Bored Tunnels Design and Construction: WEN Dazhi

BORED TUNNELS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
WEN Dazhi, BSc, PhD

MICE, CEng, MIEAust, CPEng, PE, PE(Geo), AC(Geo)
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Lecture 1 Lecture 2
: Segmental Tunnel Lining Design : Settlement due to Bored Tunnelling in Soil
Lecture 3 Lecture 4
: Building Assessment : Tunnel Face Pressure
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Tunnel Face Pressure Control TBM Selection Planning Face Pressure Clay Planning Face Pressure Sand Maximum Face Pressure Method Statements for Tunnelling Works
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TUNNEL FACE PRESSURE CONTROL
A critical parameter in driving EPB

or slurry TBMs through soft ground
Inadequate face pressure or inability

to control face pressure will cause excessive ground movement or collapse of tunnel face
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Exceptional Settlement / Sinkholes High Risk Areas (Lecture 2) Results of inadequate or inability to control face pressure
Launching the shield - particularly into cohesionless soils below the water table Breaking out into shafts or excavations Interfaces between strong, stable soils and weak soils (Kallang Formation) Mixed faces of rock and soil (including soil grades of weathered rock) Head access for maintenance Long drives in abrasive ground
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For EPB TBMs, tunnel face pressure is maintained by a combination of
propulsion thrust and removal of spoil at the right rate to match the rate of advance. Spoil in the chamber and in the screw flights must form an effective plug to ensure no loss of pressure Foams / soil conditioning agents are often used to condition the spoil
Soil conditioning needs of EPBM in different ground types (EFNARC, 2005)

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EPBM
Increase / Lowering of Shield Advance Rate Increase / Lowering of Screw Discharge Rate
Water
Earth
Pressure
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EPBM
Ideally spoils in the excavation chamber should have
the following properties: Good plastic ductility and pasty to soft consistency: to ensure that the support pressure acts on the face as uniformly as possible and the flow into the screw conveyor is continuous Low internal friction to ensure the drive torque of the cutting wheel and the screw conveyor remains within economic limits Low permeability to maintain face pressure to prevent over excavation
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No plug, material saturated and flowing
EPBM
Plastic nature allowing plug and control
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EPBM
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Slurry Shields
For slurry TBMs, tunnel face pressure is maintained
by controlling the volume difference of the bentonite suspension supplied to the chamber and the suspension combined with excavated material removed from it or by the provision of a compressed air reservoir or bubble. The primary function of the slurry is to stabilise the face. It is also required to suspend and transport the cuttings, to lubricate and cool the cutter head and to reduce abrasive wear of the cutting tools. Formation of filter cake (membrane) is critical in maintaining the face pressure.
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Slurry Shields
Slurry IN
Slurry & Spoil OUT
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Slurry Shields
4
1. Submerged Wall 2. Excavation chamber
1 3 2
3. Regulation Chamber 4. Air Cushion 5. Pressure Bulkhead
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Slurry Shields
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Slurry Shields Membrane Model
Membrane Model
slurry
soil
Filter cake formed Maidl, et al (2012)

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If the permeability of the ground is relatively low (fine or medium sands) and the bentonite content is sufficient the suspension will enter the ground under the differential pressure and seal the tunnel face with the solid matter particles contained in it, thus creating a thin but impermeable film (filter cake) through which the support pressure can be applied. This process takes place in a short time of 1 to 2 seconds.
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Slurry Shields Filter Cake
loose bedding Bentonite concentration: 40 kg/m3 medium dense bedding Bentonite concentration: 50 kg/m3 loose bedding Bentonite concentration: 60 kg/m3
Thickness of filter cake

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Slurry Shields Penetration Model
Penetration Model
In coarse-grained more permeable ground, a filter cake cannot always be formed, even with a high bentonite content. The bentonite suspension penetrates into the face and, due to its thixotropic properties, transfers shear forces into the grain skeleton.
slurry
soil
Pure penetration Maidl, et al (2012) 17
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The penetration distance smax can be calculated from
smax = p d10 2 f
where p is the pressure difference between supporting fluid and the ground water; d10 is diameter corresponding to 10% passing or finer in sieve analysis and f is the yield strength of the slurry
The extent of slurry penetration does not depend on the complete particle size distribution; but rather is governed by the finer particle fraction.
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The greater the penetration the lower the factor of safety Below a d10 of about 0.6mm treat as membrane Above a d10 of about 0.6mm, slurry penetrates into ground and factor of safety reduces
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Slurry Shields Slurry Treatment Plant
Slurry shields require slurry
treatment plants to separate excavated materials, prepare and control the quality of slurry before feeding into the TBM Space will be required for the plants something not required for EPB tunnelling
Shaker or vibrating screens - to separate coarse particles (grain size > 3

to 6mm) Desander & desilter one or more stages of cyclones to separate sands and silts (Single stage medium sand, 70 to 150 m; 2-stage plants coarse silt, 35 m) Centrifuge or press filters to separate clay / silt particles
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Slurry Shields Slurry Treatment Plant
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TBM SELECTION
EPB / Slurry Range
Clay Fine Silt Medium Coarse Fine Sieve Size Sand Medium Coarse Fine Gravel Medium Coarse
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0,001 0,002
0,006
0,02
0,06
0,2
0,6
2,0
6,0
20.0
60,0
EPB Methods
Slurry Methods
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TBM SELECTION
EPB Slurry
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TBM SELECTION
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TBM SELECTION
100 90 80 P ercent age P assin g (%) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 Particle size (mm) 1 10 100
GRADATION FOR F1 SANDS AT RACE COURSE ROAD

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TBM SELECTION
Kallang Formation, Old Alluvium, Residual soils (Weathering Grade VI) or completed weathered rocks (weathering grade V): EPBM Tunnelling through mixed face of rock and soil, in particular in Bukit Timah Granite Formation: Slurry TBM
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PLANNING OF FACE PRESSURE - CLAY
For tunnelling in clays, face

pressure is related to Stability Number
There is a relationship between face

pressure and ground settlement
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Stability Number, N
Overburden Pressure Tunnel Support Pressure N= Undrained Shear Strength
Surcharge q
(zO + q t) N= cu
C zo D t P
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Stability Number at Collapse, Nc
o = zo = (6 to 8)cu cu Failure surface
N = o / cu < 6
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Stability Number at Collapse, Nc
For deep tunnels (C/D > 3), Nc = 9 when P/D = 0
9.0 8.6
Heading Geometry and Depth vs. Stability Number at Collapse, Nc
2.5
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Load Factor
Stability Number (Working Condition) Stability Number at Collapse
Load Factor =
LF = N/NC LF is the inverse of the factor of safety
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Load Factor vs. Volume Loss
0.49 0.42
Load Factor =
1 F
N (Working Condition) N (At Collapse)
Load Factor = 0.67 (F = 1.5) at Volume Loss = 4%
1.5
CIRIA Report 30, March 1996

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Load Factor vs Volume Loss Vl = 0.23e 4.4(LF) For LF>0.2 Vl in percentage
LF = 0.49, Vl = 0.23 * e (4.4*0.49) = 1.98 (approx. 2%)
Dimmock & Mair (2007) NUS CE5104 DWen L4
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Example
Tunnel D = 6m @ 20m below ground, C =

17m, driven by EPBM, P = 0 cu = 50 kPa, q = 10 kPa, = 18 kN/m3 P/D = 0, C/D = 2.83, Nc = 9 from Chart
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Example
cu density surcharge depth Nc overburden 50 18 10 20 9 370 kN/m^2 kPa kN/m^3 kPa m
Face Pressure (% of overburden) Face Pressure N 1/F Volume Loss (%)
10% 37 6.66 0.74 6.0
20% 74 5.92 0.66 4.0
30% 111 5.18 0.58 3.0
40% 148 4.44 0.49 2.0
50% 185 3.70 0.41 1.3
60% 222 2.96 0.33 1.0
70% 259 2.22 0.25 0.5
80% 296 1.48 0.16 0.2
90% 333 0.74 0.08 0.1
100% 370 0.00 0.00 0
Volume loss due to stress change

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Need to carry out an Ultimate Limit State (ULS) calculation. ULS is instability leading to major loss of ground or collapse at the tunnel face. ULS calculation requires a partial factor of safety applied to cu: divide cu by 1.5; then calculate face pressure for LF of 1. Tunnelling in urban environment requires stringent settlement control. It is necessary to carry out a Serviceability Limit State (SLS) calculation. First, assess Load Factor to achieve the allowable settlement, then calculate face pressure to achieve that LF, using partial factor of safety of 1. To control Volume Loss to less than 2%, load factor should not be greater than of 0.4 (corresponding F = 2.5). In settlement sensitive areas, need to apply face pressure close to full overburden pressure (LF = 0 to 0.25)
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The calculated pressure is the average pressure at the tunnel face, which can be taken as the pressure at the axis level. The target pressure at sensor 1 is:
P1 = t (zo zs1)* + v
Pressure
v v
Target Pressure
v v
where v is the max variation of face pressure due to control accuracy (+/20 kPa or 0.2 bar) and is the unit weight of the spoil in the chamber
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Time NUS CE5104 DWen L4
Example of poor control of face pressure for a EPB shield
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PLANNING OF FACE PRESSURE CLAY

Heading Geometry
Over cut (typically 10mm)
P = 0 or P = Length of shield, L
zo
C D t P
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Heading Geometry Cut diameter is bigger than the shield skin Until the overcut gap closes, the area around the shield is unsupported Once the over-cut closes, the ground is supported on the shield skin For EPB shields the face pressure is not transmitted around the skin but bentonite can be injected around skin using special ports For slurry shields the slurry pressure is transmitted around the skin
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Heading Geometry
Ports for bentonite injection (16 No total)
After Shirlaw, J. N. NUS CE5104 DWen L4
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Loss at Tail Void With good grouting typically about 15% to 20% of theoretical volume of the tail void will close in soft or loose soils Figure may reduce with improved technology and construction control
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PLANNING OF FACE PRESSURE - SAND

Assumed failure surface
for tunnels in sand, based on limit equilibrium methods developed by Anagnostu and Kovari (1996)
Anagnostou and Kovari (1996)

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For fully saturated, homogeneous and isotropic sands under drained condition, the effective pressure required to maintain equilibrium of the tunnel face is: = F0D F1c +F2Dh F3c Dh/D = Effective pressure required to maintain equilibrium of tunnel face; = Submerged unit weight of soil; D = Diameter of tunnel; c = Drained cohesion of soil; Dh = Water head difference between the ground water table level, h0 and the piezometric head in the excavation chamber, hf ; F0, F1, F2 & F3 Dimensionless coefficients that depend on the drained friction angle, and geometrical parameter, H/D and (h0-D)/D; and H = Overburden to crown of tunnel.
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If the piezometric head in the excavation chamber is maintained to balance the water pressure due to the ground water, i.e. Dh = 0 (membrane model), then the minimum face pressure, at the tunnel crown that is required to prevent a face collapse (maintaining equilibrium) can be calculated : = F0D F1c + P where P is the water pressure at the crown of tunnel based on the original ground water level.
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Anagnostou, G. and Kovari, K. (1996).

Chart based assumption of d / = 1.6. Since d / = Gs/(Gs 1), the assumption is that Gs = 2.67, which is reasonable within practical limits.
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Anagnostou, G. and Kovari, K. (1996).

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PLANNING OF FACE PRESSURE SAND

Water Pressure
For EPBM: Unless the sand has significant

cementation, additives have to be used to reduce the permeability of the sand, such that the piezometric head at crown is close to that based on the original ground water level.
For slurry TBM: The process of TBM tunnelling

increases the groundwater pressure in the face, and the initial water pressure has to be increased to compensate for this
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Water Pressure
Documented results from slurry shield tunnelling show an increase of up to 50kPa (5m head) of pressure just ahead of the face Effects on stability are both adverse (increased water pressure) and beneficial (outward seepage from face) Net effect shown to be equivalent to an increase of water pressure of 20 to 30 kPa in sand. This effect should be added to the initial piezometric pressure in deriving P in = F0D F1c + P
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Need to carry out an Ultimate Limit State (ULS) calculation Partial factors: divide by tan by 1.2, c by 1.2 (but c often taken as 0). Factoring tan affects FO and F1 Water pressure: use the most onerous (highest) likely pressure. Need to allow for the tunnelling effect on the water pressure. Need to consider the change of water pressure when tunnelling through changes in ground level. If settlement is an issue, need to carry out a Serviceability Limit State (SLS) calculation. Use partial factors of 1 for SLS calculation
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Limit equilibrium methods give pressure required to avoid failure, not to control settlement. Need higher pressure to control settlement. Limited theoretical basis: To target 1% Volume Loss = FD + P where: F = 0.25 for Dense Sand (SPT >30) F = 0.4 for Medium Sand (SPT 10-30) F = 0.55 for Loose Sand (SPT <10)
HK GEO Report No. 249 Ground Control for Slurry TBM Tunnelling . Dec 2009. NUS CE5104 DWen L4
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Pressure at Control Sensor
The pressure at the control sensor required to achieve the target pressure at the crown
(S1) = FOD F1c+ w(C-Zw) + SL(ZS1-C) + v

Where SL is the unit weight of the slurry and C is the cover to tunnel crown (expressed as H in Anagnostou and Kovari Chart)
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Tunnel excavated diameter: 6 m Depth of tunnel to tunnel crown: 15 m Water table: 2 m below ground level c = 5 kPa (factored c = 4.27) = 32o (factored = 27.5o ) (unit weight of soil) = 20 kN/m3 F0 = 0.3, F1 = 2.5 = 0.3 x 10 x 6 2.5 x 4.17 + (130+20) = 158 kPa (ULS at tunnel crown)
2m 15m
D = 6m
= FD + P (where F = 0.4 for medium sands) = 0.4 x 10 x 6 + (130+20) = 174 kPa (SLS at tunnel crown for 1% volume loss) Target pressure at crown, considering a variation of 20 kPa: 194 kPa, or 2 bars.
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MAXIMUM FACE PRESSURE

To avoid excessive ground heave, need to
define maximum face pressure Two cases: If undisturbed ground, pressure required to heave the ground = Total overburden pressure + a factor based on shear strength of ground If there is an old borehole or other open zone, slurry can escape to surface (Slurry Shields)
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Practically if the pressure is kept at or below the
total vertical overburden pressure, there should be no risk of excessive heave or loss of slurry to the surface in intact ground. In special cases, such as relatively shallow tunnels it may be found that the maximum design face pressure exceeds the overburden pressure. In this case a more detailed calculation can be carried out, allowing the resistance provided by the shear strength of the ground.
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If there is an old borehole or other open zone, slurry can escape to surface under a pressure of slZS1 , where sl is the unit weight of the slurry (typically 1.1 t/m3 for slurry shields and ZS1 is the depth of the reference sensor. Identify as far as practicable any likely open paths and grout them in advance of tunnelling Maintain continuous surface watch during slurry TBM tunnelling and implement control measures if a loss of slurry is observed
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FACE PRESSURES
Kallang Formation
In Kallang Formation maintain between 0.9 and 1.2 x total overburden for <2% Volume Loss Need to apply this pressure when cover to Kallang formation is less than about 3m careful consideration needed in build-up of pressure entering Kallang filled valleys, also in reducing pressure when leaving such valleys
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FACE PRESSURES
Stiff / Hard Soils
The Fort Canning Boulder Bed and the

residual soil of Bukit Timah Granite Formation and Jurong Formation can generally be tunnelled without a face pressure, but some face pressure will be necessary to minimise settlements, particularly in the lower strength (low SPT) residual soils.
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FACE PRESSURES
Variable Strata
Bukit Timah Granite Formation, Jurong Formation and Old Alluvium contain zones, beds or lenses of material which act like a sand. In these areas a face pressure of about one half of overburden pressure is required for stability. The strata are variable and it can be difficult to identify these conditions in advance, so it is necessary to tunnel on the assumption the conditions are the most adverse.
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FACE PRESSURES
Variable Strata Face pressure needed to control the ground is almost identical to that which would allow slurry to escape up a disturbed zone / opening to the ground surface All known open piezometers and boreholes must be sealed by grouting A close watch on slurry escape and a contingency plan to contain escape now common in urban tunnelling
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EXCAVATION MANAGEMENT CONTROL

Establish net dry weight of soil removed and compare with theoretical dry weight Accuracy typically +/- 5 to 10% Not accurate enough to control SLS case, but gives warning of possible ULS (very large settlement or sinkhole) Face pressure is the primary control, EMC is a valuable back-up control
Flow meter
Belt weigher for EPB use two, for crosschecking Slurry TBM flow and density, in and out
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LASER BELT SCANNER FOR EPBM
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Method statements have to give assurance that tunnelling will be carried out in a way that minimises the risk to the structures / the public. The method statements must be fully detailed, cover the major areas of risk, and provide realistic contingency measures.
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Areas to be Covered
Ground interpretation, particularly identification of interfaces, ground behaviour Machine configuration Lining method Face stability (pressure and volume control) Additives Grouting - mixes, pressure and volume control Break-in (launch)
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Areas to be Covered
Break-out (docking) Head access Maintenance Personnel Site organisation and levels of authority Monitoring - layout and review levels Risk Assessment Contingency planning
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Ground Interpretation
Enough information is required to make a sensible interpretation. It is easy to miss a valley of soft ground or an area of rock if the boreholes are widely spaced. Rock/soil interfaces do not work in simple straight lines Permeability is the key to soil behaviour during tunnelling. There is no correlation between SPT and permeability Depending on the face pressure to be used, may need to be supplemented by probing
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Machine Configuration
A section through the actual machine to be used Show the key features - head configuration (cutting tool type and locations, openings), pressure monitoring locations, conditioning ports, screw conveyor or slurry transport arrangement, manlocks, probing arrangements and possible locations, tail seals, grouting ports.
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Lining Type
The type of lining to be used i.e. segmental, sprayed concrete, pipe. A GA for the lining showing jointing systems and grout ports.
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Face Stability
A detailed plan for the face pressures to be used, justified by calculation and previous experience. The plan must be for the whole drive, and prepared prior to starting tunnelling A procedure for changing the target face pressure from that planned. Method(s) for measuring the volume of material removed Procedure for identifying over-excavation during advance, after taking into account the volume of conditioner used
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Conditioning Agent Types of conditioning agents to be used Typical mixes for conditioning agents proposed
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Grouting of Lining
How the lining is to be grouted, and when in the tunnelling process Grout mixes to be used Pressure AND volume controls (Min. Volume, Min. Pressure, Max. Pressure)
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METHOD STATEMENTS
TBM Break-in / Launching Requirements for ground treatment and/or probing in the launching area Sequence of ground treatment/probing/tunnel eye removal Details of seal to be used at eye Procedure for Break-in, particularly when the annulus around the lining can be grouted
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METHOD STATEMENTS
TBM Break-out / Docking Requirements for ground treatment and/or probing in the break-out area Sequence of ground treatment/probing/tunnel eye removal Details of seal to be used at eye Procedure for Break-out, particularly when the annulus around the lining can be grouted
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Head Access If compressed air is to be used for head access, the planned air pressure if an intervention is required, for the whole drive If compressed air is not proposed, how the stability of the ground will be verified prior to head access Procedure for head access
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Maintenance
Statement as to how often the cutting tools, main bulkhead, screw conveyor/slurry pipes and tail seals will be checked for wear.
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Personnel / Organisation Chart
Organisation chart - Identify key personnel (Project Manager, QP, engineers, machine operators) Give CVs for each of the key personnel If the QP is providing representative(s) to supervise the work, name(s) and CV(s) of the representative(s) Identify what levels of authority each key person has to vary the operating parameters and implement contingency measures.
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Monitoring Provide location map for monitoring instruments. Tip levels for piezometers, inclinometers, extensometers Reading frequency Review levels, and actions on exceedance
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Risk Assessment
A statement that the use of an EPB or slurry shield, with experienced operator and pressure controls results in negligible risk of damage will NOT be accepted The risk assessment needs to consider, separately, all of the high risk areas identified previously, as well as general tunnelling in each of the ground conditions present
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METHOD STATEMENTS
Contingency Measures
Accept that there is a need for contingency planning in case a sudden loss of ground is detected Need contingency plans that ensure the safety of the public and minimise disruption to road users
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Tunnel Face Pressure Control TBM Selection Planning Face Pressure Clay Planning Face Pressure Sand Maximum Face Pressure Method Statements for Tunnelling Works
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Bored Tunnels Design and Construction: WEN Dazhi

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BORED TUNNELS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

WEN Dazhi, BSc, PhD

NUS CE5104 DWen L4