relation to sands some effects have been studied and Sand with
improved foundry properties could find use in the making of computers,
consumer Products, communications equipment, manufacturing industries,
automobiles and by the military in some cases involving the fabrication of
micro systems.