11/10/13

1
REPRESENTACIN DE UN VECTOR

1. COORDENADAS CARTESIANAS
2.1 The Time Derivative 37
x
y
z
r(t )
r(t + t )
r
Fig. 2.1. The tip of r traces out the trajectory of a particle moving in space, r is
independent of the origin
It is important to note that the direction of r is unrelated to the direction
of r. In other words the velocity is independent of the origin chosen. Similarly,
the acceleration is dened as the rate of change of velocity
a =
dv
dt
=
dv
x
dt
i +
dv
y
dt
j +
dv
z
dt
k =
d
2
x
dt
2
i +
d
2
y
dt
2
j +
d
2
z
dt
2
k =
d
2
r
dt
2
. (2.8)
The acceleration is also independent of the origin.
Notation of dierentiation with respect to time. A convenient and widely
used notation (Newtons notation) is that a single dot above a symbol denotes
the rst time derivative and two dots denote the second time derivative, and
so on. Thus
v =
dr
dt
=

r =

xi +

yj +

zk, (2.9)
a =

v =

r =

xi +

yj +

zk. (2.10)
2.1.2 Angular Velocity Vector
For a particle moving around a circle, shown in Fig. 2.2, the rate of change of
the angular position is called angular speed :
= lim
t0

t
=
d
dt
=

. (2.11)
The velocity v of the particle is, by denition,
v =
dr
dt
=

r, (2.12)
36 2 Vector Calculus
In this chapter, we shall assume that the vector functions are continu-
ous and dierentiable, and the region of interests is simply connected unless
otherwise specied. However, this does not mean that singularities and
multiple connected regions are not of our concern. They have important impli-
cations in physical problems. We will more carefully dene and discuss these
terms at appropriate places.
2.1 The Time Derivative
Dierentiating a vector function is a simple extension of dierentiating scalar
quantities. If the vector A depends on time t only, then the derivative of A
with respect to t is dened as
dA
dt
= lim
t0
A(t +t) A(t)
t
= lim
t0
A
t
. (2.1)
From this denition it follows that the sums and products involving vector
quantities can be dierentiated as in ordinary calculus; that is
d
dt
(A+B) =
dA
dt
+
dB
dt
, (2.2)
d
dt
(A B) = A
dB
dt
+
dA
dt
B, (2.3)
d
dt
(AB) = A
dB
dt
+
dA
dt
B. (2.4)
Since A has components A
x
, A
y
, and A
z
,
dA
dt
= lim
t0
A
x
i +A
y
j +A
z
k
t
=
dA
x
dt
i +
dA
y
dt
j +
dA
z
dt
k. (2.5)
The time derivatives of a vector is thus equal to the vector sum of the time
derivative of its components.
2.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration
Of particular importance is the case where A is the position vector r,
r (t) = x(t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k. (2.6)
If t changes, the tip of r traces out a space curve as shown in Fig. 2.1. If a
particle is moving along this space curve, then dr/dt is clearly the velocity v
of the particle along this trajectory
v=
dr
dt
= lim
t0
r
t
= lim
t0
xi +yj +zk
t
=
dx
dt
i +
dy
dt
j +
dz
dt
k = vxi +vyj +vzk.
(2.7)
2. COORDENADAS POLARES
Now d^ e
r
=dt is perpendicular to ^ e
r
. Also jd^ e
r
=dtj d=dt; we can easily verify this
by dierentiating ^ e
r
cos ^ e
1
sin ^ e
2
: Hence
v
dr
dt

dr
dt
^ e
r
r
d
dt
^ e

;
^ e

is a unit vector perpendicular to ^ e

r
.
Dierentiating again we obtain
a
dv
dt

d
2
r
dt
2
^ e
r

dr
dt
d^ e
r
dt

dr
dt
d
dt
^ e

r
d
2

dt
2
^ e

r
d
dt
^ e

d
2
r
dt
2
^ e
r
2
dr
dt
d
dt
^ e

r
d
2

dt
2
^ e

r
d
dt

2
^ e
r
5
d^ e

dt

d
dt
^ e
r

:
Thus
a
d
2
r
dt
2
r
d
dt

2
" #
^ e
r

1
r
d
dt
r
2
d
dt

^ e

:
A vector treatment of classical orbit theory
To illustrate the power and use of vector methods, we now employ them to work
out the Keplerian orbits. We rst prove Kepler's second law which can be stated
as: angular momentum is constant in a central force eld. A central force is a force
whose line of action passes through a single point or center and whose magnitude
depends only on the distance from the center. Gravity and electrostatic forces are
central forces. A general discussion on central force can be found in, for example,
Chapter 6 of Classical Mechanics, Tai L. Chow, John Wiley, New York, 1995.
Dierentiating the angular momentum L r p with respect to time, we
obtain
dL=dt dr=dt p r dp=dt:
18
VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Figure 1.12. Motion in a plane.
3.1 Cylindrical Coordinates 115
The relationships between e

, e

, e
z
can be easily worked out, for example,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (cos i+sin j) = cos

2
+ sin
2
= 1,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = 0,

e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = cos

2
k + sin
2
k = k = e
z
.
Taken together, they form an orthonormal basis set
e

= e

= e
z
e
z
= 1,
e

= e

e
z
= e
z
e

= 0, (3.11)
e

= e
z
, e

e
z
= e

, e
z
e

= e

.
The position vector r, from the origin to any point in space, is clearly seen in
Fig. 3.1 to be
r = e

+ ze
z
. (3.12)
This expression can also be obtained from directly transforming r = xi+yj+zk
into the cylindrical coordinates.
Any vector can be expressed in terms of them. If the vector is a function
of the position, then
A(, , z) = A

(, , z) e

+ A

(, , z) e

+ A
z
(, , z) e
z
. (3.13)
In general, each component is a function of , , z. Unlike the constant
unit vector i, j, k in the rectangular coordinate system, only e
z
= k is xed
in space, the directions of e

, e

change as the point is moved around. Note

that both e

and e

depend on . In particular,

(cos i+sin j) = sin i+cos j = e

(sin i+cos j) = (cos i+sin j) =e

, (3.14)

= 0.
Example 3.1.1. Show that the acceleration of a particle expressed in cylindri-
cal coordinates is given by
a =

+ 2

+

ze
z
,
where dots denote dierentiation with respect to time t.
Solution 3.1.1. Since the position vector is given by r = e

+ ze
z
, the
velocity is v =

r,
3.1 Cylindrical Coordinates 115
The relationships between e

, e

, e
z
can be easily worked out, for example,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (cos i+sin j) = cos

2
+ sin
2
= 1,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = 0,

e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = cos

2
k + sin
2
k = k = e
z
.
Taken together, they form an orthonormal basis set
e

= e

= e
z
e
z
= 1,
e

= e

e
z
= e
z
e

= 0, (3.11)
e

= e
z
, e

e
z
= e

, e
z
e

= e

.
The position vector r, from the origin to any point in space, is clearly seen in
Fig. 3.1 to be
r = e

+ ze
z
. (3.12)
This expression can also be obtained from directly transforming r = xi+yj+zk
into the cylindrical coordinates.
Any vector can be expressed in terms of them. If the vector is a function
of the position, then
A(, , z) = A

(, , z) e

+ A

(, , z) e

+ A
z
(, , z) e
z
. (3.13)
In general, each component is a function of , , z. Unlike the constant
unit vector i, j, k in the rectangular coordinate system, only e
z
= k is xed
in space, the directions of e

, e

change as the point is moved around. Note

that both e

and e

depend on . In particular,

(cos i+sin j) = sin i+cos j = e

(sin i+cos j) = (cos i+sin j) =e

, (3.14)

= 0.
Example 3.1.1. Show that the acceleration of a particle expressed in cylindri-
cal coordinates is given by
a =

+ 2

+

ze
z
,
where dots denote dierentiation with respect to time t.
Solution 3.1.1. Since the position vector is given by r = e

+ ze
z
, the
velocity is v =

r,
3.1 Cylindrical Coordinates 115
The relationships between e

, e

, e
z
can be easily worked out, for example,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (cos i+sin j) = cos

2
+ sin
2
= 1,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = 0,

e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = cos

2
k + sin
2
k = k = e
z
.
Taken together, they form an orthonormal basis set
e

= e

= e
z
e
z
= 1,
e

= e

e
z
= e
z
e

= 0, (3.11)
e

= e
z
, e

e
z
= e

, e
z
e

= e

.
The position vector r, from the origin to any point in space, is clearly seen in
Fig. 3.1 to be
r = e

+ ze
z
. (3.12)
This expression can also be obtained from directly transforming r = xi+yj+zk
into the cylindrical coordinates.
Any vector can be expressed in terms of them. If the vector is a function
of the position, then
A(, , z) = A

(, , z) e

+ A

(, , z) e

+ A
z
(, , z) e
z
. (3.13)
In general, each component is a function of , , z. Unlike the constant
unit vector i, j, k in the rectangular coordinate system, only e
z
= k is xed
in space, the directions of e

, e

change as the point is moved around. Note

that both e

and e

depend on . In particular,

(cos i+sin j) = sin i+cos j = e

(sin i+cos j) = (cos i+sin j) =e

, (3.14)

= 0.
Example 3.1.1. Show that the acceleration of a particle expressed in cylindri-
cal coordinates is given by
a =

+ 2

+

ze
z
,
where dots denote dierentiation with respect to time t.
Solution 3.1.1. Since the position vector is given by r = e

+ ze
z
, the
velocity is v =

r,
3.1 Cylindrical Coordinates 115
The relationships between e

, e

, e
z
can be easily worked out, for example,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (cos i+sin j) = cos

2
+ sin
2
= 1,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = 0,

e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = cos

2
k + sin
2
k = k = e
z
.
Taken together, they form an orthonormal basis set
e

= e

= e
z
e
z
= 1,
e

= e

e
z
= e
z
e

= 0, (3.11)
e

= e
z
, e

e
z
= e

, e
z
e

= e

.
The position vector r, from the origin to any point in space, is clearly seen in
Fig. 3.1 to be
r = e

+ ze
z
. (3.12)
This expression can also be obtained from directly transforming r = xi+yj+zk
into the cylindrical coordinates.
Any vector can be expressed in terms of them. If the vector is a function
of the position, then
A(, , z) = A

(, , z) e

+ A

(, , z) e

+ A
z
(, , z) e
z
. (3.13)
In general, each component is a function of , , z. Unlike the constant
unit vector i, j, k in the rectangular coordinate system, only e
z
= k is xed
in space, the directions of e

, e

change as the point is moved around. Note

that both e

and e

depend on . In particular,

(cos i+sin j) = sin i+cos j = e

(sin i+cos j) = (cos i+sin j) =e

, (3.14)

= 0.
Example 3.1.1. Show that the acceleration of a particle expressed in cylindri-
cal coordinates is given by
a =

+ 2

+

ze
z
,
where dots denote dierentiation with respect to time t.
Solution 3.1.1. Since the position vector is given by r = e

+ ze
z
, the
velocity is v =

r,
116 3 Curved Coordinates

r=

+

ze
z
,
where e
z
is a constant unit vector and e

depends on . Since by (3.14)

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

e

r=

+

ze
z
.
The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, therefore a =

v =

r,

r =

e

+

ze
z
.
Again by (3.14),

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

(e

),

r =

e

2
e

+

ze
z
.
Therefore
a =

r=

+ (2

)e

+

ze
z
.
3.1.1 Dierential Operations
Gradient. Starting from the denition of gradient in the Cartesian coordi-
nates, we can use the coordinate transformation to express it in terms of
(, , z) . Using (3.4) and (3.5),
= i

x
+j

y
+k

z
= (cos e

sin e

)

x
+ (sin e

+ cos e

)

y
+e
z

z
=

cos

x
+ sin

sin

x
+ cos

+

z
e
z
. (3.15)
By chain rule and (3.6)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= cos

x
+ sin

y
, (3.16)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= sin

x
+ cos

y
. (3.17)
With these expressions, (3.15) becomes
=

+
1

+

z
e
z
. (3.18)
116 3 Curved Coordinates

r=

+

ze
z
,
where e
z
is a constant unit vector and e

depends on . Since by (3.14)

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

e

r=

+

ze
z
.
The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, therefore a =

v =

r,

r =

e

+

ze
z
.
Again by (3.14),

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

(e

),

r =

e

2
e

+

ze
z
.
Therefore
a =

r=

+ (2

)e

+

ze
z
.
3.1.1 Dierential Operations
Gradient. Starting from the denition of gradient in the Cartesian coordi-
nates, we can use the coordinate transformation to express it in terms of
(, , z) . Using (3.4) and (3.5),
= i

x
+j

y
+k

z
= (cos e

sin e

)

x
+ (sin e

+ cos e

)

y
+e
z

z
=

cos

x
+ sin

sin

x
+ cos

+

z
e
z
. (3.15)
By chain rule and (3.6)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= cos

x
+ sin

y
, (3.16)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= sin

x
+ cos

y
. (3.17)
With these expressions, (3.15) becomes
=

+
1

+

z
e
z
. (3.18)
3.1 Cylindrical Coordinates 115
The relationships between e

, e

, e
z
can be easily worked out, for example,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (cos i+sin j) = cos

2
+ sin
2
= 1,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = 0,

e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = cos

2
k + sin
2
k = k = e
z
.
Taken together, they form an orthonormal basis set
e

= e

= e
z
e
z
= 1,
e

= e

e
z
= e
z
e

= 0, (3.11)
e

= e
z
, e

e
z
= e

, e
z
e

= e

.
The position vector r, from the origin to any point in space, is clearly seen in
Fig. 3.1 to be
r = e

+ ze
z
. (3.12)
This expression can also be obtained from directly transforming r = xi+yj+zk
into the cylindrical coordinates.
Any vector can be expressed in terms of them. If the vector is a function
of the position, then
A(, , z) = A

(, , z) e

+ A

(, , z) e

+ A
z
(, , z) e
z
. (3.13)
In general, each component is a function of , , z. Unlike the constant
unit vector i, j, k in the rectangular coordinate system, only e
z
= k is xed
in space, the directions of e

, e

change as the point is moved around. Note

that both e

and e

depend on . In particular,

(cos i+sin j) = sin i+cos j = e

(sin i+cos j) = (cos i+sin j) =e

, (3.14)

= 0.
Example 3.1.1. Show that the acceleration of a particle expressed in cylindri-
cal coordinates is given by
a =

+ 2

+

ze
z
,
where dots denote dierentiation with respect to time t.
Solution 3.1.1. Since the position vector is given by r = e

+ ze
z
, the
velocity is v =

r,
11/10/13
2
2. COORDENADAS POLARES
Ejemplos

1. Una partcula se mueve en un crculo de radio b con velocidad angular , (! es
constante y tiene unidades de rad!s
-1
). Calcular la velocidad y aceleracin de la
partcula en coordenadas polares.



!

= "t
34 VECTORS AND KINEMATICSA FEW MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES
The next three examples illustrate the use of polar coordinates
to describe velocity.
Example 1.13 Circular Motion and Straight Line Motion in Polar Coordinates
A particle moves in a circle of radius b with angular velocity 0 = at, where
a is a constant, (a has the units radians per second
2
.) Describe
the particle's velocity in polar coordinates.
Since r = b = constant, v is purely tangential and v = batQ. The
sketches show f, 0, and v at a time t\ and at a later time t
2
.
*2
o-
/
i
V
= '2
V. /
/ \
\
\
\
\
x
\
\
\
^ \
\
1
/
The particle is located at the position
r
= b 6 = So + r 6 dt = do + icrf
2
.
If the particle is on the x axis at t = 0, 0
O
= 0. The particle's position
vector is r = br, but as the sketches indicate, 6 must be given to specify
the direction of r.
Consider a particle moving with constant velocity v = u\ along the
line y 2. Describe v in polar coordinates.
v = v
r
r + v^.
From the sketch,
V
r
= U COS 6
v$ = u sin 6
v = u cos dr u sin 00.
As the particle moves to the right, 0 decreases and r and 6 change direc-
_ tion. Ordinarily, of course, we try to use coordinates that make the
x
problem as simple as possible; polar coordinates are not well suited here.
1.3 Vectors in Dierent Coordinate Systems 19
x
y
z
O
P
(, , z)

^
e

^
e
z
^
z

Figure 1.12: Unit vectors of cylindrical coordinates.

The unit vectors at a point P in the other coordinate systems are obtained
similarly. In cylindrical coordinates, e

lies along and points in the direction

of increasing at P; e

is perpendicular to the plane formed by P and the

z-axis and points in the direction of increasing ; e
z
points in the direction of
positive z (see Figure 1.12). We note that only e
z
is independent of the point
at which the unit vectors are dened because z is a xed axis in cylindrical
coordinates. Given any vector a, we can write it as
a = a

+ a

+ a
z
e
z
or a = a

, a

, a
z
. (1.15)
The unit vectors in spherical coordinates are dened similarly: e
r
is taken
along r and points in the direction of increasing r; this direction is called radial direction
radial; e

is taken to lie in the plane formed by P and the z-axis, is per-

pendicular to r, and points in the direction of increasing ; e

is as in the
cylindrical case (Figure 1.13). An arbitrary vector in space can be expressed
in terms of the spherical unit vectors at P:
a = a
r
e
r
+ a

+ a

or a = a
r
, a

, a

. (1.16)
It should be emphasized that
Box 1.3.3. The cylindrical and spherical unit vectors e

, e
r
, e

, and e

are dependent on the position of P.

Once an origin O is designated, every point P in space will dene a vector,
called a position vector and denoted by r. This is simply the vector drawn position vector
from O to P. In Cartesian coordinates this vector has components x, y, z,
thus one can write
r = x e
x
+ y e
y
+ z e
z
. (1.17)
3. COORDENADAS CILNDRICAS
3.1 Cylindrical Coordinates 115
The relationships between e

, e

, e
z
can be easily worked out, for example,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (cos i+sin j) = cos

2
+ sin
2
= 1,
e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = 0,

e

= (cos i+sin j) (sin i+cos j) = cos

2
k + sin
2
k = k = e
z
.
Taken together, they form an orthonormal basis set
e

= e

= e
z
e
z
= 1,
e

= e

e
z
= e
z
e

= 0, (3.11)
e

= e
z
, e

e
z
= e

, e
z
e

= e

.
The position vector r, from the origin to any point in space, is clearly seen in
Fig. 3.1 to be
r = e

+ ze
z
. (3.12)
This expression can also be obtained from directly transforming r = xi+yj+zk
into the cylindrical coordinates.
Any vector can be expressed in terms of them. If the vector is a function
of the position, then
A(, , z) = A

(, , z) e

+ A

(, , z) e

+ A
z
(, , z) e
z
. (3.13)
In general, each component is a function of , , z. Unlike the constant
unit vector i, j, k in the rectangular coordinate system, only e
z
= k is xed
in space, the directions of e

, e

change as the point is moved around. Note

that both e

and e

depend on . In particular,

(cos i+sin j) = sin i+cos j = e

(sin i+cos j) = (cos i+sin j) =e

, (3.14)

= 0.
Example 3.1.1. Show that the acceleration of a particle expressed in cylindri-
cal coordinates is given by
a =

+ 2

+

ze
z
,
where dots denote dierentiation with respect to time t.
Solution 3.1.1. Since the position vector is given by r = e

+ ze
z
, the
velocity is v =

r,
116 3 Curved Coordinates

r=

+

ze
z
,
where e
z
is a constant unit vector and e

depends on . Since by (3.14)

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

e

r=

+

ze
z
.
The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, therefore a =

v =

r,

r =

e

+

ze
z
.
Again by (3.14),

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

(e

),

r =

e

2
e

+

ze
z
.
Therefore
a =

r=

+ (2

)e

+

ze
z
.
3.1.1 Dierential Operations
Gradient. Starting from the denition of gradient in the Cartesian coordi-
nates, we can use the coordinate transformation to express it in terms of
(, , z) . Using (3.4) and (3.5),
= i

x
+j

y
+k

z
= (cos e

sin e

)

x
+ (sin e

+ cos e

)

y
+e
z

z
=

cos

x
+ sin

sin

x
+ cos

+

z
e
z
. (3.15)
By chain rule and (3.6)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= cos

x
+ sin

y
, (3.16)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= sin

x
+ cos

y
. (3.17)
With these expressions, (3.15) becomes
=

+
1

+

z
e
z
. (3.18)
116 3 Curved Coordinates

r=

+

ze
z
,
where e
z
is a constant unit vector and e

depends on . Since by (3.14)

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

e

r=

+

ze
z
.
The acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, therefore a =

v =

r,

r =

e

+

ze
z
.
Again by (3.14),

=
de

dt
=
d
dt
de

d
=

(e

),

r =

e

2
e

+

ze
z
.
Therefore
a =

r=

+ (2

)e

+

ze
z
.
3.1.1 Dierential Operations
Gradient. Starting from the denition of gradient in the Cartesian coordi-
nates, we can use the coordinate transformation to express it in terms of
(, , z) . Using (3.4) and (3.5),
= i

x
+j

y
+k

z
= (cos e

sin e

)

x
+ (sin e

+ cos e

)

y
+e
z

z
=

cos

x
+ sin

sin

x
+ cos

+

z
e
z
. (3.15)
By chain rule and (3.6)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= cos

x
+ sin

y
, (3.16)

=
x

x
+
y

y
= sin

x
+ cos

y
. (3.17)
With these expressions, (3.15) becomes
=

+
1

+

z
e
z
. (3.18)
11/10/13
3
REPRESENTACIN DE UN VECTOR

4. COORDENADAS ESFRICAS
20 Coordinate Systems and Vectors
e
r
^
e

^
e

^
x
y
z
O
r

P
(r, , )

Figure 1.13: Unit vectors of spherical coordinates. Note that the intersection of the
shaded plane with the xy-plane is a line along the cylindrical coordinate .
But (x, y, z) are also the coordinates of the point P. This can be a source of dierence between
coordinates and
components
explained
confusion when other coordinate systems are used. For example, in spherical
coordinates, the components of the vector r at P are r, 0, 0 because r has
only a component along e
r
and none along e

or e

. One writes
11
r = r e
r
. (1.18)
However, the coordinates of P are still (r, , )! Similarly, the coordinates of
P are (, , z) in a cylindrical system, while
r = e

+ z e
z
, (1.19)
because r lies in the z-plane and has no component along e

. Therefore,
Box 1.3.4. Make a clear distinction between the components of the
vector r and the coordinates of the point P.
A common symptom of confusing components with coordinates is as fol-
lows. Point P
1
has position vector r
1
with spherical components r
1
, 0, 0
at P
1
. The position vector of a second point P
2
is r
2
with spherical compo-
nents r
2
, 0, 0 at P
2
. It is easy to fall into the trap of thinking that r
1
r
2
has spherical components r
1
r
2
, 0, 0! This is, of course, not true, because
the spherical unit vectors at P
1
are completely dierent from those at P
2
,
and, therefore, contrary to the Cartesian case, we cannot simply subtract
components.
11
We should really label everything with P. But, as usual, we assume this labeling to be
implied.
12.2 Time Derivative of Vectors 353
We could have immediately obtained this result by comparing Equation (12.12)
with the expression for e

in Equation (1.39). The other partial derivative is

obtained the same way:
e
r

= e
x

(sin cos ) + e
y

(sin sin ) + e
z

(cos )
= e
x
sin sin + e
y
sin cos
= ( e
r
sin cos + e

cos cos e

sin ) sin sin

+ ( e
r
sin sin + e

cos sin + e

cos ) sin cos

= e

sin . (12.15)
Substituting this and Equation (12.14) in the expression for velocity, we obtain components of
velocity in
spherical
coordinates
v = e
r
r + r

e
r

+
e
r

= e
r
r + e

r

+ e

r sin. (12.16)
To write the equations of motion, we need to calculate the acceleration
which involves the dierentiation of other unit vectors. The procedure out-
lined for e
r
can be used to obtain the partial derivatives of the other unit vec-
tors. We collect the result of such calculations, including Equations (12.14)
and (12.15) in the following:
e
r
r
= 0,
e
r

= e

,
e
r

= e

sin,
e

r
= 0,
e

= e
r
,
e

= e

cos , (12.17)
e

r
= 0,
e

= 0,
e

= e
r
sin e

cos .
Similarly the time-derivatives of the unit vectors are given as follows:
d e
r
dt
=

e

+ sin e

,
d e

dt
=

e
r
+ cos e

, (12.18)
d e

dt
= sin e
r
cos e

.
Dierentiating Equation (12.16) with respect to t, inserting (12.18) in the
result, and collecting the components, we get components of
acceleration in
spherical
coordinates
d
2
r
dt
2
=
dv
dt
= e
r

r r

2
r
2
sin
2

+ e

r

+
d
dt
(r

) r
2
sin cos

(12.19)
+ e

r sin + r

cos +
d
dt
(r sin )

.
REPRESENTACIN DE UN VECTOR

4. COORDENADAS ESFRICAS
152 3 Curved Coordinates
8. A particle is moving in space. Show that the spherical coordinate compo-
nents of its velocity and acceleration are given by
v
r
=

r, v

= r

, v

= r sin

,
a
r
=
..
r r
.

2
r sin
2

2
,
a

= r
..
+ 2
.
r
.
r cos sin
.

2
,
a

= r sin
..
+ 2
.
r sin
.
+ 2r cos
.

.
.
9. Starting with the expression of in spherical system, express e
r
, e

, e

in terms of i, j, k, then equate it with in rectangular coordinates.

In this way, verify that

x
= sin cos

r
+ cos cos
1
r

sin
r sin

y
= sin sin

r
+ cos sin
1
r

+
cos
r sin

z
= cos

r
sin
1
r

.
10. Use the innitesimal volume element V of Fig. 3.4 and the denition of
the divergence
F =
1
V

S
F n da
to derive the expression of the divergence in the spherical coordinate
system.
11. Find the expression of the Laplacian
2
in spherical coordinates by
directly transforming
2
=
2
/x
2
+
2
/y
2
+
2
/z
2
into spherical coor-
dinates using the results of the last problem.
12. Show that the following three forms of
2
(r) are equivalent:
(a)
1
r
2
d
dr

r
2
d
dr
(r)

, (b)
d
2
dr
2
(r) +
2
r
d
dr
(r) , (c)
1
r
d
2
dr
2
[r(r)] .
13. (a) Show that the vector eld
F =

A
B
r
3

cos e
r

A +
B
2r
3

sin e

is irrotational (F = 0) .
(b) Find a scalar potential such that = F.
(c) Show that satises the Laplace equation
2
= 0.
Ans. =

Ar +
B
2r
2

cos .
Una partcula est movindose por el espacio. Demuestre que las componentes
esfercas de su velocidad y aceleracin vienen dadas por las siguientes
expresiones:

11/10/13
4
REPRESENTACIN VECTORIAL DE LA POSICIN, VELOCIDAD Y ACELERACIN DE UNA
PARTCULA EN DISTINTOS SISTEMAS DE COORDENADAS.
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