Dublin Institute of Technology

Dr. Gerald Farrell

Optical Communications Systems
School of Electronic and
Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited
Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Propagation in Fibre
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
How many light rays??
Range of angles
over which light will
be transmitted
Range of angles
over which light will
not be transmitted
Recall that only light rays which enter the core with an angle less than the
acceptance angle will propagate
There are an infinite number of possible ray angles, all less than acceptance angle
In theory then there are an infinite number of light rays?
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Observing Modes
Experimentally
Visible light is used as a source, typically HeNe laser (Red, 670 nm)
Output from a fibre is projected onto a reflective surface, such as a white
card in a darkened room
Output from singlemode fibre, HE11 mode
Output from a multimode fibre,
a so-called speckle pattern
Output from a fibre supporting
two modes
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Electromagnetic Modes in Fibre
To obtain an improved model for propagation in a fibre, EM wave theory
must be used.
Ray diagram or Geometric Optics approach remains useful as a way to
visualise propagation in a fibre.
Basis of EM analysis is a solution to Maxwells equations for a fibre.
For ease of analysis a fibre is frequently replaced by a planar optical
waveguide, that is a slab of dielectric with a refractive index n1,
sandwiched between two regions of lower refractive index n2.
n
2
n
2
n
1
Planar waveguide
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Formation of Modes in
a Fibre (I)
Propagation of an individual ray takes place in a zigzag pattern as shown
In practice there is at the fibre input an infinite number of such rays, called
more properly plane rays.
Each ray is in reality a line drawn normal to a wavefront, for example the
wavefront shown by the dotted line FC above.
For plane waves all points along the same wavefront must have identical phase.
The wavefront intersects two of the upwardly travelling portions of the
same ray at A and C.
B
F
E
A
C D

d
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Formation of Modes in
a Fibre (II)
Unless the phase at point C differs from that at point A by a multiple of 2
then destructive interference takes place and the ray does not propagate.
Moving along the ray path between A and C involves a phase change caused
by the distance AB and BC and a phase change caused by reflection
Combining these two phase changes and setting the result equal to a multiple
of 2 we get a condition for propagation of a "ray", more properly now called
a mode.
Source: Master 2_1
F
E
A
C D

d
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Types of Optical Fibre
Three distinct types of optical fibre have developed
The reasons behind the development of different fibres are explored later
Concern here is to examine propagation in the different fibres
The three fibre types are:
Step index fibre
Graded index fibre
Singlemode fibre (also called monomode fibre)
Multimode fibres
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Step Index
Fibre
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Step Index Fibre
Simplest and earliest form of fibre
The larger the core diameter the more modes propagate
With a large core diameter many thousands of modes can exist
N1 N2
Refractive index profile for a
step index optical fibre
Core
Diameter
Cladding
Diameter
Core
Cladding
0
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Normalised Frequency for a
Fibre
For an optical fibre we can define the so-called normalised frequency "V"
Convenient dimensionless parameter that combines some key fibre variables
It is defined thus:

V =
2
a.NA
V is also very commonly defined using the
numerical aperture NA thus:
We will use this definition
Source: Master 2_1
. n
1
- n
2
2 a

V =
2 2
where a is the fibre radius and is the operating wavelength
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Relative Refractive Index
It is also possible to define a so called relative refractive index for a fibre
Normally the symbol is used
is defined thus:
if is << 1 then is given by:
Source: Master 2_1
=
n
1
- n
2
2n
1
2 2
2
=
n
1
- n
2
n
1
The normalised frequency V can
be written in terms of :

V =
2
a.n
1
2
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Modes in a MM Step Index Fibre
In a multimode step index fibre, a finite number of guided modes propagate.
Number of modes is dependent on:
Wavelength
, ,
Core refractive index n
1
Relative refractive index difference
, ,
Core radius a
Number of propagating modes (M) is normally expressed in terms of the
normalised frequency V for the fibre:
M =
V
2
2
Source: Master 2_1
Problem: A step index fibre with a core diameter of 80 m has a relative refractive index
difference of 1.5%, a core refractive index of 1.48 and operates at 850 nm.
Show (a) that the normalised frequency for the fibre is 75.8 and (b) that the number of
modes is 2873
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Influence of Core Size and
Wavelength
Source: Master 2_1
As the core diameter increases and with it the normalised frequency, the
number of modes increases with a square law dependency on core size
As the wavelength increases the number of modes decreases
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
50 100 150 200 250
Core Diameter in microns
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

m
o
d
e
s
850 nm
1320 nm
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Graded Index
Fibre
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Graded Index Fibre
N1 N2
Core
Diameter
Cladding
Diameter
Core
Cladding
0
Parabolic variation in
refractive index
Typical core diameter for this fibre type: 50 to 120 m
Different refractive index profiles have developed
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Propagation in a Graded Index
Fibre
An expanded ray diagram for a graded index fibre, showing a discrete number
of refractive index changes n
1
to n
6
for the fibre axis to the cladding.
Result is a gradual change in the direction of the ray, rather than the sharp
change which occurs in a step index fibre
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Propagation in a Graded Index
Fibre
Cladding
Core
b
a
Fibre Axis
Light ray (a) and (b) are refracted progressively within the
fibre. Notice that light ray (a) follows a longer path
within the fibre than light ray (b)
Meridional (axial) rays follow curved paths in the fibre as shown
Benefits of using graded index design are considered later
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Graded Index Fibre Profiles
Refractive index profiles for Graded Index
fibres
The index variation n(r) in a graded
index fibre may be expressed as
a function of the distance (r)
from the fibre axis
n(r) =
n
1
(1-2 (r/a))

n
1
(1-2 ) = n
2
n(r) =
for r < a (core)
for r > a (cladding)
Most common value of the profile
parameter is 2, a so called
parabolic profile. An infinite profile
parameter implies a step index fibre
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Modes in a Graded Index Fibre
Calculating the number of modes in a graded index fibre is very involved
As an approximation it can be shown that the number of modes is dependent on
the normalised frequency V and on the profile parameter . .
That is
M =
V
2
2
where , is again given by: =
n
1
- n
2
n
1

+ 2
if is << 1
Exercise
For the most common value of show that for fibres with similar relative
refractive indices, core radii and operating wavelengths, the number of
modes propagating in a step index fibre is twice that in a graded index fibre
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Singlemode
Fibre
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Singlemode Optical Fibre
Cladding
Small Core
N
1
N
2
Small Core
Diameter
Cladding
Diameter
Core
Cladding
0
Refractive index
profile
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Refractive Index Profiles
for SM Fibres
Multimode step index
Multimode graded index
Conventional singlemode fibre
(so called matched cladding)
Depressed cladding singlemode fibre
(less susceptible to bend loss)
Triangular profile singlemode fibre
(used in dispersion shifted fibre)
Up-and-down profile singlemode fibre
(used in dispersion flattened fibre)
also called multicladding fibre
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Normalised Frequency for SM
Fibres
Singlemode fibre exhibits a very large bandwidth and has thus become
the fibre of choice in most high speed communications systems.
Singlemode operation is best considered with the aid of the fibre normalised
frequency V:
Single mode operation takes place where V is less than the so-called cutoff
value of Vc = 2.405.
The single mode is the lowest order mode that the waveguide will support,
referred to as the HE11 mode. This mode cuts off at V=0.
As will be explained practical V values are normally between about 2 to 2.4
Singlemode operation is achieved by altering the fibre radius, NA or the
wavelength in use so that V lies in the range above.

V =
2
a . NA
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Energy Distribution in a
Singlemode Fibre
The amplitude distribution of the optical energy in a singlemode fibre mode is not uniform,
nor is it confined only to the core
In multimode fibres if we assume a mode model instead of ray diagram approach then some
small percentage of the energy is contained within the cladding close to the core, but typically
< 1% so the ray model is still a valid view
Ray diagram model does not work for singlemode fibre
Source: Master 2_1
Multimode energy
distribution is
confined to the core
Singlemode energy distribution
peaks in the centre of the core
(Darker shading = higher energy)
Cladding
Core
Cladding
Core
> 50 m
7-9 m
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Mode Field Diameter and Spot
Size (I)
Mode field diameter (MFD) is an important property of SM fibres.
The amplitude distribution of the HE11 mode in the transverse plane is not
uniform, but is approximately gaussian in shape, as shown below
Fibre centre
The spot size is the mode field radius
w. Its value relative to core radius is
given by the expression:
w
a
= 0.65 + 1.619V + 2.879V
- 3/2 - 6
The MFD is defined as the width of the
amplitude distribution at a level 1/e
(37%) from the peak or for power
13.5%from the peak
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Mode Field Diameter and Spot
Size (II)
As the V value approaches 2.4 the spot
size approaches the fibre radius.
For V < 2 the spot size is significantly
larger than the core size.
For V < 2 the beam is partially
contained within the cladding and loss
increases
For this reason V should be between
about 2 and 2.4
MFD or spot size is frequently
specified as well as core radius or
diameter for the fibre
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
V value
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
w/a
Normalised spot size as a
function of the fibre V value
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Cutoff Wavelength
a NA
c
=
2
V
c
Singlemode operation only takes place above a theoretical cutoff wavelength

c
where V < V
c
= 2.405
In practice the theoretical cutoff wavelength is difficult to measure. An alternative
is EIA (Electronics Industry Association of America) cutoff wavelength, which
states that the cutoff wavelength is:
The wavelength at which the power in the
HE21mode is 0.1 dB of the power in the HE11
(fundamental mode)
The EIA cutoff wavelength can be 100 nm less than the theoretical cutoff
wavelength
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz

Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
SM Fibre Summary and Problem
Core size is a useful parameter for multimode fibres, but is not so useful for
SM fibres.
Telecommunications systems are normally designed to work close to the
cutoff wavelength for good power confinement (small spot size), but not close
enough to cutoff so that significant power is carried in higher modes.
Exercise
A singlemode fibre has a core refractive index of 1.465 and a cladding refractive index of
1.46. What is the maximum core size if the fibre is to support only one mode at 1300 nm?
Answer: core radius 4.11 microns, 8.23 microns core diameter.
If the wavelength is increased to 1550 nm what is the new fibre V value, the spot size and
the MFD?
Answer: V = 2.02, Spot size 5.18 microns, MFD 10.4 microns
Source: Master 2_1
18/03/02 1.3 Propagation in Fibre.prz