B1 Mod 11.04

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4
MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION
CONTENTS
AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION ............... 4-1
4.1 4.2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4-1 AIR SUPPLY ................................................................................. 4-1 4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression) .................................... 4-1 4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers .......................................... 4-2 4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) ........................................... 4-2 4.2.4 Ram Air ......................................................................... 4-3 4.2.5 Ground Cart .................................................................. 4-3 COOLING ..................................................................................... 4-4 4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling........................................................... 4-4 4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling ................................................... 4-9 HEATING ...................................................................................... 4-11 4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems ............................................. 4-11 4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems ....................................... 4-12 TEMPERATURE CONTROL ............................................................. 4-12 HUMIDITY CONTROL ..................................................................... 4-14 4.6.1 Water Separation Water Extractor .............................. 4-14 4.6.2 Water Infiltration ............................................................ 4-17 MASS FLOW CONTROL ................................................................. 4-18 4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller .................................................... 4-18 4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller ............................................ 4-19 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ............................................................... 4-20 4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System .............................................. 4-23 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS .......................................................... 4-23 4.9.1 Control And Indication ................................................... 4-26 4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode ............................................ 4-26 4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode ........................................................ 4-27 4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode ..................... 4-27 4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator ........................................ 4-27 4.9.6 Isobaric Control System ................................................ 4-28 4.9.7 Differential Control System ............................................ 4-29 4.9.8 Safety Valves ................................................................ 4-31 ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL ...................................... 4-31 4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel.............................................. 4-32 4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller....................................... 4-33 4.10.3 Outflow Valve ................................................................ 4-33 4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves ..................... 4-34 CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION ....................................................... 4-35 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES .................................................. 4-36 4.12.1 Overheating .................................................................. 4-36 4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage .................................................... 4-37 4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude ................................................... 4-37 4.12.4 Smoke Detection ........................................................... 4-37
4.3
4.4
4.5 4.6
4.7
4.8 4.9
4.10
4.11 4.12
Issue 0 - 30 Jan 2003
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B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION The atmosphere above10,000ft is too thin and cold for normal breathing. Passenger carrying aircraft, operating above this height need an air conditioning and pressurisation system. The temperature of the air passing through the passenger cabin, flight deck and other compartments must be strictly controlled, as well as flow rate and level of humidity. Cabin temperature will normally be maintained between 15 and 30 degrees Celsius. Additionally, a controlled amount of pressurisation is necessary, so that the air pressure in the passenger cabin and adjacent areas does not exceed the equivalent of the ambient air pressure at 8000ft. Air conditioning is also essential for un-pressurised aircraft types. A typical air conditioning and pressurisation system comprises eight principle sub-systems: Air Supplies (Pneumatics ATA 36) Cooling Heating Temperature Control Humidity Control Mass Flow Control Distribution Pressurisation
4.2 AIR SUPPLY The source of fresh air supply and arrangement of essential components will vary between aircraft type and each air conditioning system, but in general one of the following methods described in the following paragraphs will be adopted: 4.2.1 Engine Bleed Air (compression) This method is the most common and is installed on the majority of modern aircraft types. Very hot air is tapped from the main engine compressor stages and supplied to the cabin, flight deck and other areas. Before the air enters the cabin, it is passed through a temperature control system, which reduces its temperature and pressure. Additionally, a means of flow control is utilised and in some aircraft, humidity control forms part of the system. (See Fig 1) In pressurised aircraft, the discharge of the conditioned air is regulated to maintain the cabin pressure at the selected pressure altitude.
Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
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NON RETURN VALVE
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT
SHUT OFF VALVES

FLOW CONTROLLER
ECU NRV
SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE
RAM AIR MIXER UNIT PRIMARY HEAT EXCHANGER
TO CABIN NRV
WATER SEPARATOR COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System Figure 1
4.2.2 Air Compressors or Blowers This method is used on turbo-prop, piston engine or even turbo-jet aircraft where main engine compressor bleed is unavailable or unsuitable. Normally the compressor or blower will be mechanically driven from the accessory gearbox of the main engine and its air supply routed via a temperature control system, in a similar manner to the engine bleed method. 4.2.3 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) The APU is a small gas turbine engine, which can be connected into the main air supply system and provide an independent means of air conditioning and pressurisation, either on the ground or in flight, when the main engines cannot supply. It will utilise the engine bleed air principle outlined above.
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4.2.4 Ram Air
This method is normally found as the primary ventilation system on unpressurised aircraft. A ram air scoop placed directly into the airflow, will provide the means of air supply as the aircraft moves forward. Since the air at altitude will be cold, the temperature control system through which it passes before entering the cabin, will normally be a form of heater. A self-contained combustion type heater will be employed, or the some form of exhaust gas heater. The air conditioning ducting will be routed around the combustion heater casing or around engine exhaust duct to obtain convection heating. On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be used as a means of emergency ventilation, following a complete loss of the main system.
RAM AIR
COLD AIR OUTLETS
DEMISTER
WARM AIR OUTLETS
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION CHAMBER FLOW CONTROL VALVE ENGINE DRIVEN AIR BLOWER AIR SUPPLY
OFF ON
FUEL SOLENOID VALVE FUEL SUPPLY
COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

4.2.5 Ground Cart This will be an independent means of heating or cooling the passenger cabin on the ground. It can be used on aircraft that do not have an APU. The trolley will be connected externally to the aircraft, via a purpose built inlet into the air conditioning system and normally employs a combustion type heater and the means to control the output of the air temperature from a control panel the cart.
Typical Combustion Heater System Figure 2
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4.3 COOLING
When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius. This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas, so it must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius. There are two main methods of cooling; Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems. 4.3.1 Air Cycle Cooling Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange, expansion and energy conversion. Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from the engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger. The charge air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally ambient air, scooped by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger as the aircraft moves forward (ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in this way, the charge air temperature can never be reduced below the ram air temperature by this method alone. Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced by increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called Air Cycle Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the temperature of the charge air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees Celsius, irrespective of the ram air temperature Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved by using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy into kinetic energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to zero degrees Celsius.
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HOT AIR INLET PRIMARY HEAT EXCHANGER
SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE WATER SEPARATOR TO CABIN MIXER UNIT COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Turbo Compressor Figure 3 4.3.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGERS
These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat from one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to cool the very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the gearbox mounted air compressor or blower. Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system, heat exchangers are often described as; A Pre-cooler or Primary Heat Exchanger An Inter-cooler or Secondary Heat Exchanger The basic construction is a sealed unit containing a series of cooling passages; through which the charge air flows and over which the ram air is directed. Between these passages are thin corrugated strips, that also serve to dissipate heat as the ram air passes over them.
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4.3.1.2
AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)
The ACM/CAU is the primary component in an air cycle cooling system. A number of different types can be found including; The turbo-compressor, the brake turbine and the turbo-fan. All three use the charge air to drive the turbine and the major differences between each type, relates to the overall weight for a given mass flow, the size and method of dissipating the power output of the turbine.
TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
DIFFUSER
FROM INTERCOOLER
BLEED AIR
NOZZLE BLADES
COMPRESSOR
TO INTERCOOLER
TURBO COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit Figure 4
The turbo-compressor type consists of a turbine driving a centrifugal compressor and operating in conjunction with an inter-cooler connected between the compressor and turbine stages. Its basic construction consists of two main casings, the turbine volute and compressor volute casings. The two casings are connected together and enclose a bearing housing with two bearing assemblies, supporting a shaft upon which the turbine and compressor wheels are mounted. Page 4-6 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel rotates within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine compressor bleed and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the ACM/CAU compressor. It becomes compressed on passing through the diffuser ring, increasing its temperature and energy. From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix over which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute nozzle ring, where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy conversion, rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature. It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3) The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high speeds, often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is essential to ensure smooth and trouble-free running. Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication. The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of metering it to the bearings usually by the use of integral wicks or with an oil slinger that pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures the correct amount of oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is critical however, as too much oil will lead to the charge air being oil contaminated and too little oil, may result in a premature seizure of the rotating shaft. The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a similar manner to the hovercraft principal. As the rotor floats on a thin layer of air, it is essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely free from oil and grease.
AMBIENT AIR OUTLET
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE TO CABIN MIXER UNIT
AMBIENT AIR INLET
HEAT EXCHANGER
BLEED AIR
CONTROL VALVE RAM AIR
Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit Figure 5

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001 Page 4-7
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The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from the pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as before, resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this layout dispenses with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater efficiency due to weight saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating too fast, it is coupled with a compressor, which rotates in ambient air and consequently acts as a braking medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of the shaft further improves turbine output efficiency. (See Fig 5)
BLEED AIR RAM AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
RAM AIR
TO CABIN MIXER UNIT LARGE FAN
HEAT EXCHANGER
CONTROL VALVE
Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit Figure 6 TURBO FAN COLD AIR
UNIT
The turbo-fan type is mechanically similar to the brake-turbine arrangement. In this case however, the turbine drives a large centrifugal fan instead of a normal compressor. The fan is draws a large quantity of ambient air over the pre-cooler, which cools the incoming charge air. The major advantage of this type over the other two, is that with the fan-induced airflow over the pre-cooler, it can be used with the aircraft stationary on the ground with the aircraft engines running. It does not need to rely solely on ram air as the cooling medium for the pre-cooler.
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4.3.2 Vapour Cycle Cooling The vapour cycle cooling system can be used as an alternative to the air cycle cooling system. Although not commonly used these days for air conditioning systems, the system may be used as the means to remove heat from electrical and electronic equipment. The system relies on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to absorb heat when changing from a liquid to a gas, through the process of vaporisation or expansion. For example, if you were to put a drop of a highly volatile liquid such as methylated spirits or petrol on the back of you hand, it will feel cold. This is because the liquid starts to evaporate and draws the heat necessary for evaporation from your hand. Liquids with a low boiling point have a stronger tendency to evaporate at normal temperatures than those with a high boiling point. Furthermore, the amount of pressure acting on a liquid substance will affect its state. A sufficient reduction in pressure will cause any liquid to change state into a vapour or a gas. Conversely, a corresponding increase in pressure will reverse the process.
CONDENSER RAM AIR RECIEVER DRYER
AIR SUPPLY
THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE
CAPILLARY TUBE TURBO COMPRESSOR EVAPORATOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVES
AIR DISTRIBUTION
Schematic Vapour Cycle System Figure 7

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The major components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a thermostatic expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor, a condenser and a condenser fan. Often these components are mounted close together to form a line-replaceable refrigeration pack or vapour cycle cooling pack. The liquid receiver acts as a reservoir and provides storage for the refrigerant, normally a highly volatile chemical such as Freon. The refrigerant will pass from the liquid receiver to a thermostatic expansion valve where it is metered and released into the evaporator. The very hot charge air from the main engine bleed flows across the evaporator, releases heat that vaporises the liquid refrigerant and passes into the passenger cabin at a much lower temperature. Meanwhile, the now vaporised refrigerant gas is directed towards the turbocompressor. It is drawn into the compressor wheel, the coupled turbine of which is driven by the main engine bleed air. (Note: In some cases, an independent means instead of a turbo-compressor may be used to compress the refrigerant gas, such as an electric motor, as in a domestic refrigerator). The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor at a high pressure and temperature and passes across the matrix of the condenser. The gas is cooled by the ram air, flowing across the matrix and so condenses back into a liquid once again. It then returns to the liquid receiver to repeat the refrigeration cycle once again. The condenser fan is used to induce air across the condenser matrix when the aircraft is stationary on the ground and no ram air is available.
Typical Vapour Cycle System Figure 8 Page 4-10 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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4.4 HEATING
Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the ramair passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system is required. Heating systems can be generally divided into two types: Exhaust heating systems Combustion heating systems 4.4.1 Exhaust Heating Systems In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of a turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows some of the cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve. The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat from the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing valve. The heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the combined flow is directed into the passenger cabin. Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected to the mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be modulated in order to suit the cabin heating requirements. To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from the exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide detectors within the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly coloured crystals, which turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of carbon monoxide.
Exhaust System Heater Figure 9

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4.4.2 Combustion Heating Systems This system uses a purpose built combustion chamber heater assembly to provide the heat source, rather than the previously described exhaust heating method. Fuel is directed from the aircraft fuel system, through a pressure regulating and shut off valve that ensures the fuel is at the correct pressure for atomisation. Other components include a fuel filter, a fuel pump and spray nozzle, where it is atomised and ignited with an igniter plug. The combustion chamber assembly heats up the ram air that passes around it.
Typical Combustion Heater System Figure 10 4.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL In order to operate the aircraft in an infinite number of climatic and operating conditions, the temperature in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and other areas needs to be regulated for comfort. Temperature regulation for the majority of aircraft that employ the engine bleed air method is usually accomplished by controlling the proportion of hot and cold air coming from the air supply system. An electric motor driving a double butterfly type air mixing valve, regulates the cabin temperature, by allowing a controlled amount of hot air to by-pass the air cycle system. This air is then recombined in proper proportions with the cold air that has been directed through the air cycle system at a down stream mix chamber. The position of the air-mixing valve is determined by signals from the temperature control system. The temperature control system is normally operated automatically or as a manual system, if the automatic temperature controller should fail. Page 4-12 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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During automatic operation, the temperature controller continually monitors cabin temperatures and repositions the air mixing valve if necessary to keep the temperature at the selected level. In order to achieve this, the controller receives signals from temperature selector on the flight deck (the temperature requested) and from temperature sensors in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and supply ducts (the actual temperature). If a difference between the requested and actual temperatures occurs, the controller will send an output signal, to re-position the air mixing valve until parity exists once more. During manual operation, the temperature control circuit bypasses the controller and connects the temperature selector on the flight deck, directly to the air-mixing valve. Other sensors in the system transmit compartment temperatures to indicators on the flight deck overhead panel, so that the actual temperatures and the position of the air-mixing valve can be monitored.
Temperature Control Figure 11
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4.6 HUMIDITY CONTROL
Humidity control is the means to ensure that the correct amount of water moisture content is in the air conditioning air within the aircraft cabin. This is necessary to ensure occupants do not suffer from low humidity levels that are experienced with high altitude flight. Humidity control can be achieved two ways; Water Separation Water Infiltration Water separation is the removal of excessive moisture from the charge air, normally by a water extractor or separator. Water infiltration is the addition of moisture into the conditioned air as it enters the cabin using a water pump and spray nozzle. 4.6.1 Water Separation Water Extractor Water can be introduced into the air conditioning system due to the compression and expansion of the air in the ACM/CAU and other areas of the air cycle process. There are three types of water separator in general use; the coalescer/diffuser type, the coalescer/bag type and the swirl vane type. 4.6.1.1 COALESCER/DIFFUSER TYPE
This type consists of a coalescer constructed from layers of monel metal gauze and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless steel gauze. It is supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief valve housing. As the air leaves the diffuser and passes over the coalescer, moisture in the air is converted into water droplets. The droplets enter the collector shell and are deposited into collector tubes where they drain down to a collector box from where the water is ejected overboard.
COALESCER COLLECTOR SHELL
DIFFUSER
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
CONDENSER TUBES
DRAIN
COALESCER WATER EXTRACTOR FIGURE 12 Page 4-14 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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4.6.1.2
COALESCER/BAG TYPE
A porous bag, supported by a shell is fitted within the extractor to convert moisture into water droplets. A swirl is imparted into the conditioned air and the centrifugal effect forces the droplets to the outlet shell where it collects and drains from the component. A bag visual indicator operated by back pressure, will show when the coalescer bag becomes dirty or blocked. In this case, a relief valve will open to ensure flow is still available.
BLOCKAGE INDICATOR OUTLET SHELL BAG
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE WATER DRAIN
Bag Type Water Extractor Figure 13
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4.6.1.3 SWIRL VANE TYPE
This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air outwards against the exit shell. The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the swirl by rotating the airflow at high speed. The action, separates the heavier water droplets in the moisture and collects them in a sump, to be drained away.
SEPARATOR SHELL
SWIRL VANE
WATER SUMP DRAIN

Swirl Vane Type Water Separator Figure 14
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4.6.2 Water Infiltration
Humidity control can also include the addition of water into the air conditioning system. As an aircraft climbs to high altitude, the moisture level in the air reduces to a much lower amount than at lower levels of altitude. The reduction in moisture may cause discomfort to the aircraft occupants. To counteract this, moisture is added into the conditioned air, by pumping water from a tank to a spray nozzle positioned at the cabin air inlet. Humidity sensors will detect low humidity conditions and automatically turn on the controller water pump to restore the humidity to acceptable levels.
WATER SEPARATOR DRAIN
COLLECTOR TANK CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOR
SPRAY NOZZLE
OVERFILL DRAIN
WATER PUMP AND CONTROLLER TO CABIN
Typical Humidity Control System Figure 15
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4.7 MASS FLOW CONTROL
Legislation requires that a minimum amount of fresh air be supplied to passengers and crew. In addition stale air must be removed and odours eliminated. Most pressurisation systems rely on the fact that air is delivered at a constant rate under all conditions of flight in order to function correctly. Mass flow control systems constantly monitor the velocity and density of the air supply by either increasing or decreasing the demand upon the source of supply, or by spilling excess supply air overboard. The mass of air must be controlled at a constant value regardless of aircraft altitude or cabin pressure. It must also adjust for changes in main engine compressor speed in bleed air systems, or changes in rotor speed when a separate air supply from an accessory gearbox driven blower is incorporated. 4.7.1 Mass Flow Controller This type automatically caters for changes in air density, cabin back pressure and engine compressor supply pressure. At ground level and during take off and the early stages of flight, the pressure available from the main engine compressor outlet is high. As altitude increases or when the engines are set to cruising speeds, the supply pressure drops. The amount of pressure from the engine compressor bleed acting on an altitudecompensated piston valve, determines the position the valve will adopt when opposed by a spring and back pressure from the cabin. The pressure drop across the valve, will vary the size of outlet ports and will thus determine the valves degree of opening and closing. This will result in a constant mass flow downstream of the valve at all times.
Mass Flow Control Figure 16 Page 4-18 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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4.7.2 Spill Valve Flow Controller This type receives the charge air supply through a metering duct, which senses variations in the velocity and density of the air. The metering duct on sensing these variations, transmits the information to a mass flow controller, which converts the air pressure signals into electrical signals. The electrical signals in turn control the position of spill valves. They will move towards a more open or closed position, to vary the amount of air spilled overboard, thereby ensuring a constant flow rate into the cabin. At sea level, with the engines at low power, the absolute capsule D will be compressed by atmospheric pressure. The contacts A, B and C will be in the position shown and the spill valve will be towards closed. With the main engines at take off power, the air velocity through the venture increases, causing a pressure differential across the controller diaphragm. This will cause contact B to move towards contact C and when they touch, the spill valves will be driven towards the open As the aircraft climbs, the static pressure in the metering duct and controller will decrease. The absolute capsule will now expand and the position of contacts A and C, will be adjusted in relation to contact B. When contact B is touched, the spill valves will move towards closed once more and once again the mass flow to the cabin will remain constant.
Mass Flow Controller Operations Figure 17
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4.8 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air conditioning packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a mixer unit to the required temperature. The air is then distributed to side wall and overhead cabin vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn back into the mixing unit by recirculating fans where it is mixed with new air and then re-distributed. All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for ease of maintenance. ( Figure 14). A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the aircrew and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from the cooling packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air received by controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a rotary nozzle or a louvre.
TO SIDEWALL DUCTS GASPER FAN MIXER VALVES MANIFOLD RELIEF VALVE TO COCKPIT TO SIDEWALL DUCTS TO GASPER OUTLETS
CONTROL VALVES WATER SEPARATOR
TO OVERHEAD DUCTS
CONTROL VALVE SELECTOR LINKAGE
Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold Figure 18 Page 4-20 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly throughout the cabin and crew areas. One duct system supplies the cockpit (Figure 17) while another supplies the cabin. The cabin ducting is then divided into 2 systems, the overhead (Figure 15) and the sidewall systems (Figure 16). The overhead system releases air into the cabin from outlets in ducting running fore and aft in the cabin ceiling. The sidewall duct system takes air through ducting between the sidewall and cabin interior linings and releases it through cove light grills and louvres. A cockpit controlled selector valve located on the main distribution manifold allows all overhead, side wall or any combination of the two systems to be used and varies the flow between the two.
DUCTING
FLOOR EXHAUST DUCT
ADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
Overhead Panel Figure 19 Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together with clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing the air flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected from excess pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve usually located in the main distribution manifold. The main manifold is located immediately downstream from the mixing units in the air conditioning bay. On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air between cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked. When one is fully open the other is fully closed and vice versa.
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Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves in the sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the cargo compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature control. Some air then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the compartment floor and is then discharged overboard through the outflow valves.
DISTRIBUTION BOXES
WALL FEEDER DUCTS
WINDOW DEMISTER
FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS
DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting Figure 20 Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the balls float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from entering the cabin.
CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
AIR VENT
FLIGHT DECK TEMPERATURE SENSOR
SILENCER
FAN ASSY COOLING FANS FAN ASSY PRESSURE SWITCH
Cockpit Air Distribution Figure 21 Page 4-22 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
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Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning system and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas may have a remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle system, to allow cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from one of the zone packs. 4.8.1 Re-circulation Air System To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is recirculated back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with conditioned air form the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air improves airflow and offloads the air supply system. This off loading of the air conditioning packs is converted into a fuel saving. The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check valve and filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before passing it to the mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any reverse flow through the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use. 4.9 PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight crews could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete environmental systems to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air conditioning could provide the proper temperature and supplemental oxygen could provide sufficient breathable air. The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high altitude to aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work harder to absorb sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the same level of efficiency as at sea level. This problem is overcome by pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area. Cabin pressurisation is a means of adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to create an artificial atmosphere that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives an environment equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of fresh air supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute. Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage. This is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally include cabin, cockpit and possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this pressure vessel and is controlled by an outflow valve located at the rear of the vessel. Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around tubing, ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or pierce the pressure tight area. All panels and large structural components are assembled with sealing compounds. Access and removable doors and hatches have integral seals. Some have inflatable seals.
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engineering
Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their function is to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the compressor of a coupled turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive air from engine driven compressors and turbine powered aircraft use compressor bleed air Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a turbine. A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The compressors output is fed to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold pressure which allows the engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of this compressed air is tapped off after the compressor and is used to pressurise the cabin. The air passes through a flow limiter (or sonic venturi) and then through an inter-cooler before being fed into the cabin. A typical system is shown at Figure 22. Sonic Venturi
A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation system. When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of sound a shock wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the pressurisation system
RAM AIR HEATING AIR PRESSURISED AIR
RAM AIR SHUT OFF VALVE COMBUSTION HEATER
EXHAUST GASES
COUPLED TURBO COMPRESSOR
SONIC VENTURI INTERCOOLER
OUTFLOW VALVE
SAFETY VALVE
Small Reciprocating Engine Aircraft Pressurisation System Figure 22 Page 4-24 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft These aircraft use engine driven compressors driven through an accessory drive or by an electric or hydraulic motor. Multi engine aircraft have more than one air compressor. These are interconnected through ducting but each have a check valve or isolation valve to prevent pressure loss when one system is out of action. Turbine Powered Aircraft The air supplied from a gas turbine engine compressor is contamination free and can be suitably used for cabin pressurisation (Figure 23). Some aircraft use an independent compressor driven by the engine bleed air. The bleed air drives the coupled compressor which pressurises the air and feeds it into the cabin
FLUSH AIR INTAKE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE VESSEL (CABIN/COCKPIT)
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Turbo Compressor Figure 23 Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the cabin (Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air intake ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle. This produces a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in outside air. This outside air is mixed with the high velocity air and is then passed into the cabin
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FLUSH AIR INTAKE
PRESSURE VESSEL (CABIN/COCKPIT) JET PUMP BLEED AIR OUTFLOW VALVE ENGINE
Jet Pump Figure 24 4.9.1 Control And Indication There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode and the constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode the cabin altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric mode the cabin altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and in the constantdifferential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained at a constant amount above the outside ambient air pressure. The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential pressure and the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling. 4.9.2 The Un-Pressurised Mode In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the same as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea level up to 5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft.
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engineering
4.9.3 The Isobaric Mode
In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as flight altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the outflow valve as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow valve then opens or closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin altitude as the flight altitude changes up or down. The controller will then maintain the selected cabin altitude up to the flight altitude that produces the maximum differential pressure for which the aircraft structure is rated. At this point the constant differential mode takes control. 4.9.4 The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the cabin pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential pressure is the ratio between the internal and external air pressures. At maximum constant-differential pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude the cabin altitude will increase but the internal/external pressure ratio will be maintained. There will be a maximum cabin altitude allowed and this will determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can operate. 4.9.5 Cabin Air Pressure Regulator The pressure regulator maintains cabin altitude at a selected level in the isobaric range and limits cabin pressure to a pre-set pressure differential in the differential range by regulating the position of the outflow valve. Normal operation of the regulator requires only the selection of the desired cabin altitude and cabin rate of climb the adjustment of the barometric control.
STATIC ATMOSHERE CONNECTION ADJUSTER CONTROL DIAPHRAGM ISOBARIC METERING VALVE ADJUSTER CONTROL BAROMETRIC CAPSULE
DIFFERENTIAL METERING VALVE HEAD REFERENCE CHAMBER PILOT
RESTRICTOR
SOLENOID DUMP VALVE
ACTUATOR DIAPHRAGM OUTFLOW VALVE BAFFLE PLATE
BASE
Cabin Pressure Regulator Figure 25

JAR 66 CATEGORY B
uk
engineering
The regulator shown in Figure 25 is a typical differential pressure type regulator that is built into the normally closed air operated outflow valve. It uses cabin altitude for its isobaric control and barometric pressure for the differential control. A cabin rate of climb controller controls the pressure change inside the cabin. There are 2 main sections to the regulator, the head and reference chamber and the base with the outflow valve and diaphragm. The balance diaphragm extends outward from the baffle plate to the outflow valve creating an air chamber between the baffle plate and the outer face of the outflow valve. Cabin air flowing into this chamber through holes in the side of the outflow valve exerts a force against the outer face of the valve which tries to open it. This force is opposed by the force of the spring around the valve pilot which tries to hold the valve closed. The actuator diaphragm extends outward from the outflow valve to the head assembly creating an air chamber between the head and the inner face of the outflow valve. Air from the head and reference chamber exert a force against the inner face of the outflow valve helping the spring to hold the valve closed. The position of the outflow valve controls the amount of cabin air that is allowed to flow from the pressure vessel and this controls the cabin pressure. The position of the outflow valve is determined by the amount of reference chamber air pressure that presses on the inner face of the outflow valve. 4.9.6 Isobaric Control System The isobaric control system of the pressure regulator shown in Figure 26 incorporates an evacuated capsule, a rocker arm, valve spring and a ball type metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is connected to the valve head by the evacuated capsule and the other end of the arm holds the metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm allows. When the cabin air pressure increases enough for the reference chamber air pressure to compress the evacuated capsule the rocker arm pivots around its fulcrum and allows the metering valve to move away from its seat an amount proportional to the compression of the capsule. When the metering valve opens reference pressure air flows form the regulator to atmosphere through the atmospheric chamber.
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engineering
ISOBARIC METERING VALVE EVACUATED BELLOWS
OUTFLOW VALVE
Isobaric Control Operation Figure 26 When the regulator is operating in the isobaric range, cabin pressure is held constant by reducing the flow of reference chamber air through the metering valve. This prevents a further decrease in reference pressure. The isobaric control responds to slight changes in reference pressure by modulating to maintain a constant pressure in the chamber throughout the isobaric range of operation. Whenever there is an increase in cabin pressure the isobaric metering valve opens which decreases the reference pressure and causes the outflow valve to open which then decreases the cabin pressure. 4.9.7 Differential Control System The differential control system of the pressure regulator (Figure 27) incorporates a diaphragm a rocker arm, a valve spring and a ball type metering valve. One end of the rocker arm is attached to the head by the diaphragm which forma a pressure sensitive face between the reference chamber and the atmospheric chamber.
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METERING VALVE
ATMOSPHERIC CHAMBER DIAPHRAGM
OUTFLOW VALVE
Differential Pressure Mode Figure 27 Atmospheric pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm and reference chamber pressure acts on the other. The opposite end of the rocker arm holds the metering valve in a closed position. A valve spring located on the metering valve body tries to move the metering valve away from its seat as far as the rocker arm allows. When reference chamber pressure increases to the system differential pressure limit set above the decreasing atmospheric pressure it collapses the diaphragm which is set at differential pressure and opens the metering valve. Air flows from the reference chamber to atmosphere through the atmospheric chamber, which causes a reduction in the reference pressure. This reduction in reference pressure causes the outflow valve to open to reduce the cabin pressure to maintain the system pressure differential.
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4.9.8 Safety Valves
Cabin Air Pressure Safety Valve The pressure relief valve prevents cabin pressure from exceeding the predetermined cabin to ambient pressure differential. A negative pressure relief valve and pressure dump valve may also be incorporated into this valve assembly. Negative Pressure Relief Valve A pressurised aircraft is designed to operate with the cabin pressure higher than the outside air pressure. If the cabin pressure were to become lower than the outside air pressure the cabin structure could fail. Outside air is allowed to enter the cabin to ensure that this does not happen. It is basically an inward pressure relief valve. Dump Valve This valve is normally solenoid actuated by a cockpit switch. When the solenoid is energised the valve opens dumping cabin air to atmosphere. Cabin pressure will decrease rapidly until it is the same as the outside air pressure and cabin altitude will increase until it is the same as the flight altitude. Ditching valve If any of the cabin control valves were situated below the water level and the aircraft ditch in the water, the cabin would quickly flood. To prevent this happening, either a mechanical or electrical ditching selection, can be made by the crew to seal off all pressurisation valves and inlets. 4.10 ELECTRONIC PRESSURISATION CONTROL
Most modern airliners have the means to electronically control the cabin pressure automatically for the entire flight, from settings made by the flight crew before take off. The pressure control system consists: a flight deck control panel an automatic pressure controller with pressure sensing inputs and outputs to monitoring indicators an electrically-driven gate-type outflow valve inward and outward safety relief valves
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4.10.1 Flight Deck Control Panel This provides a means for the flight crew to control the cabin pressure by positioning the outflow valve. There are three mode selections available; Auto, Standby or Manual.
Figure 28 The desired mode will normally be Auto, where all settings such as intended cruise (flight) altitude and destination airfield (landing) altitude are made before flight. This will allow automatic control of cabin pressure for the whole of that flight. This is called the fully automatic mode. Alternatively, Standby or back up mode can be selected, where a cabin altitude setting must be made for each desired cabin pressure change. The input setting is then controlled automatically as before. This is called the semi-automatic mode. If neither the fully or semi-automatic modes are available, (i.e.: the pressure controller fails), the outflow valve can be positioned directly from the flight deck by operating the electric torque motors to drive the valve. This is called the manual mode and a choice of an ac or dc electrical supply is available.
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engineering
4.10.2 Automatic Pressure Controller The pressure controller provides output control signals to the outflow valves ac or dc torque motors. The motors position and modulate the valve to establish and control actual cabin pressure in accordance with the controllers pre -programmed climb, cruise or descent schedules. This will ensure that for every aircraft altitude there will be a particular cabin altitude. Input signals to the controller are from the flight deck control panel, cabin and ambient pressure sensors, barometric correction and air/ground sensing.
Auto Mode Flight Profile Figure 29 4.10.3 Outflow Valve The valve has a moving gate designed to cover or uncover an aperture in the fuselage skin. An increase in the aperture size will cause cabin pressure to fall (cabin altitude to ascend), whereas a decrease in the aperture size results in an increase in cabin pressure (cabin altitude to descend). The gate is driven by one of two electrically driven motors, the choice of ac or dc motor being determined by flight crew input. Motor input signals come from the controller when in the auto or standby modes, or directly from a control panel switch when in the manual mode.
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Outflow Valve Figure 30 4.10.4 Inward and Outward Safety Relief Valves Fuselage frames are designed to accept tensile loads associated with and outward force from within the pressure cell. Their ability to withstand compression loads that would occur if the pressure outside the aircraft were higher than within the pressure cell is poor. Therefore an inward relief valve will open and equalise the pressure if the inward or negative differential exceeds about 0.5 psid. Two outward relief valves are fitted to prevent the maximum outward differential pressure from exceeding the structural limit. This will typically be around 8.5psid. Even though the main pressure control is electronic, the safety relief valves are mechanical operated and are completely independent of any automatic control system.
Pressurisation System Valves Figure 31 Page 4-34 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
4.11
CABIN PRESSURE INDICATION
Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin altitude, cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. The cabin altitude gauge measures the actual cabin altitude.
Cabin Altitude Gauge Figure 32
The cabin rate of climb indicator tells the pilot the rate that the cabin is either climbing or descending. (I.e. the rate at which the cabin loses or gains pressure) A typical maximum climb rate is 500ft per minute and the maximum descent rate is 300ft per minute. The control can be automatic or manual depending on aircraft type.
Cabin Rate of Climb Figure 33
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The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between the cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is normally controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid. This depends on the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft. The differential pressure gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude (Figure 35).
0 10 9 8 7 6
DIFF PX PSI
1 2 3 4 5
Differential Pressure Gauge Figure 34 4.12 SAFETY AND WARNING DEVICES
Dual Gauge Figure 35
To ground test the pressurisation system with the engines running, at least three men are required inside the aircraft for safety reasons. Both air conditioning and pressurisation systems use safety and warning devices to protect the aircraft from possible catastrophic failures. Some of the protection devices may be inhibited in certain stages of flight; landing or take off where the extra distractions caused by such warnings may be too much for the crews to deal with safely. With the air conditioning system the main concerns are with overheating of the air conditioning packs and extraction and ventilation fans, as well as hot air leaks from ducting which could damage surrounding structure or components. 4.12.1 Overheating Most packs systems are protected from overheating by a thermal switch downstream of the pack outlet. If the outlet temperature reaches a pre determined figure the switch will operate causing the pack valves to shut, preventing air from getting to the packs, as well as sending a warning signal to the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes and to illuminate a fault light on the pack selector switch. Page 4-36 B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
Once the system has cooled down sufficiently the crew may have an option to reselect the overheated system. The overheat may have been caused by a fault in the automatic temperature control system in which case the pilot may be able to control the system manually via a manual selector switch on the cockpit controller. Extraction or ventilation fans will be protected in much the same way. An overheat will signal the central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The fan may be isolated automatically or manually. Once the fan has cooled down it may be possible to re-select if required. Fans may also be protected from over or under speeding, which will also have an effect on the system temperatures. Speed sensors on the fan will indicate a fault when over or under speed limits are reached and a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. 4.12.2 Duct Hot Air Leakage Any ducting that includes joints is liable to leak under abnormal conditions. A duct protection system will include fire-wire elements around the hot zones such as engine air bleeds, air conditioning packs and auxiliary power units if fitted. The sensing elements will be the thermistor type. As the temperature around the wire increases the resistance decreases until an electrical circuit is made. When the circuit is made a warning signal is sent to the cockpit central warning panel with associated caution/warning lights and aural chimes. The leaking duct may be isolated automatically or may require the pilot to take action to close off the air valves. The faulty system will then remain out of use. 4.12.3 Excess Cabin Altitude If the cabin altitude was allowed to increase unchecked the crew and passengers could unknowingly suffer the effects of hypoxia. This dangerous condition is obviously undesirable especially for the aircrew. Most aircraft give a warning on the CWP with associated audio and visual warnings when the cabin altitude reaches 10000`. 4.12.4 Smoke Detection Smoke detectors may be fitted within the cabin; avionics bay and cargo areas to monitor systems, which if become faulty may generate smoke on overheating, or are may be liable to catch fire. These detectors will send a signal to the CWP with associated lights and audio warnings. They may also automatically switch on extractor fans, which will remove the smoke overboard and away form the cabin and cockpit areas. In this event, the pilot may have a switch or control lever to operate a valve to isolate the cockpit air conditioning ducting from the rest of the aircraft to prevent any smoke from getting to the cockpit.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B
uk
engineering
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

Issue 0 - 30 Jan 2003

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

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B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

4 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

AUXILIARY POWER UNIT

SHUT OFF VALVES

RAM AIR MIXER UNIT PRIMARY HEAT EXCHANGER

WATER SEPARATOR COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE

Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System Figure 1

B1 Mod 11.04 Issue 30 Jan 2003

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

COLD AIR OUTLETS

WARM AIR OUTLETS

FUEL SOLENOID VALVE FUEL SUPPLY

COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Typical Combustion Heater System Figure 2

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MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

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SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER

Turbo Compressor Figure 3 4.3.1.1 HEAT EXCHANGERS

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AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

TURBINE TO CABIN MIXER UNIT

AMBIENT AIR INLET

CONTROL VALVE RAM AIR

Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit Figure 5

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TO CABIN MIXER UNIT LARGE FAN

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MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

CONDENSER RAM AIR RECIEVER DRYER

THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE

CAPILLARY TUBE TURBO COMPRESSOR EVAPORATOR

TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVES

Schematic Vapour Cycle System Figure 7

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

Exhaust System Heater Figure 9

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

Temperature Control Figure 11

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PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

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BLOCKAGE INDICATOR OUTLET SHELL BAG

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE WATER DRAIN

Bag Type Water Extractor Figure 13

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MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

WATER SUMP DRAIN

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MODULE 11.04 AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

WATER SEPARATOR DRAIN