Basic Optics

Laura Kranendonk
ERC, UW Madison
2004
Table of Contents
Basic Optics
1. Introduction 1
2. Proerties o! Li"#t.. 1
a. Co$or 1
%. &ectra$ Po'er 2
c. Po$ari(ation. 4
). *tica$ +unda,enta$s. 4
a. +er,at-s Princi$e .
%. &ne$$-s La'. /
c. +resne$ E0uations. 1
d. Etendue 2
e. Co#erence 11
!. &catterin". 1)
Optical Laboratory Toolbox
1. Introduction. 1.
2. Creatin" Li"#t.. 1.
a. Lasers.. 1.
%. LE3s.. 12
). 3irectin" Li"#t.. 12
a. Lenses4Mirrors. 12
%. +i%ers.. 22
4. Contro$$in" Wa5e$en"t#. 24
a. 3i!!raction 6ratin". 24
%. Eta$ons.. 2/
c. 7ar,onic 6eneration 21
.. Measurin" Li"#t.. 28
a. 3etectors.. 28
%. Ca,eras439es 28
Appendix
1. &I Pre!i:es.. 22
2. Laser C$assi!ications.. 22
). Cornin" &M+;28 *tica$ +i%er Product 3ata s#eet <=
4. 7e$!u$ 'e%sites.. )0
Basic Optics
Introduction
In 12/0, t#e !irst Ru%9 $aser 'as %ui$t >1?, oenin" t#e door !or ,an9 ne' otica$
in5entions and researc# toics. Mec#anica$ en"ineers in articu$ar are current$9 'orkin"
on otica$ ,et#ods !or ,easurin" !$uid and "as roerties, ,easurin" ,ec#anica$
stresses, and ,anu!acturin" tec#ni0ues. In order to understand t#ese ne' de5e$o,ents,
a %asic understandin" o! $i"#t and $i"#t roerties is re0uired. @#ese notes are ,eant
on$9 as a re5ie' o! $i"#t toics in order to understand rinci$es co,,on$9 used in t#e
,ec#anica$ en"ineer-s otica$ $a%orator9. @#e #9sics %e#ind t#e ,ateria$s %ein"
resented are "enera$$9 co5ered in introductor9 #9sics courses.
Properties of Light
Aisi%$e $i"#t is a s,a$$ art o! t#e e$ectro,a"netic sectru,. E$ectro,a"netic 'a5es
#a5e e$ectric and ,a"netic !ie$ds erendicu$ar to t#e direction o! ,otion. @#e9 are a%$e
to tra5e$ t#rou"# a 5acuu, or a ,ediu,. @#ere are se5era$ roerties co,,on$9 used to
descri%e $i"#t suc# as co$or B'a5e$en"t#, 'a5enu,%er, !re0uenc9, ener"9C, and o'er
Bintensit9C.
Figure 1.1 E$ectro,a"netic sectru,, #ttD44#9er#9sics.#9;astr."su.edu4#%ase4e,s1.#t,$
Wa5e$en"t# BCD ,easured in nano,eters Bn,C, ,icro,eters B,C, or an"stro,s B

, 1

E 0.1 n,C, t#e distance !ro, one eak to t#e ne:t.

+re0uenc9 B!CD ,easured in 7ert( B7(, 17( E 1s
;1
C. +re0uenc9 is t#e in5erse o! t#e ti,e
it 'ou$d take a 'a5e to tra5e$ 1 'a5e$en"t#. @o ca$cu$ate !re0uenc9 !ro, 'a5e$en"t#D
f c
B1.1C
&eed o! $i"#t in a 5acuu, BcC ) : 10
8
,4s
Wa5enu,%er BCD ,easured in in5erse centi,eters Bc,
;1
C. @#e 'a5enu,%er is #o'
,an9 'a5es !it in t#e distance o! 1 c,.
2
Ener"9 BECD ,easured in F4,o$e, F4#oton, or e$ectron 5o$t BeA, 1eAE1./ : 10
;12
F er
#oton or er ,o$e o! #otonsC. Ener"9 o! t#e 'a5e can %e ca$cu$ated direct$9 !ro, t#e
'a5e$en"t# or !re0uenc9 usin" t#e !o$$o'in" e0uationD

c
h hf E
B1.2C
P$anck-s constant, hE/./2/ : 10
;)4
Fs.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple 1.1
a. Consider a 1..0 n, 'a5e. W#at are t#e !re0uenc9, 'a5enu,%er and
ener"9 Bin a 5acuu,CG
Frequency:
( )
Hz
s
Hz
m
nm
nm s
m c
f
14
2
8
10 H 24 . 1
1
1
H
10
1
H
1..0
1
H
10 H )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

E 1$% T&'
Wavenumber:

,
_

,
_

,
_

cm
m
m
nm
nm 100
1
H
10
1
H
1..0
1
2

E (%)1.(1c#
*1
Energy:
( )
,
_

s
x Js x hf E
1
10 24 . 1 H 10 /2/ . /
14 )4
E 1.+,)x1-
*1$
./photon
%. Consider t#e dia"ra, %e$o'. W#at is , , and !G
W#en ca$cu$atin" di!!erences, it is i,ortant con5ert into co,,on units
before takin" t#e di!!erence.
E 100n,;/00n, E 1--n#
E
,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

cm
m
m
nm
nm nm 100
1
H
10
1
H
100
1
/00
1
2
E +0,-.$)c#
*1
)
>n,?
P
>,W?
/00 100

(Note: realize that directly converting !!nm to cm

"
#$%!&'(cm
"
)
( )

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

s
Hz
m
nm
nm nm s
m x
c f
1
1
H
10
1
H
100
1
/00
1
H
10 ) 1 1
H
2
8
2 1

E 1.1%x1-
10
&'
(Note: again* converting !!nm to Hz does not equal +&,x!
$
Hz)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
&ectra$ Po'erD ,easured in W4n, Bo'er er 'a5e$en"t#C. Li"#t %u$%s #a5e ,uc# $ess
sectra$ o'er t#an $asers since $i"#t %u$%s e,it ,an9 'a5e$en"t#s t#is is kno'n as
%road%and $i"#t, as oosed to $aser $i"#t, '#ic# is essentia$$9 a sin"$e 'a5e$en"t#.
Figure 1.+ &ectra$ o'er co,arisons o! $asers 5ersus $i"#t %u$%s.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple 1.+
@#e dia"ra, in !i"ure 1.2 s#o's t#e di!!erence in sectra$ o'er o! a 1
,W $aser ointer 5ersus a t9ica$ $i"#t %u$%. Considerin" t#at an a5era"e
$aser ointer #as a %and'idt# o! 100M7( Bt#is is fC centered at /.0 n,,
co,ute t#e sectra$ o'er.
+irst, 'e need to con5ert t#e %and'idt# Bt#e 'a5e$en"t# ran"e o! t#e
$aserC into n,D

,
_

H . . 0
1
H . . 0
1
H c f
-Hz f 100
nm /.0
@#en, 2 -.---1n#
@#en, 'e can co,ute t#e sectra$ o'erD
4
P
400 n,
100 n,
Laser 10 W4n,
Li"#t Iu$% 0.2 W4n,
nm
mW .
.
in
0001 . 0
1

E1- 3/n#
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Po$ari(ationD W#en t#e e$ectro,a"netic 'a5es co,osin" a $i"#t %ea, 5i%rate in t#e
sa,e direction, t#e $i"#t is said to %e o$ari(ed. Po$ari(ed $i"#t is "enera$$9 c$assi!ied into
2 "rous deendin" on #o' t#e e$ectric 'a5es are a$i"ned 'it# t#e $ane o! incidence.
@#e $ane o! incidence is t#e $ane co,osin" t#e incident, re!$ected, and trans,itted
ra9s. @rans5erse ,a"netic B@MC, ara$$e$ BJJC, P, and * are a$$ 'a9s to re!er to 'a5es t#at
are o$ari(ed suc# t#at t#e e$ectric !ie$d is in t#e $ane o! incidence. @rans5erse e$ectric
B@EC, erendicu$ar B C, &, and E are a$$ 'a9s to re!er to o$ari(ation erendicu$ar to
t#e $ane o! incidence. @#e o$ari(ation o! $i"#t can a!!ect ,an9 asects o! otics.
Materia$s can #a5e di!!erent roerties !or di!!erent o$ari(ations, suc# as inde:es o!
re!raction B%ire!rin"entsC or re!$ecti5it9. In addition to t#ese o$ari(ed cases, $i"#t can %e
rando,$9 o$ari(ed Ba$so ca$$ed natura$ $i"#tC, or circu$ar$9 or e$$itica$$9 o$ari(ed.
Figure 1.0 Para$$e$ o$ari(ation dia"ra,.
Figure 1.% Perendicu$ar o$ari(ation dia"ra,.
Optical Funda#entals
In t#is section, !unda,enta$ otica$ rinci$es 'i$$ %e re5ie'ed in order to understand
$i"#t %e#a5ior. *nce t#ese %asic rinci$es are understood, co,$e: otica$ a$ications
.
W#en t#e e$ectric !ie$d
BEC is ara$$e$ to t#e
aer Bas dra'nC, it is
ca$$edD @M, P, *, or JJ.
@#e ara$$e$ $ines are 1
reresentation o! t#is
o$ari(ation.
Incident ra9 Re!$ected ra9
@rans,itted ra9
W#en t#e e$ectric !ie$d
BEC is erendicu$ar to
t#e aer $ane, it is
ca$$edD @E, &, E, or .
@#e dots are 1
reresentation o! t#is
o$ari(ation.
Incident ra9 Re!$ected ra9
@rans,itted ra9
and too$s can %e studied. @#ere!ore, it is 5er9 i,ortant to #a5e a "ood understandin" o!
t#ese !unda,enta$ rinci$es.
+er,at-s Princi$e
+er,at-s rinci$e states t#at $i"#t 'i$$ take at# 'it# t#e s#ortest tra5e$ ti,e to "o !ro,
one oint to anot#er, as s#o'n in !i"ure 4.
Figure 1.) I$$ustration o! +er,at-s rinci$e, $i"#t 'i$$ tra5e$ in a strai"#t $ine !ro, one oint to anot#er
since a strai"#t $ine 'i$$ %e t#e 0uickest at#.
+er,at-s rinci$e can %e used to s#o' t#e %e#a5ior o! re!$ection. 3eendin" on t#e
incident an"$e o! t#e $i"#t onto a sur!ace Bsa9 a ,irrorC, $i"#t 'i$$ on$9 re!$ect at t#at sa,e
incident an"$e. @#ere!oreD
r i

B1.)C
Figure 1.( +er,at-s rinci$e on a ,irror. @#e %ea, !ro, t#e das#ed at# is i,ossi%$e %ecause it is a
$on"er tra5e$ ti,e t#an t#e so$id $ine at#.
+er,at-s rinci$e can a$so %e used to s#o' #o' a $ens !ocuses $i"#t. In order to
understand t#is #eno,enon, it is i,ortant to kno' t#at $i"#t tra5e$s at di!!erent seeds
deendin" on t#e inde: o! re!raction BnC o! t#e ,ateria$. 6$ass t9ica$$9 #as an inde: o!
re!raction o! a%out 1.., '#ereas air #as an inde: o! re!raction o! essentia$$9 1 Bc E seed
o! $i"#t in a 5acuu,C. @#e seed t#at $i"#t tra5e$s t#rou"# a ,ediu, isD
n
c
v
light

B1.4C
In !i"ure /, it can t#en %e deduced t#at $i"#t 'i$$ tra5e$ !ro, oint = to oint I in t#e
sa,e a,ount o! ti,e Band t#ere!ore t#e s#ortest a,ount o! ti,eC !or a$$ o! t#e $ines.
BHintD t#e t#ickest art o! t#e $ens #as t#e o5era$$ s#ortest at# $en"t#, %ut since t#e $i"#t
/

1
E
2
'i$$ tra5e$ s$o'er in t#e "$ass, t#e o5era$$ ti,e to tra5e$ !ro, = to I 'i$$ %e t#e sa,e !or
t#e center$ineC.
Figure 1.1 Li"#t at#'a9s t#rou"# a $ens, oint = and I are at t'ice t#e !ocus $en"t# o! t#e $ens.
&ne$$-s La'
&ne$$-s $a' redicts t#e direction o! $i"#t as it tra5e$s t#rou"# di!!erent ,ediu,s. &ne$$-s
$a' can %e stated %9 t#e !o$$o'in" e0uation '#ere n is t#e inde: o! re!raction, and i, t,
and r stand !or incident, trans,itted, and re!$ected.
t t i i
n n sin sin
B1..C
Figure 1., 3ia"ra, o! &ne$$-s $a', s#o'in" $i"#t tra5e$in" !ro, air to "$ass.
@ota$ interna$ re!$ection can occur '#en $i"#t in a #i"# inde: ,ediu, reac#es a $o'
inde: ,ediu, Bn
i
K n
t
C. In t#ese conditions, '#en
t
E20
o
, t#e corresondin" incident
an"$e is ca$$ed t#e critica$ an"$e. =n9 incident ra9 at t#e critica$ an"$e or #i"#er 'i$$
cause tota$ interna$ re!$ection, ,eanin" a$$ o! t#e $i"#t is re!$ected and none is trans,itted.
@#is 'i$$ %eco,e i,ortant '#en dea$in" 'it# !i%er otic ca%$es.
1
n
"$ass
E 1..
n
air
E 1

r

i
= I
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"xa#ple 1.0
a. Consider a %ea, tra5e$in" !ro, air BnE1C to "$ass BnE1..C at a )0
o

incident an"$e. &ketc# t#e s9ste,, ca$cu$atin" t#e re!$ection and
trans,ission an"$es.
r i

E 0-
o
B+er,at-s Princi$eC
t t i i
n n sin sin
B&ne$$-s La'C
o
i t i
n n )0 L . . 1 L 1
( )
,
_

)0 sin H
. . 1
1
sin
1
t

E1$.%1
o
%. W#at is t#e critica$ an"$e Bonset o! tota$ interna$ re!$ectionC !or a
"$ass4air inter!aceG Minc;&e$enide4air BnE2..CG
@o !ind t#e onset o! tota$ interna$ re!$ection B@IRC, set t#e trans,ission
an"$e e0ua$ to 20
o
. @#ere!oreD
/lass:
( )
,
_

,
_

1 H
1
. . 1
sin 20 sin sin
1 1
i
t
i
n
n

E %1.,
o
0inc"1elenide:
( )

,
_

,
_

1 H
1
. . 2
sin 20 sin sin
1 1
i
t
i
n
n

E +0.),
o
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
+resne$-s E0uations
@#e a,ount o! $i"#t t#at is trans,itted or re!$ected can %e deter,ined %9 t#e +resne$
e0uations. @#e ratio o! re!$ected to incident o'er Bor t#e !raction o! o'er re!$ectedC
deends on t#e o$ari(ation o! t#e $i"#t, and can %e 'ritten asD
8
n
"$ass
E 1..
n
air
E 1
)0
o
12..
o
)0
o

2
JJ
cos cos
cos cos

,
_

i t t i
t i i t
n n
n n
2


BPara$$e$ o$ari(ed $i"#tC B1./C

2
cos cos
cos cos

,
_

t t i i
t t i i
n n
n n
2


BPerendicu$ar o$ari(ed $i"#tC B1.1C
'#ic# can %e si,$i!ied to
2

,
_

t i
i t
n n
n n
2 '#en
i
E20. 2 is a$so ca$$ed t#e re!$ected
o'er coe!!icient. I! no $i"#t is a%sor%ed in t#e ,ateria$, trans,itted o'er can t#en %e
ca$cu$ated %9 initia$ o'er ,u$ti$ied %9D
C 1 B 2 3
B1.8C
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple 1.%
a. I! a 1,W $aser %ea, is directed t#rou"# a "$ass ,icroscoe s$ide,
'#at is t#e trans,itted o'erG (4ssume there is no 5o6er absor5tion in
the glass)
Usin" t#e +resne$ e0uations, it is ossi%$e to ca$cu$ate t#e re!$ected o'er
coe!!icient !or %ot# t#e air4"$ass inter!ace, and t#e "$ass air inter!ace. It
turns out t#at t#ese are t#e sa,eD
04 . 0
. . 2
. . 0
2
2

,
_

,
_

t i
i t
n n
n n
2
&ince t#ere is no a%sor%ance, t#e trans,itted o'er coe!!icient is t#en Nust
1;2. @#ere!ore, 2/O B1;0.04C o! t#e o'er is trans,itted, or 0.2/,W.
%. W#at 'ou$d %e t#e trans,itted o'er i! t#ere 'ere .0 ,icroscoe
s$ides %et'een t#e $aser and detectorG (4ssume an air ga5 bet6een each
slide)
Rea$i(in" t#at at eac# inter!ace, 2/O o! t#e o'er is trans,itted, and t#ere
are a tota$ o! 100 inter!aces, it can %e deduced t#atD
01/2 . 0 C 2/ . 0 B
100
3
@#ere!ore, 1./2O o! t#e ori"ina$ o'er or 0.01/2,W is trans,itted.
2
1,W $aser
air4"$ass inter!ace
"$ass4air inter!ace
Li"#t detector,
a%$e to ,easure
o'er o! $i"#t
%ea,.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Figure 1.$ Re!$ection 5ersus incident an"$e !or an air4"$ass s9ste,.
E0uations B1.4C and B1..C can %e $otted 5ersus incident an"$e, as s#o'n in !i"ure 1.2. =t
./.4
o
, t#ere is no re!$ection !or one o! t#e o$ari(ations. @#is is a secia$ incident an"$e
kno'n as Ire'ster-s an"$e. I9 ,aniu$atin" t#e incident an"$e, it is ossi%$e to o$ari(e
uno$ari(ed $i"#t.
"xa#ple 1.)
I! t#ere 'ere t#e sa,e .0 s$ides as in e:a,$e 1.), %ut no' t#e incident
an"$e 'as at Ire'ster-s an"$e, '#at 'ou$d t#e trans,itted o'er %eG
(4ssume the light is un5olarized* and equal amounts of 5er5endicular and
5arallel"5olarized light)
4ns6er:
=t Ire'ster-s an"$e, none o! t#e ara$$e$;o$ari(ed $i"#t 'i$$ %e re!$ected
B100O trans,ission, or .0O net trans,issionC. +ro, e0uation 1 Bor !ro,
t#e "ra# in !i"ure 8C, t#e re!$ection !or 1 air4"$ass and "$ass4air E 0.142.
@#ere!ore, t#e erendicu$ar o$ari(ed $i"#t trans,its 8..1O B1;0.142C at
eac# inter!ace, so o5er a$$ 100 inter!aces, 0.8.1
100
E2.84:10
;8
is trans,itted
Bessentially !C.
*5era$$, t#e tota$ trans,ission is t#en )-4.
Etendue
Etendue, a$so kno'n as t#e ara,eter roduct, can %e t#ou"#t o! as t#e 0ua$it9 o! $i"#t,
and is 0uanti!ied %9 si(e ,u$ti$ied %9 di5er"ence. @#e s,a$$er t#e etendue, t#e %etter
co$$i,ated t#e $i"#t can %e. Etendue is t#e otica$ e0ui5a$ent o! entro9L at %est it 'i$$
10
Reflection versus incident angle (air-glass interface)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Incident Angle
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
a
n
c
e
R
JJ
R

Ire'ster-s
an"$eE./.4
o
re,ain constant, #o'e5er it 'i$$ ne5er i,ro5e. +i"ure 1.10 s#o's #o' etendue is
ca$cu$ated and "ra#ica$$9 reresented.
Figure 1.1- 6ra#ica$ reresentation o! etendue.
@#e s,a$$est etendue ossi%$e is ca$$ed t#e di!!raction $i,it. @#e di!!raction $i,it is
'a5e$en"t# deendent, and can %e ca$cu$ated !ro, t#e !o$$o'in" e0uation, '#ere d is t#e
Psot si(eQ, t#e dia,eter o! t#e $i"#t sourceD
( )

half
d H
B1.8C
@#e di!!raction $i,it t#ere!ore $eads to t#e ,ini,u, sot si(e t#at a %ea, cou$d roduce
Brat#er t#an an in!inite$9 s,a$$ ointC. Lasers are a%$e to roduce $i"#t t#at is near
di!!raction $i,ited. = "enuine increase in etendue is ca$$ed %ea, steerin".
"xa#ple 1.(
a. Li"#t at /10 n,, $ea5es a $aser at t#e di!!raction $i,it. @#e
$aser #as a 1, dia,eter e,ittin" area. W#at is t#e di5er"ence
an"$e o! t#e $aserG

half
d H

,
_

m
m
nm
m
m
nm
half
1
10
H
10
1
H
1
1
H
/10
/
2

E 11.1+)
o
%. I! t#e $aser %ea, 'ere co$$ected in a 1 c, dia,eter $ens at t#e !oca$
$en"t#, #o' $ar"e 'ou$d t#e roNected sot %e 10 k, !ro, t#e $ensG
First* calculated the divergence angle leaving the lens:
( ) ( )
2 2 1 1
sin sin r r
m
m
r

. . 0
2
1
1

,
_

11
!
a
1

2
Etendue E %est caseD
a
1
sinB
1
CEa
2
sinB
2
C

1
Etan
;1
Ba
2
4!C

2
Etan
;1
Ba
1
4!C
Li"#t source
a
2
cm r
o
. . 0
2. . 22
2
1

( )

,
_

,
_

m
cm
m
m
cm
m
r
r
o
1
100
H
10
1
H
. . 0
2. . 22 sin H . . 0
sin
C sinB
sin
/
1
2
1 1 1
2

E 0.002
o
Next* using trigonometry* figure out the size of the s5ot:
( ) ( )
o
7 r 002 . 0 tan H 10000 tan H
2 )
E 0.)12 ,
2
)
Hr 4 E -.%) #
+
Co#erence
W#en 2 or ,ore $i"#t %ea,s are sueri,osed on eac# ot#er, t#e9 #a5e t#e otentia$ to
%e eit#er co#erent or inco#erent. W#en co#erent $i"#t #as t#e sa,e eaks and 5a$$e9s, it
constructi5e$9 inter!eres, '#ereas i! a eak $ines u 'it# a 5a$$e9, t#ere is destructi5e
inter!erence, '#ic# 'eakens t#e si"na$.
W#en 'a5es o! di!!erent 'a5e$en"t#s are tra5e$in" a$on" t#e sa,e at#, it is use!u$ to
kno' at '#at $en"t# t#e 'a5es %eco,e inco#erent. @#is Rco#erence $en"t#- can %e
ca$cu$ated 'it# t#e !o$$o'in" e0uationD

2
c
7 B1.2C
12
Destructive Interference
-1.5
0
1.5
0
Constructive Interference
-2
0
2
0 250
Incoherent Light
-1.2
0
1.2
0
Figure 1.11 E:a,$es o! destructi5e and constructi5e
inter!erence, and inco#erent $i"#t.
"xa#ple 1.1
@'o 10 ,W $asers e,ittin" 5er9 near$9 t#e sa,e co$or are arran"ed as
s#o'n %e$o'. @#e to $aser is a !ree;runnin" $aser, and t#e %otto, is a
sta%i$i(ed $aserL t#e sta%i$i(ed $aser #as a si"ni!icant$9 s,a$$er $ine'idt#.
@#e R!u$$ 'idt# #a$! ,a:- B+W7MC o! t#e to $aser is 0.1 c,
;1
, and t#e
+W7M o! t#e $o'er $aser is )00 k7(. +W7M is t#e %and'idt# at #a$! t#e
,a:i,u,, since ,ost $asers and ot#er otica$ sources roduce 'a5es on a
6aussian cur5e +W7M is a "ood aro:i,ation o! %and'idt#.
+ree runnin" $aserD
fr
E 100.01 n,, +W7M E 0.1c,
;1
&ta%i$i(ed $aserD
s
E 100 n,, +W7M E )00 k7(
a. W#at is t#e co#erence $en"t# o! t#e 2 $asersG
Free running laser:

,
_

,
_

,
_

fr fr fr fr
fr
nm
m
m
cm
cm
H . . 0
1
H . . 0
1
10
1
H
1
100
H
2
1

fr
E 0.0042 n,
nm
m
nm
nm
7
fr c
2
2 2 2
,
10
1
H
0042 . 0
01 . 100

E -.1 #
1tabilized laser:
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

s s s s
c
Hz
Hz
8Hz
H . . 0
1
H . . 0
1
H
1
1000
H

s
E4.2:10
;1
n,
nm
m
nm x
nm
7
s
s
s c
2 1
2 2
2
,
10
1
H
10 2 . 4
100

E 15--- #
%. @#e detector is not readin" a si"na$. W#9 cou$d t#is %eG
4ns6er:
1)
+ree runnin"
sta%a$i(ed
3etector
LasersD
%ea, s$itter
,irror
)0 c,
&ince t#e co#erence $en"t# in t#e !ree;runnin" $aser is s#orter t#an t#e at#
it is tra5e$in", t#e $i"#t %eco,es inco#erent, and t#ere!ore cannot a$i"n
'it# t#e sta%i$i(ed $aser.
&catterin"
W#en $i"#t #its ,o$ecu$es, it can %eco,e scattered in se5era$ 'a9s. W#en $i"#t is
scattered %9 5er9 s,a$$ ,o$ecu$es Bd SS C e$astic BRa9$ei"# scatterin"C, ine$astic 'it#
increased ener"9 B=nti;&tokes Ra,an scatterin"C, or ine$astic 'it# decreased ener"9
B&tokes Ra,an scatterin"C scatterin" can occur. W#en $i"#t is scattered %9 $ar"er
,o$ecu$es BdKKC, Mie scatterin" occurs.
@#e incident o'er, densit9 o! ,o$ecu$es, 5o$u,e o! interest, and co$$ection an"$e o! t#e
otics can deter,ine t#e scattered o'er !or eac# t9e o! scatterin". @#e e0uation !or
scattered o'er is as !o$$o'sD

,
_

,
_

n7
.
.
9
s
B1.10C

,
_

9
s
.
.
E ratio o! scattered o'er to incident o'er

,
_

E di!!erentia$ scatterin" cross;section

1
]
1

&r H ,o$ecu$es
c,
2
E so$id an"$e o! co$$ection >&r?, 1 &teradian E 4Hradians
n E ,o$ecu$ar densit9
(at standard tem5erature and 5ressure* air has a molecular density of:
#&+:!
'
molecules;cm
$
)
2ayleigh:
4 2
2
2
C 1 B
4

o
2ayleigh
N
n

,
_

B1.11C
13. nm at N
2ayleigh
1r molec
cm
, .00
2
28
2
10 H 4 . 8
1
]
1

,
_

!or e0n. B1.11C, n E re!racti5e inde: o! ,o$ecu$e

N
o
E nu,%er densit9 at &@P
@#is in5erse re$ations#i 'it# 'a5e$en"t# can %e used to e:$ain '#9 durin" t#e da9, t#e
sk9 is %$ue and not red. =s t#e sun sets, t#e sun-s ra9s tra5e$ t#rou"# ,ore o! t#e
at,os#ere, a$$o'in" ,ore scatterin", causin" t#e sunset to %e a redder co$or.
2aman:
2ayleigh 2aman

,
_

,
_

)
10
-ie:
14
2
2d
-ie

,
_

d E dia,eter o! scatterin" ,o$ecu$e

Wa5e$en"t# c#an"es due to Ra,an scatterin" can %e ca$cu$ated %9 t#e !o$$o'in"
e0uationsD
=nti;&tokes Ra,anD
h
E
E E

+ + T L
B1.12C
&tokes Ra,anD
h
E
E E

T L
B1.1)C
"xa#ple 1.,
= 1 W $aser at .00n, is directed into air at roo, te,erature and
ressure. I! a detector cou$d ick u 10O o! t#e area o! a s#ere, and 1 c,
$on", #o' ,uc# o'er 'ou$d %e detected due to Ra9$ei"# scatterin"G
4ns6er:

,
_

,
_

2ayleigh 9
s
n7
.
.
nE2.1H10
12
,o$ecu$es4c,
)
E 0.1H4 E 1.2/
7E1 c,
1
]
1

,
_

1r molecule
cm
x
2ayleigh
H
10 4 . 8
2
28

.
s
E 2.8/:10
;8
W
Conclusions
In t#is section, 'e #a5e de5e$oed t#e too$s necessar9 to understand #eno,ena dea$in"
'it# otics. Wit# t#ese !unda,enta$ rinci$es, 'e can no' ,o5e a#ead to $earnin"
a%out t#e instru,ents used in otica$ $a%oratories, and ot#er otica$ a$ications.
1.
L
P
in
3etector
Optical Laboratory Toolbox
In t#e otica$ $a%orator9, it is i,ortant to %e a%$e to contro$ t#e direction, 'a5e$en"t#,
and sectra$ o'er o! $i"#t. Usin" t#e rinci$es de5e$oed in t#e re5ious section, it is
ossi%$e to do t#is in ,an9 'a9s. Lasers and LE3s can %e used to create $i"#t at seci!ic
'a5e$en"t#s and o'ers. Lenses, ,irrors, and !i%er otics can %e used to direct $i"#t.
3i!!raction "ratin"s and eta$ons are e:a,$es o! 'a9s to contro$ t#e 'a5e$en"t#. +ina$$9,
5arious detectors can %e used to ,easure $i"#t roerties.
Creating Light
W#en 'e t#ink o! arti!icia$ $i"#t sources, t#e !irst t#in" t#at co,es to ,ind is ro%a%$9 a
$i"#t %u$%. Li"#t %u$%s "i5e o!! inco#erent $i"#t o5er a 'ide ran"e o! 'a5e$en"t#s.
7eatin" ,eta$ !i$a,ents creates $i"#t in standard $i"#t %u$%s. W#en seci!ic 'a5e$en"t#s
or co#erent $i"#t is re0uired, $asers or LE3-s are t#e usua$ ,et#od.
Lasers 7 i"#t 4 ,$i!ication %9 1 ti,u$ated E ,ission o! 2 adiation
Lasers roduce co#erent e$ectro,a"netic 'a5es at narro' 'a5e$en"t# %ands, eit#er
continuous$9 or u$sed. @#ere are t#ree arts to a $aserD "ain ,ediu,, u,, and
!eed%ack. @#e %asic idea %e#ind a $aser is t#at !irst ato,s in t#e "ain ,ediu, are e:cited
to #i"#er t#an usua$ ener"9 states. *nce enou"# ato,s are e:cited, a #oton causes t#e,
to dro to a $o'er ener"9 state. In "oin" !ro, a #i"#er ener"9 state to a $o'er ener"9
state, t#e ato,s "i5e o!! anot#er #oton at a seci!ic 'a5e$en"t#. @#ese #otons cascade
t#rou"#out t#e ,ediu, %et'een ,irrors, causin" ,ore t#e rocess to continua$$9 reeat.
+ina$$9, one o! t#e ,irrors 'i$$ #a5e on$9 artia$ re!$ection, a$$o'in" a %ea, to e:it t#e
ca5it9 Bsee !i"ure 2.1C. Lasers #a5e t#e otentia$ to #a5e 5er9 #i"# o'er, and cou$d %e
dan"erous i! roer sa!et9 recautions are not used. =endi: ) %reaks do'n t#e t9es
o! $asers into c$assi!ications %ased on o'er and otentia$ #ar,!u$ness.
Figure +.1 &i,$i!ied dia"ra, o! a Ru%9 $aser. Ru%9 B=$2*) U CrC is t#e "ain ,ediu,L $a,s are used to
u, t#e ru%9 to an e:cited state 'it# ,irrors on eit#er end o! t#e ca5it9.
Lasers are c$assi!ied accordin" to t#e ,ediu, t#at is %ein" e:cited. @#e t#ree %asic
cate"ories are so$id Bi&e& Ru%9C, "as Bi&e& 7e;<eC, and $i0uid Bd9eC $asers. @#e ,ediu,
1/
Ru%9
,irror
6ain ,ediu,
La, Pu,Q
,irror
deter,ines t#e 'a5e$en"t# t#at t#e $aser roduces. 6ain ,ediu,s can %e 5er9 di!!erent,
%ut essentia$$9 t#e9 a$$ need to do t#e sa,e t#in". +irst, a Pou$ation in5ersionQ needs to
occur. Indi5idua$ ato,s nor,a$$9 are !ound in a "round ener"9 state. W#en 1 e$ectron is
e:cited and ,o5es to a di!!erent or%itin" s#e$$, t#e ato, #as an o5era$$ #i"#er ener"9
state. Pou$ation in5ersion occurs '#en t#ere are ,ore ato,s in t#e e:cited state t#an t#e
"round state. =n e:a,$e o! a no%$e "as B<eC e:citation is s#o'n in !i"ure 2.2, and
ou$ation in5ersion is s#o'n in !i"ure 2.).
Figure +.+ In natura$$9 occurrin" neon, t#ere are 2 e$ectrons in t#e inner s#e$$ BKC, and 8 in t#e outer s#e$$
BLC. In one e:cited state, one e$ectron is ,o5ed to t#e t#ird s#e$$ BMC.
Figure +.0 Pou$ation in5ersion occurs '#en ,ore ato,s in a sa,$e are e:cited rat#er t#an in t#e
"round B$o' ener"9C state.
@#er,od9na,ica$$9, it is 5er9 di!!icu$t to raise ato,s to #i"#er ener"9 states, #o'e5er
otica$$9 it is ,uc# easier. @#e ) ,ain transitions o! #otons i,ortant to $aser
understandin" are s#o'n in !i"ure 2.4. &ti,u$ated a%sor%ance u,s t#e ato,s to t#e
#i"#er ener"9 states. &ti,u$ated e,ission roduces t#e desired e$ectro,a"netic 'a5e.
&ontaneous e,ission occurs natura$$9. In a $aser, re$ati5e to si,u$ated e,ission,
sontaneous e,ission is rare.
11
<e
6round &tate
<e
E:cited &tate
6round &tate
Pou$ation
Ener"9
<
o
<
1
<
2
<atura$$9 occurrin"
<
o
Pou$ation
Ener"9
<
1
<
2
Pou$ation In5ersion
Figure +.% @#e t#ree ,ain transitions, sti,u$ated a%sor%ance, sontaneous e,ission, and sti,u$ated
e,ission.
&o,e ato,s #a5e ,etasta%$e states, '#ic# are sta%$e, #i"#;ener"9 states. Metasta%$e
states are crucia$ !or $asers %ecause t#e9 a$$o's !or ou$ation in5ersion. 6ain ,edia is
$i,ited to ,o$ecu$es t#at #a5e ,etasta%$e states B"enera$$9 a rare occurrenceC. =s an
ato, "oes !ro, t#e ,etasta%$e state to a $o'er state, it re$eases a #oton 'it# seci!ic
'a5e$en"t#. @#ere ,a9 %e a s,a$$ ran"e o! ener"ies at t#e ,etasta%$e state t#at cause t#e
$aser to #a5e a ran"e o! 'a5e$en"t#s. 3eendin" on t#e a$ication, t#is can %e eit#er
%ene!icia$ or not. We 'i$$ see $ater in t#is c#ater #o' to ,aniu$ate 'a5e$en"t#s.
Pro%a%$9 t#e %est 'a9 to understand #o' $asers 'ork is to $ook at an ani,ation !ro, one
o! t#e 'e%sites $isted in aendi: 4, #o'e5er !i"ure 2.. "i5es a "enera$ o5er5ie' o! t#e
rocess. = $ist o! so,e a5ai$a%$e $asers and t#eir 'a5e$en"t#s is $isted in aendi: 2.
18
&ontaneous E,ission
#oton
6round &tate
E:cited &tate
&ti,u$ated E,ission
6round &tate
E:cited &tate
Ener"9
@rans,issions
<e
#oton
&ti,u$ated =%sor%ance
6round &tate
E:cited &tate
Figure +.) &tes in creatin" a $aser. @#e "ra9 dots reresent ato,s as t#e9 tra5e$ !ro, natura$$9 occurrin"
"round states, to #i"#er ,etasta%$e states '#en sti,u$ated %9 #otons. @#is !i"ure is si,$i!ied !or c$arit9.
In actua$it9, eac# ato, %ein" sti,u$ated re0uires 1 #oton, '#ereas on$9 1 #oton tota$ is s#o'n in t#is
dia"ra,. @#e #otons %ounce %ack and !ort# %et'een t#e surroundin" ,irrors Bnot s#o'nC, a$$o'in" t#e
sti,u$ated e,ission to continue. @#e odd ato, t#at 'ent to a #i"#er state is a rare occurrenceL it is s#o'n
#ere to si,$9 to i$$ustration '#at can #aen.
=s ,entioned %e!ore, $asers can %e eit#er u$sed or continuous. Pu$sed $asers #a5e a
$i,it to #o' s#ort t#e9 can %e %ased on t#e 7eisen%er" Uncertaint9 Princi$e, '#ic# is
stated as !o$$o'sD
4
h
E t B2.1C
'#ere t is t#e u$se duration, E is t#e ener"9 Bre,e,%er E<hf, t#ere!ore E is a
,easure o! $ine'idt#C, and h E P$anck-s constant B/./2/:10
;)4
FsC. = conse0uence o! t#is
rinci$e is t#at t#e u$se duration and $ine'idt# cannot %ot# %e s,a$$. It !o$$o's t#atD
[ ]
[ ] 5s t
cm
5
. . 10
1

B2.2C
'#ere t
5
is t#e u$se duration in icoseconds and is t#e $ine'idt# in 'a5enu,%ers.
W#en e0uation 2.2 is an e0ua$it9, t#e u$se said to %e trans!or,ed $i,ited.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple +.1
W#at is t#e co#erence $en"t# o! a trans!or, $i,ited, /00 n, u$se o! 10 ns
durationG Co,are t#is $en"t# to t#e $en"t# o! 1 u$se in air.
4ns6er:
+irst reca$$ t#e e0uation !or co#erence $en"t#sD

c
7
We can ca$cu$ate !ro, e0uation 2.2D
[ ]
[ ] 5s 5s t
cm
5
000 , 10
. . 10 . . 10
1

E 0.0010. c,
;1
1
1 . 1////
1
/00

cm nm

12
6round &tate
Metasta%$e &tate
&tate
&ti,u$ated E,ission
Pou$ation In5ersion
1 1
0010. . 0 1 . 1////

+ + cm cm E 1////.1010. c,
;1

,
_

,
_

+

1010. . 1////
1
1 . 1////
1 1 1


E 0.0000)18 n,

,
_

nm
m
7
c
2
2 2
10
1
0000)18 . 0
/00

E $.) #
@#e $en"t# o! t#e u$se is Nust seed o! sound ,u$ti$ied %9 t#e u$se durationD
[ ] [ ]
,
_

ns
s
ns
s
m
x t c 7
5 5ulse
2
8
10
1
H 10 H 10 ) H
E 0 #
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
LE3s 7 i"#t E ,ittin" = iodes
LE3s are si,i$ar to $asers, #o'e5er t#e9 use on$9 sontaneous e,ission rat#er t#an
sti,u$ated. Re,o5in" t#e ,irrors !ro, a $aser "ets rid o! t#e sti,u$ated e,ission. @#e
,ain di!!erence t#ere!ore %et'een $asers and LE3s is t#at LE3s roduce inco#erent
$i"#t. &ince LE3s are ,ore e!!icient t#an $i"#t %u$%s, and $ess #ar,!u$ to t#e #u,an e9e
t#en $asers, LE3s #a5e !ound ,an9 ractica$ a$ications suc# as %rake $i"#ts and sto
$i"#ts.
6irecting Light
*nce 'e #a5e $i"#t !ro, a $i"#t source, 'e need to %e a%$e to accurate$9 contro$ '#ere it
tra5e$s. @#ere are se5era$ 'a9s to do t#is. Lenses can %e used to co$$i,ate or !ocus $i"#t.
Mirrors are used to re!$ect $i"#t. +ina$$9, !i%er otic ca%$es are 5er9 use!u$ !or
trans!errin" $i"#t to seci!ic $ocations.
Lenses
Lenses can %e used to eit#er !ocus or co$$i,ate $i"#t. = $ens can %e conca5e, con5e:, or
co,%inations o! t#e 2. Co$$i,ated $i"#t co,in" in t#rou"# a conca5e $ens 'i$$ !ocus at
t#e !oca$ $en"t# BfC. In "enera$, t#e 6aussian $ens !or,u$a isD
1
]
1

+
f s s
i o
1 1 1
B2.)C
and t#e ,a"ni!ication !ro, t#e $ens isD
o
i
s
s
-
B2.4C
20
Figure +.( 3ia"ra, !or 6aussian $ens !or,u$aD B14soC U B14siC E B14!C
Figure +.1 Lens secia$ case, a oint source at t#e !oca$ $en"t# co$$i,ates $i"#t. = oint source not on t#e
center $ane B9et sti$$ at t#e !oca$ $en"t#C 'i$$ co$$i,ate t#e $i"#t at an an"$e to t#e center $ane.
Figure +., =n i,a"e at t'ice t#e !oca$ $en"t# 'i$$ "i5e 1D1 i,a"in".
@#e +;nu,%er Bre!erred to asD +4V or +V in industr9C o! a $ens is f;d, as s#o'n in !i"ure
2.8. *t#er %e#a5iors o! $enses can %e deter,ined !ro, &ne$$-s $a'. =na$9tica$$9, t#is can
21
f
2:f
;2:f
"f f
d
s
o
s
i
Ii;con5e: $ens
%e 0uite ri"orous, #o'e5er "ra#ica$ so$utions or ra9 tracin" so!t'are ro"ra,s can
si,$i!9 t#e co,utationa$ 'ork.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple +.+
6i5en an LE3 'it# a 100 , dia,eter e,ission area, and #a$!;an"$e di5er"ence
o! 20
o
, '#at +V $ens 'ou$d 9ou need to #a5e a di5er"ence #a$! an"$e o! a t9ica$
$aser ointer, 0.01
o
G
4ns6er:
+irst ca$cu$ate t#e ,ini,u, dia,eter o! t#e $ens !ro, %asic etendue rinci$esD

,
_

,
_

2
1
, 2
2
2
1
, 1
1
sin sin d d
( )
( ) 01 . 0 sin
20 sin 10 100
sin
sin
/
2
1
, 2
2
1
, 1
1
2
o
x
d
d

,
_

,
_

E 0.12/ ,
<e:t, ca$cu$ate t#e !oca$ $en"t# o! t#e $ens, it is ro%a%$9 easiest to understand t#is
%9 dra'in" t#e s9ste,, considerin" t#e LE3 source essentia$$9 a oint sourceD
( )
( )
o
o
m
f
f
d
20 tan
2
12/ . 0
2
20 tan
2 0.21 ,
+ina$$9, ca$cu$ate +VD
21 . 0
121 . 0
V
f
d
F
2 -.10
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3e5iations !ro, t#eoretica$$9 er!ect er!or,ances in $enses are ca$$ed a%errations.
@#ere are / %asic t9es o! a%errationsD s#erica$ a%errations, asti",atis,, co,a, !ie$d
cur5ature, distortion, and c#ro,atic a%errations. &#erica$ a%errations are caused %9 $ens
s#ae, orientation, conNu"ate ratio, or inde: o! re!raction urities. &#erica$ a%errations
'i$$ cause t#e $i"#t to not !ocus to a oint Bin!inite$9 s,a$$C, %ut rat#er a !inite area.
=sti",atis, can occur '#en an o!! a:is o%Nect is !ocused %9 a s#erica$ $ens. @#e
s9ste, 'i$$ t#en aear to #a5e 2 !oca$ $en"t#s, since t#e o%Nect 'i$$ !ocus at 2 di!!erent
sots. W#en di!!erent arts o! a s#erica$ $ens e:#i%it di!!erent de"rees o! ,a"ni!ication,
22
20
o
LE3 d
!
%$urrin" o! t#e i,a"e 'i$$ resu$t, '#ic# is kno'n as co,a a%erration. +ie$d cur5ature
occurs '#en a $ens tends to !ocus on a cur5ed, rat#er t#an !$at $ane. W#en i,a"e s#aes
do not actua$$9 corre$ate 'it# t#e actua$ s#ae o! t#e o%Nect, distortion is occurrin".
3istortion is usua$$9 increased as t#e o%Nect is $aced !urt#er o!! t#e center a:is. +ina$$9,
c#ro,atic a%erration occurs '#en di!!erent 'a5e$en"t#s #a5e di!!erent %e#a5iors t#rou"#
t#e $ens, causin" di!!erent co$ors to !ocus at di!!erent oints. It is i,ortant to kno' t#at
a$$ o! t#ese a%errations can %e eit#er e$i,inated or ,ini,i(ed 'it# 5arious tec#ni0ues
suc# as usin" ,u$ti$e $enses or t#e use o! as#erica$ ,irrors.
Mirrors
Mirrors are ,ade 'it# #i"#$9 re!$ecti5e sur!aces. +er,at-s rinci$e can %e used to
deduce t#at t#e re!$ection an"$e is a$'a9s e0ua$ to t#e incident an"$e. =side !ro, !$at
,irrors, ara%o$ic s#aed ,irrors are co,,on$9 !ound in otica$ $a%oratories. Para%o$ic
,irrors !ocus $i"#t to a oint.
+i%ers
= 5er9 use!u$ too$ in toda9-s otica$ too$%o: is t#e !i%er. +i%ers are essentia$$9 dra'n
"$ass Bor so,e transarent ,ediu,C 'it# a rotecti5e coatin". = sa,$e dia"ra, o! a
!i%er is "i5en in !i"ure 2.2.
Figure +.$ 3ia"ra, o! !i%er otic ca%$e.
W#en $i"#t is directed into t#e core at s,a$$ enou"# an"$es, tota$ interna$ re!$ection 'i$$
occur %et'een t#e core and c$addin" inter!ace. @#e nu,erica$ aerture is t#e sine o! t#e
,a:i,u, #a$! an"$e t#at can %e directed at t#e core and tota$ interna$ re!$ection 'i$$ sti$$
occur Bsee !i"ure 2.10C. @#e !o$$o'in" e0uation can t#ere!ore %e ca$cu$ated !ro, &ne$$-
$a'D
2 2
2
1
sin
cladding core
n n N4
,
_

B2..C
2)
Core, n
1
C$addin", n
2
Iu!!er
Facket
Figure +.1- W#en $i"#t is "uided into a !i%er at an an"$e $ess t#en t#e #a$! an"$e, tota$ interna$ re!$ection
'i$$ occur, i,ro5in" $i"#t trans,ission.
W#en t#e dia,eter o! t#e !i%er core is s,a$$ enou"#, 'a5es on$9 can tra5e$ in one at#.
@#ese !i%ers are ca$$ed sin"$e;,ode !i%ers. =t $ar"er dia,eters, 'a5es co,in" in at
di!!erent an"$es can tra5e$ in di!!erent at#s, and are t#ere!ore ter,ed ,u$ti;,ode at#s.
@#e nu,%er o! ,odes a !i%er #as can %e deter,ined !ro,D
V ,odes E
2
. . 0
,
_

dN4
N
m
B2./C
3ue to t#e "enera$$9 $on" $en"t#s, attenuation B$oss due to scatterin" and a%sor%anceC is a
critica$ roert9 !or !i%ers. +i"ure 2.11 s#o's attenuations in deci%e$s er ki$o,eter !or a
co,,on !i%er ,ateria$, si$ica. Po'er trans,ission !or t#e $en"t# o! !i%er can %e t#en
ca$cu$ated.
10
10
7
3

B2.1C
'#ere is t#e $oss in deci%e$s er $en"t#BdI4k,C, and 3 is o'er out o5er initia$ o'er.
=endi: 4 is a roduct data s#eet !or Cornin"-s &M+;28 *tica$ +i%er B&M+ E sin"$e
,ode !i%erC. 7oe!u$$9 %9 no' ,ost o! t#e roerties are c$ear.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple +.%
Usin" !i"ure 2.11, '#at is t#e trans,ission Bratio o! outut to inut intensit9C o! a
10 k, $en"t# o! !i%er at 8.0 n,G =t 1..0 n,G
4ns6er:
+ro, t#e !i"ure, at 8.0 n,, t#ere is aro:i,ate$9 2 dI4k, attenuation $oss,
10
10 H 2
8.0
10

nm
3
E 14 trans,ission
at 1..0n, t#ere is aro:i,ate$9 0.2 dI4k, attenuation $oss
24
Core, nE1..
C$addin", nE1.48.
Li"#t 'it#in t#is cone
is "uided a$on" !i%er

cr

142

142
E12.2
o

142
10
10 H 2 . 0
1..0
10

nm
3
E (0 4 trans,ission
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Figure +.11 =ttenuation in !used si$ica Bco,,on ,ateria$ o! !i%ersC. +ro,D
#ttD44'''.s,e.,onas#.edu.au4teac#in"4,sc)0114e$ecWXWotB)C.d! Bro%a%$9 s#ou$d !ind a %etter "ra#C
Controlling 3a7elength
Man9 ti,es, it is necessar9 to 'ork 'it# a seci!ic 'a5e$en"t# or to searate $i"#t %9
'a5e$en"t#. @#is is esecia$$9 use!u$ in sectrosco9 a$ications. @#ere are
,an9 'a9s to searate 'a5e$en"t#. @#is section 'i$$ descri%e so,e o! t#e
,ore strai"#t!or'ard ,et#odsD di!!raction "ratin"s, eta$ons, and #ar,onic
"eneration.
3i!!raction 6ratin"
W#en o$9c#ro,atic $i"#t is directed at a di!!raction "ratin", it is re!$ected as a s#eet.
@#e 'a5es sread out into t#e s#eet accordin" to 'a5e$en"t#. 3i!!raction "ratin"s are
,irrors 'it# 5er9 recise "roo5es cut into t#e,. +i"ure 2.12 i$$ustrates t#e %e#a5ior o! a
di!!raction "ratin".
2.
Figure +.1+ 3ia"ra, o! a di!!raction "ratin". @#e $i"#t is incident at an"$e , and $ea5es at discreet
an"$es .
@#e "ratin" e0uation is as !o$$o's, '#ere m is t#e orderD
( ) sin sin d m +
B2.8C
&o !or di!!erent 'a5e$en"t#s, t#ere are di!!erent an"$es, causin" t#e $i"#t s#eet. =s a
"enera$ ru$e o! t#u,%, t#e ,ost e!!icient use o! t#e "ratin" occurs around t#e %$a(e
'a5e$en"t#.
+orD
efficient >
?laze ?laze
.0
2
)
)
2
>

'

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple +.)
=n in!rared BE1.. ,C diode $aser #as an e,ittin" area o! 1 , : 1 , e,ittin"
area. = 2 ,, !oca$ $en"t# $ens is used to co$$i,ate t#e $aser. @#e %ea, is
directed at a 1200 "4,, B"ratin" er ,i$$i,eterC "ratin". =t '#at an"$e does t#e
1
st
order di!!racted %ea, co,e %ack to'ards t#e $aser Bt#is is ca$$ed t#e Littro'
an"$eCG
4ns6er:
+irst, ca$cu$ate dD
[ ]
m x &
m
mm
mm
g
d
1
10 ) ) 8
1000
1
1200
1

1
]
1

@#en, $u" into t#e "ratin" e0uationD

( ) sin sin + d m

kno'in"D

!or Littro' condition, and ,E1 Border 1C
sin 2
2 (%.1(
o
2/

%$a(e
E incident an"$e
E re!$ected an"$e
&u%scrits are t#e
order o! t#e "ratin"
d

;1

1
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
Eta$ons
=n eta$on can occur '#ene5er t#ere are airs o! !$at $ates searated %9 an otica$$9
contacted sacer Bsuc# as a $aser ca5it9, or e5en Nust a ,icroscoe s$ideC. 3ue to
constructi5e and destructi5e inter!erence, eta$ons on$9 a$$o' certain 'a5e$en"t#s to %e
trans,itted. Man9 ti,es eta$ons are un'anted, #o'e5er eit#er usin" an"$ed sur!aces or
s#i!tin" t#e incident $i"#t to an an"$e can e$i,inate t#e,.
+ree &ectra$ Ran"e B+&RC E
[ ] Hz
nd
c
2
B2.2C
n E inde: o! re!raction, d E distance %et'een ara$$e$ $anes
+inesse B+C E
2
2
1

B2.10C
Iand'idt# E +W7M B!u$$ 'idt# #a$! ,a:C E
F
F12
B2.11C
Figure +.10 Eta$on dia"ra,.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple +.(
W#at is t#e !ree sectra$ ran"e and +W7M o! a "$ass BnE1..C ,icroscoe s$ide, 1
, 'ideG
4ns6er:
/
10 1 H . . 1 H 2

x
c
F12 E 100 @7(
[ ]
[ ]
s
x
s
m
x
f
c
f c
1
10 100
10 )
12
8
E 0# 2 F89
21
+W7M
+&R
Wa5e$en"t#
@rans,ission
BOC
2
1
1

,
_

n
n
2 E 0.04
2
2
F

E 0./.4
[ ]
/.4 . 0
) mm
F
F12
FWH- E %.),% #
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
7ar,onic 6eneration
=side !ro, searatin" 'a5e$en"t#s 'it# "ratin"s or usin" inter!erence as in eta$ons, it is
ossi%$e to ,i: 'a5e$en"t#s to "et ne' 'a5e$en"t#s. @#ese rocesses ,ust satis!9
ener"9 and ,o,entu, conser5ation B#o'e5er, not #oton conser5ationC. +i"ure 2.14
de,onstrations #o' di!!erentia$ and su,,ation ,i:in" can occur.
Figure +.1% I$$ustration o! 2
nd
and )
rd
#ar,onic "eneration.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
"xa#ple +.1
+ourt# #ar,onic "eneration is i$$ustrated in t#e !i"ure %e$o'. Ca$cu$ate t#e !ina$
'a5e$en"t# %9 er!or,in" an ener"9 %a$ance. =$$ o! t#e inut %ea,s enter at
10/4 n,.
28
Pnon$inear
cr9sta$Q

1
E10/4 n,

2
E10/4 n,

)
E .)2 n,
Ener"9 Ia$anceD
E
in
E E
out
&econd 7ar,onic 6enerationD

1
E10/4 n,

2
E10/4 n,

)
E .)2 n,
Ener"9 Ia$anceD
E
in
E E
out
) 2 1

hc hc hc
+
. 4 )

hc hc hc
+
@#ird 7ar,onic 6enerationD

4
E10/4 n,

.
E ).. n,
Pnon$inear
cr9sta$Q
4ns6er:
+irst, rea$i(e t#e das#ed $ine a%o5e can de!ine t#e s9ste,. @#en, E
in
EE
out
D
out
hc hc

,
_

1
4

out
2 +(( n#
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
:easuring Light
*nce 'e !ina$$9 #a5e $i"#t directed in t#e correct direction and at t#e desired 'a5e$en"t#,
it is usua$$9 i,ortant to %e a%$e to detect t#e $i"#t. Ca,eras can %e used !or 5isua$
detection, and 5arious ot#er detectors can %e used to ,easure o'er, 'a5e$en"t#,
o$ari(ation, and co#erence. @#is section needs ,ore 'ork
Conclusion
In t#is section, 'e #a5e %een introduced to so,e o! t#e %asic too$s used in an otics
$a%orator9. Li"#t %u$%s, $asers, and diodes can %e used to create $i"#t, ,irrors, $enses,
and !i%ers can %e used to direct $i"#t. 6ratin"s, eta$ons, and #ar,onic "eneration are
'a9s to ,aniu$ate t#e 'a5e$en"t#. +ina$$9, detectors and ca,eras are used to ,easure
$i"#t intensit9. I9 no 'a9 #o'e5er did t#is c#ater contain a co,$ete $ist o! otica$
too$s a5ai$a%$e. In t#e ne:t section, otica$ a$ications 'i$$ %e discussed to rea$i(e t#e
otentia$ o! t#ese too$s.
22
Appendix 1
&cienti!ic Units
*tics !re0uent$9 dea$s 'it# 5er9 $ar"e or 5er9 s,a$$ nu,%ers Bn,, 67(, etc.C.
@#ere!ore, it is i,ortant to %eco,e !a,i$iar 'it# t#e &I re!i:esD
@era @ 10
12
Centi c 10
;2
Pico 10
;12
6i"a 6 10
2
Mi$$i M 10
;)
+e,to ! 10
;1.
Me"a M 10
/
Micro 10
;/
=tto = 10
;18
Ki$o k 10
)
<ano n 10
;2
@a%$e 1D &I Pre!i:es
It is a$so i,ortant to re,e,%er to a$'a9s %e consistent 'it# units. I! an e0uation ca$$s
!or c#an"e in 'a5enu,%er, %ut t#e 'a5e is seci!ied in 'a5e$en"t# Bn,C, re,e,%er to
con5ert t#e 'a5e$en"t# into 'a5enu,%ers, t#en ca$cu$ate t#e di!!erence Bsee e:a,$e
ro%$e,C.
Appendix + ; Laser Classifications
C$ass I $asers ; Lasers t#at are not #a(ardous !or continuous 5ie'in" or are desi"ned in
suc# a 'a9 t#at re5ent #u,an access to $aser radiation. @#ese consist o! $o' o'er
$asers or #i"#er o'er e,%edded $asers Bi.e., $aser rintersC.
C$ass II 5isi%$e $asers B400 to 100 n,C ; Lasers e,ittin" 5isi%$e $i"#t '#ic# %ecause o!
nor,a$ #u,an a5ersion resonses, do not nor,a$$9 resent a #a(ard, %ut 'ou$d i! 5ie'ed
direct$9 !or e:tended eriods o! ti,e. B$ike ,an9 con5entiona$ $i"#t sourcesC.
C$ass IIa 5isi%$e $asers B400 to 100 n,C ; Lasers e,ittin" 5isi%$e $i"#t not intended !or
5ie'in", and under nor,a$ oeratin" conditions 'ou$d not roduce a inNur9 to t#e e9e i!
5ie'ed direct$9 !or $ess t#an 1,000 seconds Bi.e. %ar code scannersC.
C$ass IIIa $asers ; Lasers t#at nor,a$$9 'ou$d not cause inNur9 to t#e e9e i! 5ie'ed
,o,entari$9 %ut 'ou$d resent a #a(ard i! 5ie'ed usin" co$$ectin" otics B$oue or
te$escoeC.
C$ass III% $asers ; Lasers t#at resent an e9e and skin #a(ard i! 5ie'ed direct$9. @#is
inc$udes %ot# intra%ea, 5ie'in" and secu$ar re!$ections. C$ass III% $asers do not
roduce a #a(ardous di!!use re!$ection e:cet '#en 5ie'ed at c$ose ro:i,it9.
C$ass IA $asers ; Lasers t#at resent an e9e #a(ard !ro, direct, secu$ar and di!!use
re!$ections. In addition suc# $asers ,a9 %e !ire #a(ards and roduce skin %urns.
)0
7ere is anot#er descrition t#at re$ates t#e $aser c$assi!ications to co,,on $aser t9es and o'er $e5e$sD
C$ass I ; EYEMP@ L=&ER&, considered Tsa!eT !or intra%ea, 5ie'in". Aisi%$e %ea,.
Ma:i,u, o'er $ess t#an 0.4 W. @#is 'i$$ not cause da,a"e e5en '#ere t#e entire
%ea, enters t#e e9e and it is %ein" stared at continuous$9.
C$ass II ; L*W;P*WERE3 AI&IILE BCWC *R 7I67 PUL&E R=@E L=&ER&, 'onTt
da,a"e 9our e9e i! 5ie'ed ,o,entari$9. Aisi%$e %ea,.
Ma:i,u, o'er $ess t#an 1 ,W !or 7e<e $aser.
C$ass IIIa ; ME3IUM P*WER L=&ER&, !ocused %ea, can inNure t#e e9e.
7e<e $aser o'er 1.0 to ..0 ,W.
C$ass III% ; ME3IUM P*WER L=&ER&, di!!use re!$ection is not #a(ardous, doesnTt
resent a !ire #a(ard.
Aisi%$e =r"on $aser o'er ..0 ,W to .00 ,W.
C$ass IA ; 7I67 P*WER L=&ER&, di!!use re!$ection is #a(ardous and4or a !ire #a(ard.
&o,e a5ai$a%$e $asers and 'a5e$en"t#s
Laser <a#e Type 3a7elength range
7C< 6as 144, /1/, .4., ))1, )11 B,C
7
2
* 6as 120,48,28 B,C
Zuantu, Cascade BZCC
se,iconductor
&e,iconductor );20 B,C
C*
2
6as 2./;10./ B,C
C* 6as ..1;/.. B,C
7e;<e BIRC 6as ).)2 B,C
7+ 6as 2.1;) B,C
3iode &e,iconductor 0./;2.) B,C
39e 39e 0.);1.. B,C
<dD[=6 &o$id state 1.0/ B,C
@iD&a#ire &o$id state /80;1000 Bn,C
=$e:andrite &o$id state 100;800 Bn,C
Ru%9 &o$id state /24 Bn,C
7e;<e 6as /)2 Bn,C
=r"on ion 6as 488;.1. Bn,C
Aio$et diode &e,iconductor )80;440 Bn,C
Kr+ e:ci,er 6as 248 Bn,C
=r+ e:ci,er 6as 12) Bn,C
+
2
e:ci,er 6as 1.1 Bn,C
Ye
2
e:ci,er 6as 12 Bn,C
)1
Appendix % ; =seful 3ebsites
#ttD44science'or$d.'o$!ra,.co,4#9sics4toics4*tics.#t,$
#ttD44,icro.,a"net.!su.edu4ri,er4$i"#tandco$or4inde:.#t,$
#ttD44'''.#o'stu!!'orks.co,
#ttD44'e%#9sics.#.,sstate.edu4Na5a,irror4
)2