Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Coal is one of the world’s most important We hope that we will answer any questions you
sources of energy, fuelling almost 40% of may have about the coal industry but if you would
electricity worldwide. In many countries this like further information, a number of other World
figure is much higher: Poland relies on coal for Coal Institute (WCI) publications may be helpful.
over 94% of its electricity; South Africa for
92%; China for 77%; and Australia for 76%. >> The Role of Coal as an Energy Source (2003)
Coal has been the world’s fastest growing energy describes the role that coal plays in our world
source in recent years – faster than gas, oil, today and examines this role in the context of
nuclear, hydro and renewables. wider issues, such as increasing energy
demand, energy security and environmental
Coal has played this important role for centuries challenges.
– not only providing electricity, but also an
essential fuel for steel and cement production, >> Clean Coal – Building a Future through
and other industrial activities. Technology (2004) discusses how the
environmental challenges facing coal –
The Coal Resource provides a comprehensive specifically the use of coal – can be overcome
overview of coal and the role it plays in our lives. through the development and use of clean coal
It covers how coal is formed, how it is mined, technologies.
through to its use and the impact it has on our
societies and natural environment. It describes >> In 2001 the World Coal Institute published
coal’s important role as an energy source and Sustainable Entrepreneurship, the Way
how coal – along with other sources of energy – Forward for the Coal Industry – in
will be vital in meeting the world’s rapidly conjunction with the United Nations
growing energy needs. Environment Programme (UNEP) – looking
at coal within the wider context of
sustainable development.
Contents
42 FURTHER READING
2 World Coal Institute
SECTION ONE
WHAT IS COAL?
The build-up of silt and other sediments, maturity and transforming it into the range
together with movements in the earth’s crust known as ‘sub-bituminous’ coals.
Peat (known as tectonic movements) buried these
swamps and peat bogs, often to great depths. Further chemical and physical changes occur
With burial, the plant material was subjected until these coals became harder and blacker,
to high temperatures and pressures. This forming the ‘bituminous’ or ‘hard coals’. Under
Brown Coal
caused physical and chemical changes in the the right conditions, the progressive increase
vegetation, transforming it into peat and then in the organic maturity can continue, finally
into coal. forming anthracite.
Sub-bituminous
Coal formation began during the Types of Coal
Carboniferous Period – known as the first The degree of change undergone by a coal as it
coal age – which spanned 360 million to 290 matures from peat to anthracite – known as
Bituminous
million years ago. coalification – has an important bearing on its
physical and chemical properties and is
Definition The quality of each coal deposit is determined referred to as the ‘rank’ of the coal.
Coal is a fossil fuel. It is a by temperature and pressure and by the length
combustible, sedimentary, of time in formation, which is referred to as its Low rank coals, such as lignite and sub-
organic rock, which is ‘organic maturity’. Initially the peat is converted bituminous coals are typically softer, friable
composed mainly of carbon,
into lignite or ‘brown coal’ – these are coal- materials with a dull, earthy appearance. They
hydrogen and oxygen. It is
formed from vegetation,
types with low organic maturity. In comparison are characterised by high moisture levels and
which has been consolidated to other coals, lignite is quite soft and its low carbon content, and therefore a low energy
between other rock strata colour can range from dark black to various content.
and altered by the combined shades of brown.
effects of pressure and heat
Higher rank coals are generally harder and
over millions of years to
Over many more millions of years, the stronger and often have a black, vitreous
form coal seams.
continuing effects of temperature and lustre. They contain more carbon, have lower
Photographs courtesy of the pressure produces further change in the moisture content, and produce more energy.
Australian Coal Association lignite, progressively increasing its organic Anthracite is at the top of the rank scale and
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 3
has a correspondingly higher carbon and Countries with the Largest Reserves of Coal, 2003 (billion tonnes)
energy content and a lower level of moisture Source: BP 2004
200
Where is Coal Found?
It has been estimated that there are over 984 150
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be found on every continent in over 70
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countries, with the biggest reserves in the
USA, Russia, China and India.
Reserves-to-production Ratios, 2003 (Years)
Source: BP 2004
Resource
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The amount of coal that may be present in a
deposit or coalfield. This does not take into 150
account the feasibility of mining the coal
100
economically. Not all resources are
recoverable using current technology. 50
Reserves
Reserves can be defined in terms of proved (or
measured) reserves and probable (or
indicated) reserves. Probable reserves have
been estimated with a lower degree of
confidence than proved reserves.
Proved Reserves
Reserves that are not only considered to be
recoverable but can also be recovered
economically. This means they take into
account what current mining technology can
achieve and the economics of recovery. Proved
reserves will therefore change according to
the price of coal; if the price of coal is low,
proved reserves will decrease.
Types of Coal
Thermal Metallurgical
Steam Coal Coking Coal
SECTION TWO
COAL MINING
The choice of mining method is largely careful planning to ensure favourable geology
determined by the geology of the coal deposit. exists throughout the section before
Underground mining currently accounts for development work begins. The coal ‘face’ can
about 60% of world coal production, although vary in length from 100-350m. Self-
in several important coal producing countries advancing, hydraulically-powered supports
surface mining is more common. Surface temporarily hold up the roof while coal is
mining accounts for around 80% of production extracted. When coal has been extracted from
in Australia, while in the USA it is used for the area, the roof is allowed to collapse. Over
about 67% of production. 75% of the coal in the deposit can be
extracted from panels of coal that can extend
Underground Mining 3km through the coal seam.
There are two main methods of underground
mining: room-and-pillar and longwall mining. The main advantage of room–and-pillar
mining over longwall mining is that it allows
In room-and-pillar mining, coal deposits are coal production to start much more quickly,
mined by cutting a network of ‘rooms’ into the using mobile machinery that costs under $5
coal seam and leaving behind ‘pillars’ of coal to million (longwall mining machinery can cost
support the roof of the mine. These pillars can $50 million).
be up to 40% of the total coal in the seam –
although this coal can sometimes be recovered The choice of mining technique is site specific
at a later stage. This can be achieved in what is but always based on economic considerations;
known as ‘retreat mining’, where coal is mined differences even within a single mine can lead
from the pillars as workers retreat. The roof is to both methods being used.
then allowed to collapse and the mine is
abandoned. Surface Mining
Surface mining – also known as opencast or
Longwall mining involves the full extraction of opencut mining – is only economic when the
coal from a section of the seam or ‘face’ using coal seam is near the surface. This method
mechanical shearers. A longwall face requires recovers a higher proportion of the coal
8 World Coal Institute
deposit than underground mining as all coal process, the coal is separated from other
seams are exploited – 90% or more of the coal impurities by being floated in a tank containing
can be recovered. Large opencast mines can a liquid of specific gravity, usually a
cover an area of many square kilometres and suspension of finely ground magnetite. As the
use very large pieces of equipment, including: coal is lighter, it floats and can be separated
draglines, which remove the overburden; power off, while heavier rock and other impurities
shovels; large trucks, which transport sink and are removed as waste.
overburden and coal; bucket wheel excavators;
and conveyors. The smaller size fractions are treated in a
number of ways, usually based on differences
Definition The overburden of soil and rock is first in mass, such as in centrifuges. A centrifuge is
Overburden is the layer of broken up by explosives; it is then removed a machine which turns a container around very
soil and rocks (strata) by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the quickly, causing solids and liquids inside it to
between the coal seams and coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured separate. Alternative methods use the
the surface.
and systematically mined in strips. The different surface properties of coal and waste.
coal is then loaded on to large trucks or In ‘froth flotation’, coal particles are removed in
conveyors for transport to either the a froth produced by blowing air into a water
coal preparation plant or direct to where bath containing chemical reagents. The
it will be used. bubbles attract the coal but not the waste
and are skimmed off to recover the coal
Coal Preparation fines. Recent technological developments
Coal straight from the ground, known as run- have helped increase the recovery of ultra
of-mine (ROM) coal, often contains unwanted fine coal material.
impurities such as rock and dirt and comes in a
mixture of different-sized fragments.
However, coal users need coal of a consistent
quality. Coal preparation – also known as coal
beneficiation or coal washing – refers to the
treatment of ROM coal to ensure a consistent
quality and to enhance its suitability for
particular end-uses.
Mine Surface
Facilities
Previously Mined
Mined Area Longwall Panel
Coal Shearer
and Roof Supports
Coal Conveyor
to Surface
Coal Seam
Coal Conveyor
Graded embankment Topsoil and subsoil Overburden from benches Overburden being excavated
to act as baffle against stripped by motor scrapers dug by shovels and hauled by dragline
noise and dust and carefully stored by dump trucks
Spoil pile
Dragline bucket
unloads burden
closure of small-scale mines and those that fail Injury Rates in Selected US Industries, 2003
to meet safety standards. (per 100 full-time employees)
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor
SECTION THREE
Major Coal Importers, 2003 The world currently consumes over 4050 Mt of Coal Consumption
(Mt) coal. Coal is used by a variety of sectors – Coal plays a vital role in power generation and
Japan 162 including power generation, iron and steel this role is set to continue. Coal currently fuels
Republic of Korea 72 production, cement manufacturing and as a 39% of the world’s electricity and this
Chinese Taipei 54
liquid fuel. The majority of coal is either utilised proportion is expected to remain at similar
Germany 35
UK 32
in power generation – steam coal or lignite – or levels over the next 30 years.
Russia 24 iron and steel production – coking coal.
India 24 Consumption of steam coal is projected to
USA 23 Coal Production grow by 1.5% per year over the period 2002-
Netherlands 22
Over 4030 Mt of coal is currently produced – a 2030. Lignite, also used in power generation,
Spain 22
38% increase over the past 20 years. Coal will grow by 1% per year. Demand for coking
Source: IEA Coal Information 2004
production has grown fastest in Asia, while coal in iron and steel production is set to
Europe has actually seen a decline in increase by 0.9% per year over this period.
production.
The biggest market for coal is Asia, which
The largest coal producing countries are not currently accounts for 54% of global coal
confined to one region – the top five producers consumption – although China is responsible
are China, the USA, India, Australia and South for a significant proportion of this. Many
Africa. Much of global coal production is used countries do not have natural energy resources
in the country in which it was produced, only sufficient to cover their energy needs, and
around 18% of hard coal production is therefore need to import energy to help meet
destined for the international coal market. their requirements. Japan, Chinese Taipei and
Korea, for example, import significant
Global coal production is expected to reach quantities of steam coal for electricity
7 billion tonnes in 2030 – with China generation and coking coal for
accounting for around half the increase over steel production.
this period. Steam coal production is
projected to have reached around 5.2 billion It is not just a lack of indigenous coal supplies
tonnes; coking coal 624 million tonnes; and that prompts countries to import coal but also
brown coal 1.2 billion tonnes. the importance of obtaining specific types of
coal. Major coal producers such as China, the
14 World Coal Institute
Top Ten Coal Producing Countries Worldwide, 2003 (Mt) USA and India, for example, also import
Source: IEA 2004 quantities of coal for quality and logistical
reasons.
1600
1400
1200 Coal will continue to play a key role in the
1000 world’s energy mix, with demand in certain
800
regions set to grow rapidly. Growth in both the
600
400
steam and coking coal markets will be
200 strongest in developing Asian countries,
0 where demand for electricity and the need for
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2002 2030
Australia is the world’s largest coal exporter; International coking coal trade is limited.
exporting over 207 Mt of hard coal in 2003, Australia is also the largest supplier of coking
out of its total production of 274 Mt. Coal is coal, accounting for 51% of world exports. The
one of Australia’s most valuable export USA and Canada are significant exporters and
commodities. Although almost three-quarters China is emerging as an important supplier.
of Australia’s exports go to the Asian market, Coking coal is more expensive than steam coal,
Australian coals are used all over the world, which means that Australia is able to afford
including Europe, the Americas and Africa. the high freight rates involved in exporting
coking coal worldwide.
16 World Coal Institute
Source: IEA 2004 The global coal market is large and diverse,
with many different producers and consumers
from every continent. Coal supplies do not
come from one specific area, which would
make consumers dependent on the security of
Total World Electricity Generation (% by Fuel, projected for 2030) supplies and stability of only one region. They
are spread out worldwide and coal is traded
■ Coal 38% internationally.
■ Gas 30%
■ Hydro 13% Many countries rely on domestic supplies of
■ Nuclear 9% coal for their energy needs – such as China, the
■ Other* 6% USA, India, Australia and South Africa. Others
■ Oil 4%
import coal from a variety of countries: in
* Other includes solar, wind, combustible renewables, geothermal and waste 2003 the UK, for example, imported coal from
Source: IEA 2004 Australia, Colombia, Poland, Russia, South
Africa, and the USA, as well as smaller
amounts from a number of other countries and
its own domestic supplies.
>> Coal-based power is not dependent on the Major Coal Exporters, 2003 (Mt)
weather and can be used as a backup for ■ Steam
>> Coal does not need high pressure pipelines Source: IEA 2004
60
These features help to facilitate efficient and
40
competitive energy markets and help to
stabilise energy prices through inter-fuel 20
competition. 0
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Coal currently supplies 39% of the world’s electricity. The availability of low cost
supplies of coal has been vital to achieving high rates of electrification worldwide.
Photograph courtesy of Vattenfall.
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 19
SECTION FOUR
Definition History of Coal Use Coal was also used to produce gas for gas
Primary Energy is all energy Coal has a very long and varied history. Some lights in many cities, which was called ‘town
consumed by end-users. This historians believe that coal was first used gas’. This process of coal gasification saw the
includes the energy used to commercially in China. There are reports that growth in gas lights across metropolitan areas
generate electricity, but
a mine in northeastern China provided coal at the beginning of the 19th century,
does not include the
electricity itself.
for smelting copper and for casting coins particularly in London. The use of coal gas in
around 1000 BC. One of the earliest known street lighting was eventually replaced with
references to coal was made by the Greek the emergence of the modern electric era.
philosopher and scientist Aristotle, who
referred to a charcoal like rock. Coal cinders With the development of electric power in the
found among Roman ruins in England indicate 19th century, coal’s future became closely
that the Romans used energy from coal tied to electricity generation. The first
before AD 400. Chronicles from the Middle practical coal-fired electric generating
Ages provide the first evidence of coal station, developed by Thomas Edison, went
mining in Europe and even of an international into operation in New York City in 1882,
trade as sea coal from exposed coal seams supplying electricity for household lights.
on the English coast was gathered and
exported to Belgium. Oil finally overtook coal as the largest source
of primary energy in the 1960s, with the huge
It was during the Industrial Revolution in the growth in the transportation sector. Coal still
18th and 19th centuries that demand for coal plays a vital role in the world’s primary energy
surged. The great improvement of the steam mix, providing 23.5% of global primary energy
engine by James Watt, patented in 1769, was needs in 2002, 39% of the world’s electricity,
largely responsible for the growth in coal use. more than double the next largest source, and
The history of coal mining and use is an essential input into 64% of the world’s
inextricably linked with that of the Industrial steel production.
Revolution – iron and steel production, rail
transportation and steamships.
20 World Coal Institute
Percentage of Electricity Generated from Coal in Selected How is Coal Converted into Electricity?
Countries (mixture of 2003 & 2002 data) Modern life is unimaginable without
Source: IEA 2004 electricity. It lights houses, buildings,
streets, provides domestic and industrial
100 heat, and powers most equipment used in
80 homes, offices and machinery in factories.
60
Improving access to electricity worldwide is
a key factor in alleviating poverty. It is
40
staggering to think that 1.6 billion people
20 worldwide, or 27% of the world’s population,
0 do not have access to electricity.
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used for economic, efficient transmission via Top Five Coking Coal >> Labour that would otherwise be spent
power line grids. When it nears the point of Producers (Mt) collecting fuel is freed for more productive
consumption, such as our homes, the China 159 use, such as in agricultural and
Australia 112
electricity is transformed down to the safer manufacturing industries. This increases
Russia 55
100-250 voltage systems used in the USA 40
household income, labour supply and the
domestic market. Canada 23 productive capacity of developing
Source: IEA 2004 economies.
Modern PCC technology is well-developed and
World Crude Steel
accounts for over 90% of coal-fired capacity >> The intensive collection of biomass for fuel
Production (Mt)
worldwide. Improvements continue to be made for household consumption in many cases
1970 595
in conventional PCC power station design and 1975 644
degrades the productivity of agricultural
new combustion techniques are being 1980 717 land – through desertification (by removing
developed. These developments allow more 1985 719 trees) or through depriving soil of nutrients
electricity to be produced from less coal – this 1990 770 (by collecting animal waste).
1995 752
is known as improving the thermal efficiency
1996 750
of the power station. More details on these >> Inefficient combustion of unconventional
1997 799
technologies and how they enhance the 1998 777 fuels, especially in households without
environmental performance of coal-fired 1999 789 flues, creates health complications. Moving
power stations can be found in Section 5. 2000 848 households towards modern energy
2001 850 sources, such as electricity, improves
2002 902
Importance of Electricity Worldwide health and productivity.
2003 965
Access to energy, and specifically electricity, Source: IISI
is a driving force behind economic and social >> The provision of household electricity
development. Dependable and affordable provides for the use of modern appliances
access to electricity is essential for improving – such as washing machines – and lighting
public health, providing modern information which improves the productivity of home
and education services, and saving people labour and frees time.
from subsistence tasks, such as gathering fuel.
Around 2.4 billion people rely on primitive Converting Coal to Electricity
biomass fuels – such as wood, dung and crop
residues – for cooking and heating.
Improving access to electricity and allowing
people to move away from the combustion of
fuels in household fires would have a
significant health impact. The World Health
Organisation has estimated that smoke from
burning solid fuels indoors is responsible for
1.6 million deaths each year in the world’s
poorest countries.
Sized coke
Iron ore
Sinter +
Pellets or
Lump
Iron ladle
The coking coal is crushed and washed. It is Top Ten Steel Producing Countries, 2003 (Mt)
then ‘purified’ or ‘carbonised’ in a series of Source: IISI
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It is taken to a basic oxygen furnace (BOF) Developments in the steel industry have
where steel scrap and more limestone are enabled ‘pulverised coal injection’ technology to
added and 99% pure oxygen is blown onto be used. This allows coal to be injected directly
the mixture. The reaction with the oxygen into the blast furnace. A wide variety of coals
raises the temperature up to 1700°C, can be used in PCI, including steam coal.
oxidises the impurities, and leaves almost
pure liquid steel. Around 0.63 tonnes (630 Steel is 100% recyclable, with some 383 Mt of
kg) of coke produces 1 tonne (1000 kg) recycled steel used in 2003 and around 400 Mt
of steel. used in 2004. The BOF process uses up to 30%
recycled steel and around 90-100% is used in
Basic oxygen furnaces currently produce EAF production. By-products from iron and
about 64% of the world’s steel. A further steel making can also be recycled - slag, for
33% of steel is produced in electric arc example, can be solidified, crushed, and used in
furnaces (EAF). EAFs are used to produce soil mix, road surfaces and cement.
new steel from scrap metal. If scrap steel is
readily available, this method is lower cost
than the traditional blast furnace. The electric
arc furnace is charged with scrap steel and
iron. Electrodes are placed in the furnace and
when power is applied they produce an arc of
electricity. The energy from the arc raises the
temperature to 1600°C, melting the scrap
24 World Coal Institute
The only commercial-scale coal liquefaction Coal combustion products (CCPs) can also play
process currently in operation worldwide is an important role in concrete production. CCPs
the indirect Sasol (Fischer-Tropsch) process. are the by-products generated from burning
South Africa leads the world in coal coal in coal-fired power plants. These by-
liquefaction technologies – it has seen the products include fly ash, bottom ash, boiler
most research and development (R&D) in slag and flue gas desulphurisation gypsum. Fly
indirect coal liquefaction and currently ash, for example, can be used to replace or
supplies about a third of its domestic liquid supplement cement in concrete. Recycling coal
fuel requirements from coal. China is also combustion products in this way is beneficial
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 25
The Ulan coal mine in Australia includes the innovative Bobadeen Irrigation Scheme, which uses
surplus mine water to irrigate 242 hectares of land specially planted with perennial pastures and is
maintained at an optimal level by beef cattle. Photo courtesy of Xstrata Coal
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 27
SECTION FIVE
However, it is important to balance concerns before a coal mine opens in order to define the
for the environment alongside the priorities of existing conditions and to identify sensitivities
economic and social development. ‘Sustainable and potential problems. The studies look at the
development’ encapsulates all three areas and impact of mining on surface and ground water,
has been defined as: “…development that soils, local land use, and native vegetation and
meets the needs of the present without wildlife populations (see koala case study on
compromising the ability of future generations page 30). Computer simulations can be
to meet their own needs”. undertaken to model impacts on the local
environment. The findings are then reviewed as
While coal makes an important contribution to part of the process leading to the award of a
economic and social development worldwide, mining permit by the relevant government
its environmental impact has been a challenge. authorities.
Methane is a potent greenhouse gas – it is As well as improving safety at coal mines, the
estimated to account for 18% of the overall use of CMM improves the environmental
global warming effect arising from human performance of a coal mining operation and
activities (CO2 is estimated to contribute can have a commercial benefit. Coal mine
50%). While coal is not the only source of methane has a variety of uses, including on-
methane emissions – production of rice in wet site or off-site electricity production, use in
paddy fields and other agricultural activities industrial processes and fuel for cofiring
are major emitters – methane from coal boilers.
seams can be utilised rather than released to
the atmosphere with a significant Coalbed methane can be extracted by drilling
environmental benefit. into and mechanically fracturing unworked coal
seams. While the CBM is utilised, the coal
Coal mine methane (CMM) is methane released itself remains unmined.
from coal seams during coal mining. Coalbed
methane (CBM) is methane trapped within coal Coal Use & the Environment
seams that have not, or will not, be mined. Global consumption of energy raises a number
of environmental concerns. For coal, the
Methane is highly explosive and has to be release of pollutants, such as oxides of sulphur
drained during mining operations to keep and nitrogen (SOx and NOx), and particulate
working conditions safe. At active and trace elements, such as mercury, have
underground mines, large-scale ventilation been a challenge. Technologies have been
systems move massive quantities of air developed and deployed to minimise these
through the mine, keeping the mine safe but emissions.
also releasing methane into the atmosphere at
very low concentrations. Some active and
30 World Coal Institute
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
KOALA VENTURE
Environmental management and on the Blair Athol mine lease and The Koala Venture is the first ever
rehabilitation at coal mines does not adjacent areas. The koalas feeding and study undertaken of the breeding
simply mean protecting the natural roosting habits are monitored to ecology of free-ranging koalas using
vegetation – it also includes improve rehabilitation practices, while DNA testing and has made some
protecting the wildlife at the mine. At their health and reproductive status important breakthroughs in the
the Blair Athol opencast coal mine in are studied to ensure that the understanding of how koalas breed.
Queensland, Australia, this means population of koala is maintained.
taking care of the native koala Information gathered at the Blair
population. In order to advance operations at the Athol mine has been incorporated into
opencast mine, vegetation that the National Strategy for the
The Koala Venture project between Rio includes koala habitat must be cleared. Conservation of the Koala in Australia.
Tinto Coal Australia – operators of the A two-stage tree clearing procedure is
mine – and the University of used to minimise disruption to the More information on the Koala
Queensland began when the mine koalas. This process involves leaving Venture can be found at
management approached the some of the trees used by koalas for www.koalaventure.com
university for help on how to minimise several months, while removing the
the impact of its mining operations on remainder. Research has shown that
the colony of koalas on the land. the koalas will then voluntarily tend to
move into the rehabilitated areas
The project aims to manage the koala featuring their preferred trees or into
population, their safety and security adjacent undisturbed areas.
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 31
people’s respiratory systems. Technologies are major impact on the environmental incombustible gas formed
during decomposition,
available to reduce and, in some cases, almost performance of coal-fired power stations. At
combustion and respiration.
eliminate particulate emissions. the Lethabo power station in South Africa,
32 World Coal Institute
FGD systems are sometimes referred to as CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels
‘scrubbers’ and can remove as much as 99% of
SOx emissions. In the USA, for example, ■ Oil 41%
sulphur emissions from coal-fired power ■ Coal 38%
plants decreased by 61% between 1980 and ■ Gas 21%
increased by 74%.
The global average thermal efficiency of coal- carbon monoxide. This syngas is cleaned of
fired power stations is around 30%, with the impurities and then burnt in a gas turbine to
OECD average at around 38%. In comparison, generate electricity and to produce steam for
China has an average thermal efficiency of all a steam power cycle.
its installed coal-fired capacity of some 27%
(though newer stations with significantly IGCC systems operate at high efficiencies,
improved efficiencies are increasingly being typically in the mid-40s but plant designs
installed). offering close to 50% efficiencies are
available. They also remove 95-99% of NOx
New ‘supercritical’ technology allows coal-fired and SOx emissions. Work is being undertaken
power plants to achieve overall thermal to make further gains in efficiency levels, with
efficiencies of 43-45%. These higher levels are the prospect of net efficiencies of 56% in the
possible because supercritical plant operate at future. There are around 160 IGCC plants
higher steam temperatures and pressures than worldwide.
conventional plant. Ultrasupercritical power
plants can achieve efficiency levels of up to IGCC systems also offer future potential for
50% by operating at even higher temperatures hydrogen production linked with carbon
and pressures. More than 400 supercritical capture and storage technologies (described in
plant are operating worldwide, including a more detail in the next section).
number in developing countries.
Carbon Capture & Storage
An alternative approach is to produce a gas An important factor in the future use of coal
from coal – this is achieved in integrated will be the level to which CO2 emissions can be
gasification combined cycle (IGCC) systems. In reduced. Much has been done to achieve this,
IGCC, coal is not combusted directly but such as the improvements in efficiency levels.
reacted with oxygen and steam to produce a One of the most promising options for the
‘syngas’ composed mainly of hydrogen and future is carbon capture and storage (CCS).
Up to 5% CO2 Reductions Up to 22% CO2 Reductions Up to 25% CO2 Reductions Up to 99% CO2 Reductions
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 35
Carbon capture and storage technologies allow Underground Storage Options for CO2
emissions of carbon dioxide to be stripped out
of the exhaust stream from coal combustion or Power Station
with CO2 Capture
gasification and disposed of in such a way that
they do not enter the atmosphere.
Technologies that allow CO2 to be captured Unminable
from emission streams have been used for Coal Beds
ATMOSPHERE
Solar radiation passes through Some solar radiation is reflected by Some of the infrared radiation
the clear atmosphere the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface passes through the atmosphere
and is lost in space
GREENHOUSE GASES
Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed
and re-emitted by the greenhouse gas molecules.
The direct effect is the warming of the Earth’s
surface and the troposphere
The storage of CO2 can also have an economic Carbon capture and storage offers the
benefit by allowing increased production of potential for the large-scale CO2 reductions
oil and coalbed methane. These techniques needed to stabilise atmospheric
are referred to as enhanced oil recovery concentrations of CO2.
(EOR) and enhanced coalbed methane
recovery (ECBM). The CO2 can be used to Coal & Renewable Energy
‘push’ oil out of underground strata and is The continued development and deployment of
already widely used in the oil industry. The renewable energy will play an important role in
Weyburn Enhanced Oil Recovery project uses improving the environmental performance of
CO2 from a lignite-fired power station in the future energy production. However, there are a
USA and transports it through a 205 mile number of significant practical and economic
pipeline to the Weyburn oilfield in Canada to barriers that limit the projected rate of growth
boost oil production. Around 5000 tonnes or of renewable energy.
2.7 m3 of CO2 per day are injected into the
oilfield, an amount which would otherwise Renewable energy can be intermittent or
have been released into the atmosphere. unpredictable and ‘site-dependent’, which
means they are only available at specific
ECBM allows CO2 to be stored in unmineable locations. Wind energy, for example, depends
coal seams and improves the production of on whether and how strongly the wind is
coalbed methane as a valuable by-product. blowing and even the best wind farms do not
normally operate for more than about one-
third of the time. Many forms of biomass are
The Coal Resource: A Comprehensive Overview of Coal 37
seasonal and can be difficult to transport. The UNFCCC & GHG Emissions
Coal-fired electricity can help support the
growth of renewable energy by balancing out The United Nations Framework Convention The Kyoto Protocol entered into force in
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets an February 2005. At that time there were
their intermittencies in power supply. Coal overall framework for intergovernmental 128 countries who were Parties to the
can provide convenient, cheap base-load efforts to tackle climate change. It opened Protocol, 30 of whom are developed
power while renewables can be used to meet for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de countries with emissions targets. Both
Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in Australia and the USA have refused to
peak demand. The economics and efficiency
1994. Under the Convention, governments: ratify the Protocol but are undertaking
of biomass renewables can also be improved their own domestic measures to stabilise
by co-firing with coal. >> Gather and share information on GHG GHG emissions.
emissions, national policies and best
practices. Kyoto sets targets for industrialised
While clean coal technologies are improving >> Launch national strategies for addressing countries “with a view to reducing their
the environmental performance of coal-fired GHG emissions and adapting to expected overall emissions of such gases by at least
power stations, its role as an affordable and impacts, including the provision of 5% below existing 1990 levels, in the
financial and technological support to commitment period 2008-2012”.
readily available energy source offers wider developing countries.
environmental benefits by supporting the >> Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to Kyoto covers emissions of the six main
development of renewables. the impacts of climate change. greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
Countries that are parties to the UNFCCC hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
Overcoming Environmental Impacts meet annually at the Conference of the perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur
The environmental impact of our energy Parties (COP). It was at COP3, held in Kyoto hexafluoride. (SF6). Rather than placing a
consumption is a concern for us all. Limiting in 1997, that countries negotiated the specific target on each of the gases, the
Kyoto Protocol, which set legally-binding overall emissions targets for all six is
the negative effects of coal production and targets for emissions reductions. combined and translated into ‘CO2
use is a priority for the coal industry and one equivalents’, used to produce a single figure.
which has been the focus of research,
development and investment. Much has been
achieved – technologies have been developed Kyoto Protocol Emissions Targets (1990* to 2008/2012)
and are widely used to limit particulate
emissions, NOx and SOx and trace elements.
Improvements in the efficiency of coal +10% +8% +1% +0% -5% -6% -7% -8%
combustion have already achieved significant
reductions in carbon dioxide emissions. The
wider use of technologies to improve the Iceland Australia** Norway New Zealand Croatia Canada USA** EU15
Russian Hungary Bulgaria
environmental performance of coal will be Federation Japan Czech Republic
Ukraine Poland Estonia
essential, particularly in developing countries Latvia
where coal use is set to markedly increase. Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Monaco
Romania
Technological innovation and advancement, Slovakia
such as carbon capture and storage, offers * The base year is flexible in the case of Economies in Transition (EIT) countries Slovenia
** Countries who have declared their intention not to ratify the Protocol Switzerland
many future prospects for tackling CO2
emissions from coal use in the future.
SECTION SIX
MEETING FUTURE
ENERGY DEMAND
>> The global energy system faces many challenges in this
century. It will have to continue to supply secure and
affordable energy in the face of growing demand. At
the same time society expects cleaner energy and less
pollution, with an increasing emphasis on
environmental sustainability. >>
Over the next 30 years, it is estimated that If we are to significantly improve access to
global energy demand will increase by almost energy worldwide – and maintain a secure
60%. Two thirds of the increase will come from energy system – all forms of energy will be
developing countries – by 2030 they will needed. This includes coal, gas, oil, nuclear,
account for almost half of total energy demand. hydro and renewables.
Number of People Without Electricity in the Developing World (millions) With the availability of abundant, affordable
and geographically disperse reserves, coal has
a vital role to play in a world where reliable
supplies of affordable energy will be essential
2002 2030 to global development.
any fossil fuel, is a prime candidate to provide Coal & Our Energy Future
hydrogen – via coal gasification – in the Alleviating poverty, maintaining secure
quantities needed. supplies of energy, and protecting the natural
environment are some of the biggest
Until recently, the energy intensive nature of challenges facing our world today. The
the processes involved, the high costs, and the production and use of coal is linked to each of
CO2 by-products made the development of this these challenges.
technology unlikely. However, major
technological advances together with carbon
storage have opened up renewed prospects for SECTION SIX END
environmentally acceptable, large-volume
production of hydrogen. Coal is well-
positioned to provide the quantities of
hydrogen needed to move towards a new and
different energy economy. Europe, Japan, the
USA and New Zealand all have active hydrogen
programmes and are considering coal as an
option to produce hydrogen.
42 World Coal Institute
FURTHER READING
>> British Geological Survey >> IEA Coal Information 2004, OECD/IEA
www.bgs.ac.uk
>> IEA Electricity Information 2004, OECD/IEA
>> Cement Industry Federation
www.cement.org.au >> IEA GHG R&D Programme
www.ieagreen.org.uk
>> China Labour Bulletin
www.china-labour.org.hk >> IEA GHG R&D Programme CO2
Capture & Storage
>> Coal Association of Canada, www.co2captureandstorage.info
‘The Coal Classroom’
www.coal.ca/class.htm >> IEA World Energy Outlook 2004, OECD/IEA
>> IISI, Steel Statistical Yearbook 2004, >> UNFCCC, United Nations Framework
International Iron & Steel Institute Convention on Climate Change: The First Ten
Years, 2004
>> IISI, World Steel in Figures 2004,
International Iron & Steel Institute >> UNFCCC
www.unfccc.int
>> International Labour Organization
www.ilo.org >> US Department of Energy,
Office of Fossil Energy
>> Koala Venture www.fe.doe.gov
www.koalaventure.com
>> US Department of Labor
>> National Mining Association www.dol.gov
www.nma.org
>> US Environmental Protection Agency
>> NSW Minerals Council www.epa.gov
www.nswmin.com.au
>> US Geological Survey
>> Organisation for Economic Cooperation and www.usgs.gov
Development
www.oecd.org >> WCI, Clean Coal – Building a Future through
Technology, World Coal Institute, 2004
>> PA Consulting
www.paconsulting.com >> WCI, Coal Facts fact card,
World Coal Institute, 2004
>> Portland Cement Association
www.cement.org >> WCI, Coal – Power for Progress,
4th edition, World Coal Institute, 2000
>> Roger Wicks, “Coal – Issues and Options in a
Carbon-Constrained World”, Optima, Volume >> WCI, Coal & Steel Facts fact card,
51, Number 1, February 2005 World Coal Institute, 2005
>> UNDP & Energy for Sustainable >> World Coal Institute
Development, United Nations Development www.worldcoal.org
Programme, 2004
>> World Energy Council, 2004 Survey of
>> United Nations Development Programme Energy Resources
www.undp.org/energy
44 World Coal Institute
The WCI is a UN-accredited organisation and >> Widen understanding of the vital role that
the only international group working worldwide metallurgical coal fulfils in the worldwide
on behalf of the coal industry. The WCI is production of the steel on which all
based in London, with member companies industry depends;
located worldwide. The WCI promotes: >> Ensure that decision makers - and public
opinion generally - are fully informed on
>> Coal as a strategic resource, essential for a the advances in modern clean coal
modern quality of life, a key contributor to technologies; advances that are steadily
sustainable development, and an essential improving the efficient use of coal and
element in enhanced energy security. greatly reducing the impact of coal on the
environment;
>> A progressive industry committed to >> Support other sectors of the worldwide
technological innovation and improved coal industry in emphasising the
environmental outcomes within the context importance of coal and its qualities as a
of a balanced and responsible energy mix. plentiful, clean, safe and economical energy
resource;
The objectives of the World Coal Institute >> Promote the merits of coal and upgrade the
are to: image of coal as a clean, efficient fuel,
essential to both the generation of the
>> Provide a voice for coal in international world's electricity and the manufacture of
policy debates; the world's steel.
>> Improve public awareness of the merits
and importance of coal as the single Membership is open to coal enterprises from
largest source of fuel for the generation anywhere in the world, with member companies
of electricity; represented at Chief Executive level.
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