The Equations of Change for Nonisothermal Systems

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we generalize the shell energy balance and

obtain the equation of energy, a partial differential equation that describes the transport of energy in a homogeneous fluid or solid.

THE ENERGY EQUATION

The equation of change for energy is obtained by applying the

law of conservation of energy to a small element of volume x y z.

The law of conservation of energy is an extension of the first

law of classical thermodynamics, which concerns the difference in internal energies of two equilibrium states of a closed system because of the heat added to the system and the work done on the system (that is, the familiar U=Q+W).

 Here we are interested in a stationary volume element, fixed in

space, through which a fluid is flowing. Both kinetic energy and internal energy may be entering and leaving the system by convective transport.

Heat may enter and leave the system by heat conduction as well.

As we saw in Chapter 9, heat conduction is fundamentally a molecular process.

Work may be done on the moving fluid by the stresses, and this,

too, is a molecular process. This term includes the work done by pressure forces and by viscous forces.

In addition, work may be done on the system by virtue of the

external forces, such as gravity.

 In developing the energy equation we will use the e vector,

which includes the first three brackets on the right side of above equation.

Several comments need to be made before proceeding: (i) By kinetic energy we mean that energy associated with the observable motion of the fluid, which is 1/2v2 = 1/2(v . v), per unit volume. Here v is the fluid velocity vector.
(ii) By internal energy we mean the kinetic energies of the

constituent molecules calculated in a frame moving with the velocity v, plus the energies associated with the vibrational and rotational motions of the molecules and also the energies of interaction among all the molecules. It is assumed that the internal energy U for a flowing fluid is the same function of temperature and density as that for a fluid at equilibrium.

(iii) The potential energy does not appear in Eq. 11.1-1, since we

prefer instead to consider the work done on the system by gravity. At the end of this section, however, we show how to express this work in terms of the potential energy.

 The rate of increase of kinetic and internal energy within the

volume element x y z is

Next we have to know how much energy enters and leaves

across the faces of the volume element x y z.

Keep in mind that the e vector includes the convective transport

of kinetic and internal energy, the heat conduction, and the work associated with molecular processes.

 The rate at which work is done on the fluid by the external

force is the dot product of the fluid velocity v and the force acting on the fluid ( x y z)g, or

We now insert these various contributions into Eq. 11.1-1 and

then divide by x y z. When x, y, and z are allowed to go to zero, we get

 This equation does not include nuclear, radioactive,

electromagnetic, or chemical forms of energy

 The equation can be written in another form to include the

potential energy per unit mass,

Finally, we get: