Lectures 21,22

NDT and Evaluation of Steel Structures

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

The Chemistry
The reaction between air and coke produces carbon monoxide (CO) This gas reduces the iron ore to iron
Fe 2 O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO 2 (g)

At the high temperature, limestone decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide The impurities react with this CaO to form slag
Called Blast furnace slag useful supplementary cementitous material in concrete
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Continuous Casting of Steel

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Steel Finishing Final Shapes

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Which Iron is it?

Cast iron
Sandy texture (cast in molds filled with sand) Rounded internal corners, square external corners Typically hollow round shapes

Wrought iron
Material delamination at edges corrosion Members by riveting iron plates

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Cast Iron structures

Heavily used for columns Widely available Pig iron Good corrosion and fire resistance High compressive strength Cheaper than wrought iron Weak and unpredictable in tension and bending Brittle failure
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Age as an indicator of strength

Before 1905 YS 25 ksi 1905-1932 YS 30 ksi 1933-1963 YS 33 ksi After 1963 YS 36 ksi YS of cast iron 20 ksi

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

History of structural steel

Structural carbon steel 1856 (Bessemer converter) 1884 1st steel I-beams, structural frame (Home Insurance Co, Chicago) 1889 Rand McNally Bldg, Chicago 1st all steel framed skyscraper 1st AISC specification - 1923

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Properties of Carbon steel

Carbon steel (<1% Carbon)
Very strong High E Isotropic Elastic behavior for more than of its ultimate strength range 20% elongation before ultimate failure

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Alloys

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Reinforcing bars

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Visual Inspection of steel structures Magnifying glass, borescope, weld gages Detects
member deterioration Excessive sagging or buckling Lack of bracing Rust, cracking, missing / loose fasteners

Cannot detect subsurface problems Cheap and effective

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Ultrasonic testing of steel (ASTM E 164)

Ultrasonic waves 0.1 to 25 MHz Reflected by interior voids, changes in density etc Resulted transmitted to a screen or a meter Can detect voids, lamellar tearing, porosity, changes in composition, inclusions etc

Can check pieces of thickness upto 60 ft Small and portable Bad for complex shapes, rough surfaces

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

UP Testing

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Ultrasonics of steel

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Lamellar tearing
Occurs beneath the weld In thick plates with poor through-thickness ductility Usually in large welds Welding heats the steel and it expands Cooling Tears the steel
http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/band_3/jk47.html
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Radiography (ASTM E 94)

X-rays or gamma rays applied Identifies internal voids, changes in structure and other defects X rays penetrate up to 30 in, gamma rays 10 in Used to detect undercutting and incomplete penetration in welds Portable test, reliable

Expensive Potentially dangerous, shielding needed Large installations need cooling water, power Orientation of the defects influence the results

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Principle of radiography

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Magnetic particle method (ASTM E 709)

Detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in a magnetic material Generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined Flux lines should run along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect When the flux lines approach a discontinuity, they will stray out into the air at the mouth of the crack The crack edge becomes magnetic Red or black oxide particles, or coated with a fluorescent substance under UV
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Principle
Principle: magnetic susceptibility (degree of magnetization of a material in response to a magnetic field) of a defect is markedly poorer (the magnetic resistance is greater) than that of the surrounding material

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Finding cracks

Seen

Not Seen

www.simula.it
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Magnetizing the material

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Pros and Cons of Magnetic Particle method

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection
Simplicity of operation and application. Quantitative. Can be automated, apart from viewing.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

Restricted to ferromagnetic materials. Restricted to surface or near surface flaws. Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not carried out properly.
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Liquid Penetrant method (ASTM E 165) Reveals surface flaws by bleed out of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw Liquid penetrant applied to the surface Enters the defect by capillary action Penetrant becomes visible when coated with a developing solution

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Penetrant glows in dark

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Uses and advantages

Locating surface cracks, areas of porosity, incomplete fusion in welds, Complements the magnetic particle test Simple and inexpensive Shape independent Can detect only small surface defects Operator expertise, careful surface prep needed
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Eddy current testing (ASTM E 566) Eddy current

When alternating current is applied to the conductor, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

What does it do?

The eddy current testing technique is based on inducing electron flow (eddy currents) in electrically conductive material Any defect in the material .e., cracks, pitting, wall loss, or other discontinuities - disrupts the flow of the eddy currents Higher frequency signals, up to 8 MHz, are used to detect near-surface flaws Lower frequencies (down to 50 Hz) are used when deeper, subsurface flaw detection is required
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Eddy current testing

Eddy Currents are generated when alternating voltage or current flows through the excitation coil Surface and subsurface defects result in perturbations of the field. These perturbations are detected by the detector coils.
http://www.ndt-ed.org
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Pros and Cons

Continuously done, easily automated Moderate cost Only a comparative procedure May not detect cracks in some directions Applicable to relatively shallow objects only

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Hardness testing (ASTM E 10, E 18)

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration Tensile strength and effects of cold working can be roughly estimated

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Portable hardness testing

A steel ball of 10 mm. diameter (B) is placed between two surfaces, one (S) of known Brinell hardness, and the other (X) of unknown hardness, (X) being the material under investigation. Any pressure exerted against the assemblage of the three, presses the ball (B) with the same force into the surface (S) as into (X), and the sizes of the indentations obtained are in the direct proportion to the Brinell hardness of the two metals.
http://visgage.com/meter_operation.html
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Hardness scales compared

http://www.zianet.com/ebear/metal/hardness.html
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Destructive Tests

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Chemical test (ASTM E 30)

Determine the chemical composition, including the carbon content Helpful in the determination of weldability, ductility and corrosion resistance Most common laboratory test Sample obtained using drilling Portable spectrograph for in-situ testing

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Bend test (ASTM E 190, E 290)

To ensure that a metal has sufficient ductility to stand bending without fracturing A standard specimen is bent through a specified arc (U-shape) Direction of grain flow is noted and whether the bend is with or across the grain Lacks quantifiable results

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Coating imperfections from bend test

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Tension testing
Specimen removed by flame cutting, machined, subjected to axial tension Load-elongation curve, strength, elongation, % reduction in area measured

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Tension test (ASTM E 8)

u f Y pl

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Steel failure

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Strength testing on coupons

Weiss 2001
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Impact tests (ASTM E 23, E 208, A 673)

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Impact tests
Detects differences between materials which arc not observable in a tension test Charpy specimen (favored in US)
square cross section (10x10 mm) 45 V notch, 2 mm deep with a 0.25 mm root radius Specimen supported as a beam in a horizontal position and loaded behind the notch by the impact of a heavy swinging pendulum Specimen is forced to bend and fracture at a high strain rate on the order of 103 s-1

Izod specimen (favored in Europe)

circular or square cross section and contains a V notch near the clamped end
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Residual stress
Residual (locked-in) stresses in a structural material or component are those stresses which exist in the object without (and usually prior to) the application of any service or other external loads
From casting, welding, machining, molding, heat treatment, etc. Detrimental cause of fatigue and other failures when service loads are superimposed

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Hole drilling strain gage method (ASTM E 837) Hole of predetermined size drilled in a beam or column flange Stresses around the hole are relieved and measured by strain gages From these, principal surface stresses are determined

Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Strain relief

http://www.npl.co.uk/materials/residualstress/
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Strain gage design

http://www.npl.co.uk/materials/residualstress/
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Stress equations

http://www.npl.co.uk/materials/residualstress/
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening

Potential errors and uncertainties

Hole dimensions diameter, concentricity, profile
Centre of drilled hole to coincide with centre of gauge circle to 0.025 mm

Hole depth (measure and control to < 1 mm !) Surface roughness and flatness Specimen preparation Induced stresses from machining the hole Material properties Incorrect gauge selection
use small size where steep stress gradients
http://www.npl.co.uk/materials/residualstress/
Neithalath, Spring 2006, CE 455/555 Structural Damage: Assessment, Repair, and Strengthening