Nursing Care of Clients with Cancer

Oncology
Is the study of cancer.
Oncologists
Specialize in caring for patients with cancer.
Oncology Nurse
Have special skills in assisting the clients and family with the psychosocial
issues with cancer and terminal illness.

CANCER
Is the disease of the body cell’s the microscopic units that proteins and
energy producing compounds the body needs to remain alive and healthy each
type of cell has a unique function and each grows in a particular place and at a
particular rate.
For various reasons (some known, others not) certain cells become
cancerous, that is they suddenly abandon their normal growth pattern and begin to
reproduce uncontrollably.

RISK FACTORS

1) Heredity
Family cancer syndrome
2) Age – 70% over age 65
FIVE CYCLES OF GENETIC MUTATION seem necessary to cause
permanent damage to the afflicted agents.
 Long term exposure to high doses of promotional agents.
 Immune response alters with aging.
 Hormonal changes.
 Free radicals (moleculed resulting from body’s metabolic and oxidative
damage and mutation). Tend to accumulate in the cells overtime,
causing damage and mutation.
 Severe/cumulative losses – ex-spouse, loved ones, stress – changes in
immune system.
3) Gender
Thyroid cancer – women
Bladder cancer – men
4) Poverty
 Inadequate access to health care; preventive screening, counseling
 Diet, stress
5) Stress
  Continuous production of hormones- epinephrine results in systemic
fatigue and impaired immunologic surveillance.

6) Diet
 Preservative, coffee
 Increase fat, decrease fiber
 Excessively fried, boiled meat, fish
 Reaction using fat to fry food
7) Occupation
 Outdoor workers – solar radiation
 X-ray tech – ionizing radiation
 Asbestos
 Wood, leather dust – woodworkers
 Chemotherapy drugs
8) Infection
 Viruses – prevention
9) Tobacco Use
 Oropharyngeal, esophageal, laryngeal, gastric pancreatic and bladder
cancer.
 Second hand tobacco source
10)Alcohol Use
 Modifying the metabolism of carcinogens in the liver and esophagus,
thus increase the effectiveness of carcinogens in some tissues.
11)Recreational Drug Use
 Drug users – decrease nutrition
- Chromosomal damage
12)Obesity
 Excessive amount of hormones
13)Sun Exposure

MATURE NORMAL CELLS

 Are uniform in size

 With in the nucleus chromosomes contain DNA and polypeptides
(proteins).
 Genes are subunit of chromosomes and consists of portion of DNA.
 The genetic code in the DNA of gene is translated into protein structure.
FUNCTIONS OF DNA

 Orders production of enzymes.

 Instruct cells to produce specific chemicals.
 Instruct cells to develop specific structures.
 Determine individual traits and characteristics.
 Controls other DNA by telling a cell to “switch on” and use some portion of
the genetic information stored in it.

DIFFERENTIATION

 Is a normal process occurring over many cell cycles that allows cell to
specialize in certain tasks.

UNPRODUCTIVE CELLULAR ALTERATIONS OCCURING DURING CELL

DIFFERENTIATION

1) Hyperplasia

 Increase in no. or density or normal cells. Increase level of hormones.

 Occurs in responsive stress; Increase metabolic demands.

2) Metaplasia

 Change in the normal pattern of differentiation such that dividing cells

differentiate into cell types not normally found in that location in the
body.
 Protective response to adverse reaction.

3) Dysplasia
 Represents a loss of DNA control over differentiation occurring in
response to adverse reactions.

4) Anaplasia
 Regression of a cell to an immature or undifferentiated cell type.

TYPES OF NEOPLASMS
NEOPLASM
 Is a mass of new tissue that grows independently of its surrounding
structures and has no physiologic purposes.
 They are said to be autonomous.
 They grow at a rate uncoordinated with the needs of the body.
 They function independently.
 They store some of the properties of the parent cells but with altered
size and shape.
 They do not benefit the host and in some cases are actively harmful.
 They are classified as BENIGN OR MALIGNANT.
1) BENIGN NEOPLASM
 Localized in growth.
 Form a solid mass, have well defined boarders encapsulated.
 Respond to body’s Homeostatic control.
 Often stop growing when they reach the boundaries of another tissue.

 Grow slowly all often remain stable in size.

 Easily removed and not to recur.
 Can be constructing if they crowd surrounding tissue and obstruct the
function of organs.

2) MALIGNANT NEOPLASM
 Grow aggressively and don’t respond to body’s homeostatic control.
 Irregular in shape.
 They cut through surrounding tissues causing bleeding, inflammation
and necrosis.
 Travel through blood stream.
 Can occur after surgical intervention.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MALIGNANT CELLS

1) Loss of regulation of mitotic rate.

2) Loss of cell specialization.
3) Loss of contact inhibition.
4) Progressive acquisition of the cancerous phenotype and immortality.
5) Irreversability of cancerous phenotype to greater aggressiveness.
6) Altered cell structure.
7) Simplified metabolic activity.
8) Transplantability ( metastasis)
 9) Ability to promote own survival.

TUMOR INVASION AND METASTASIS

INVASION

• Ability to cause pressure atrophy – malignancy moves to vacated space.

• Ability to distrupt the basement of normal cells – facilitates movement to
normal tissues.
• Motility – malignant cells are less tightly bound – they easily separate from
the neoplasm.
• Response to chemical signals from adjacent tissues – chemotaxis – the
movement of cells in response to chemical stimulus.

METASTASIS

 Occurs by means of one or more mechanisms including embolism in the

blood or spread by way of body cavities.

STEPS:

1) Invasion of malignant cells through blood.

2) Survival of malignant cells in the blood.
3) Extravasations from the circulation and implantation in the new tissue.

FACTORS THAT MAY WEAKEN OR ALTER THE IMMUNE RESPONSE

1) Accumulated stress
2) Depression
3) Increase Age
4) Pregnancy
5) Chronic Disease
6) Chemotherapy

PHYSIOLOGIC AND PSYCHOLOGIC/PSYCHOSOCIAL EFFECT OF CANCER

 1) Disruption of function (due to obst/pressure)
2) Hematologic alterations.
• Decrease WBC, Decrease RBC etc.
• Altered erythopoeisis
3) Infection
• Fistula between non compatible organs.
• Necrosis of tumor center.
• Malignant involvement of organ of immunity.
4) Hemorrhage
5) Anorexia
 Cadexia syndrome
• Hyperglycemia
• Catabolism of tissue and muscle proteins
• Altered taste and smell
6) Creation of ectopic sites of hormones.
7) Paraneoplastic Syndromes.
• Deep vein thrombosis
• Peripheral nerve problems
• Increase ICP
• Anorexia
8) Pain
• Acute
• Chronic

9) Physical Stress
• Increase general adaptation syndrome.
• Increase Immunologic activity.
• Increase in inflammatory response activity.
• Nutritional fluid and electrolytes alterations.
10)Psychological stress
• Grief
• Guilt
• Anger
• Hopelessness
• Fear
• Isolation

COLLABORATIVE CARE
  Begins with a variety of specializes laboratory diagnostic test once cancer is
diagnosis the initial focus is on medical treatment, the goals of treatment
are:
a) Eliminate the tumor or malignant cells
b) Prevent metastasis.
c) Reduce the cellular growth or the tumor burden.
d) Promote functional abilities, providing pain relief.

LABORATORY AND DIAGNOSTIC TEST

DIAGNOSIS – microscopic and histologic examination of the tissue reveals the

type of cell and its structural different from the prevent tissues.
a) Biopsy
b) Shedded cells
c) Collection of sputum
d) Level of enzyme

CLASSIFICATION OF CANCER
 Classified by tissues and cells involved blood cells in which it’s originated
most cancerous drive from epithelial tissues are called carcinomas.
a) Adenocarcinomas – glands
b) Sarcoma – connective tissues or muscles
c) Gliomas – brain and spinal tissues
d) Melanomas – pigmented cells
e) Myolomas – plasma cells
f) Lymphomas – lymphatic
g) Leukemia – white blood cells
h) Erythroleukemia – red blood cells

Classification
 To help characterized diagnosis and treatment protocoli an endocrine system
has been developed.
a) Naming the tumor
b) Describing its aggressiveness ( Grading)
c) Spread with in or beyond the tissue of origin ( Staging)

Grading
 Evaluates the amount of differentiation level of functional maturity of the cell
and estimates the rate or growth based on the mitotic rate.
• GRADE 1
  Cells are the most differentiated – least malignant with better
prognosis.
• GRADE 2
 Reserved from the least differentiated and most aggressively
malignant cells.

STAGING
Use to classify solid tumors and refers to the relative size of the tumor and the
extent of the disease

TNM STAGING AND CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

T – The extent of the primary tumor

N – The absence or presence and extent of regional lymph node metastasis.
M – The absence or presence of distant metastasis.
The use of numerical subsets of the TNM components indicates the
progressive extent of the malignant disease.

PRIMARY TUMOR (T)

Tx – Primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0 – No evidence of primary tumor
Tis – Carcinoma in situ
T1, T2, T3, T4 – Increasing size and local extent of the primary tumor.

REGIONAL LYMPH NODES (N)

Nx – Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessed
N0 – No regional lymph node metastasis
N1, N2, N3 – Increasing involvement of regional lymph nodes.

DISTANT METASTASIS (M)

Mx – Distant metastasis cannot be assessed
M0 – No distant metastasis
M1 – Distant metastasis

PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT
1) Nutritional Status; basing on height, weight
2) Evaluate laboratory results
3) Note Signs and Symptoms
4) Assess level of hydration status
  Input and Output
 Skin turgor and moisture
 Vital Sign
 Tongue
 Eyeballs
 Sounds of murmurs
 Laboratory values

Manifestation of Cancer
1) Hair loss
2) Depression
3) Fever
4) Bleeding gums
5) Anorexia
6) Nausea and vomiting
7) Diarrhea
8) Hypotension
9) Odor of decay
10) Etc.

NURSING GOAL

1) Support the patient in managing, pain, nutrition, dehydration, fatigue etc.

2) Improve quality of life by promoting rehabilitation for survivals of cancer.
3) Maintain the dignity.

POSSIBLE DIAGNOSIS

1) ANXIETY
• Assess level of anxiety
• Establish therapeutic relationship
• Encourage to express feelings (develop rapport)
• Improve specific information
• Provide Safe environment
• Crisis Intervention (expect for the worse)

2) DISTURBED BODY IMAGE

 • Discuss the meaning of the loss and change
• Observe and evaluate the interaction with the relatives.
• Allow denial but do not participate in the denial. ( do not argue, or do
not favor)
• Assist the client ( significant others to cope with the changes in
appearance)
• Teach way to reduce the alopecia enhance the appearance until the
hair grows back.
• Teach the client to participate to the care of afflicted body area.

3) ANTICIPATORY GRIEVING
• Use therapeutic communication skills with provide an open
environment for the client or significant others to discuss their feelings
realistically.
• Answer question about illness and prognosis honesty but always
encourage hope.
• Encourage the dying client to make funeral, burial plans ahead of time,
be sure that the will is in order.
• Encourage client to continue taking past in activity he enjoys including
maintaining employment as long as possible.

4) RISK FOR INFECTION

• Monitor Vital signs
• Monitor WBC
• Teach to avoid crowded places and practice personal hygiene.
• Protect skin and mucous membrane from injury.
• Encourage increase protein, vitamins, and vitamin C.

5) RISK FOR INJURY

• Assess for sign and symptoms of obstruction.
• Teach to differentiate minors to serious problem.
• Monitor laboratory results.

6) ENHANCED NUTRITION LESS THAN BODY REQUIREMENTS

• Assess current eating pattern.
• Teach the principles of good nutrition.
• Manage problem that interfere feeding
cold drinks
soft blend, soft liquid
• Teach to supplement meals with nutritional supplements
• Teach to make food diary.
• Parenteral Nutrition.
7) IMPAIRED SKIN TISSUE INTEGRITY
Oral, pharyngeal, esophageal, mucous membrane.
Signs and Symptoms
• Ulcers – tongue, mucous membrane in mouth, throat
• Lesides – ulcerations
• Fungal Infections
• Red swollen gums
• Xerostomia – excessive dryness – mucous membrane
Carefully assessment , evaluate the tissue impairment
Teach measured to prevent infection.