Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which food is broken down by the body's cells to
produce energy, in the form of ATP molecules. In plants, some of this ATP energy is
used during photosynthesis to produce sugar. These sugars are in turn broken down
during cellular respiration, continuing the cycle.

There are three main stages of cellular respiration: 1) glycolysis, 2) Krebs Cycle, and 3)
the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

Cellular Respiration Overview:

Cellular respiration is carried out by every cell in both plants and animals and is
essential for daily living. It does not occur at any set time, and, at the same point in time,
Neighboring cells may be involved in different stages of cellular respiration. Cellular
respiration is an exergonic reaction, which means it produces energy. It is also a
catabolic process - it breaks down polymers into smaller, more manageable pieces. The
ultimate goal of cellular respiration is to take carbohydrates, disassemble them into
glucose molecules, and then use this glucose to produce energy-rich ATP molecules.
The general equation for cellular respiration is: one glucose molecule plus six oxygen
molecules produces six carbon dioxide molecules, six water molecules, and
approximately 36-38 molecules of ATP.

(Please Note: The three steps of cellular respiration have been summarized below. The
description does not include all of the sub-steps involved. Unless you are planning to
major in a biology field, no high school or college course will require you to memorize
each individual step in these three processes. They are looking only for a general
knowledge of the process as a whole and its major component steps)

Glycolysis:

Glycolysis involves the breaking down of glucose molecules from carbohydrates into
molecules of pyruvate, which will continue on to the Krebs Cycle. This process occurs in
the cytosol of the cell and can proceed regardless of the presence of oxygen. In the first
stage of glycolysis, energy is actually used to phosphorylate the 6-carbon glucose
molecule. This means that a phosphate is taken from ATP (which becomes ADP) and
added to the glucose molecule. This addition of phosphate makes the molecule much
more chemically reactive. The position of the glucose molecule is changed, so that it
becomes its isomer, fructose. An enzyme then cuts the molecule apart, producing two
3-carbon molecules of pyruvate. Through several more steps, catalyzed by several
different enzymes, the phosphate groups are removed and these pyruvate molecules
are ready to enter the Krebs Cycle. The reactions of glycolysis produces a net gain of 2
ATP molecules, as well as a release of 2 water molecules and 2 NADH molecules
(these are another type of energy-rich molecule)

The Krebs Cycle:

As pyruvate is being shuttled from the cytosol to the interior of the mitochondrion, a
microenzyme removes one carbon and two oxygens from each molecule, producing
Aceytl CoA. This two-carbon sugar that actually enters the Krebs Cycle. The Krebs
Cycle is a series of steps, catalyzed by enzymes, which completely oxidize the Aceytl
CoA molecule. The Krebs Cycle is an aerobic process, meaning it needs oxygen to
function. Two complete turns of the Krebs Cycle must occur to produce: 4 carbon
dioxide molecules, 6 NADH molecules, 2 ATP molecules and 2 FADH2 molecules (yet
another energy-yielding molecule).

The Electron Transport Chain:

Very little energy has been produced during glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle. Most of the
energy locked in the original glucose molecule will be released by the electron transport
chain and oxidative phosphorylation. The electron transport chain is a network of
electron-carrying proteins located in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. These
proteins transfer electrons from one to another, down the chain, much in the way a
bucket brigade passes buckets of water. These electrons will eventually be added,
along with protons, to oxygen, which is the final electron acceptor. This produces
water, but does not produce any ATP. The ATP is actually produced by a proton motive
force. This force is a store of potential energy created by the gradient formed when
hydrogens (protons) are moved across a biological membrane. Therefore, the electron
transport chain merely produces a gradient through which ATP can be made (this is
known as chemiosmosis). The electron transport chain produces the remaining 32-34
ATP.

Fermentation - an Alternative to Cellular Respiration:

While some steps do not require oxygen, cellular respiration, as a whole, can only take
place when oxygen is present. For organisms living in anaerobic conditions, complete
cellular respiration is not possible. For these organisms, glycolysis is the first and last
step of the cellular respiration process. Glycolysis proceeds normally, as in aerobic
conditions, producing a net gain of 2 ATP. The two pyruvate molecules, however, are
reduced and the NAD necessary for the initiation of glycolysis is recycled. In this way,
the cells do not deplete their store of NAD, although they are only able to produce 2
ATP. As a by-product of fermentation, either ethanol or lactic acid is produced.

Cellular respiration is an almost universal process by which organisms utilize the sugars
in their food to produce enough energy to perform all the necessary actions of living
creatures.