Electricians Notebook

The Industrial
Electrician’s Notebook
Written and Compiled by
Elwood V Gilliland
Contributors
Vail R Gilliland
Introduction to Voltage Regulation
THIS NOTEBOOK BELONGS TO
Kilowatt Classroom
SM
“Interfacing Technology and Craftsmanship”

4PTRES Resistance Measurements Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Three- and Four-Point Method
Four-Point Resistance Measurements
Ohmmeter measurements are normally made with just a two-point measurement method.
However, when measuring very low values of ohms, in the milli- or micro-ohm range, the two-point method is
not satisfactory because test lead resistance becomes a significant factor.
A similar problem occurs when making ground mat resistance tests, because long lead lengths of up to 1000
feet are used. Here also, the lead resistance, due to long lead length, will affect the measurement results.
The four-point resistance measurement method eliminates lead resistance. Instruments based on the four-point
measurement work on the following principle:
• Two current leads, C1 and C2, comprise a two-wire current source that circulates current through the resis-
tance under test.
• Two potential leads, P1 and P2, provide a two-wire voltage measurement circuit that measures the voltage
drop across the resistance under test.
• The instrument computes the value of resistance from the measured values of current and voltage.
Four-Point Measurement Diagram
Leads may be any length.
Instrument
C1
P1
Readout
Current Source VM in Resistance Being Measured
May be AC or DC. Ohms
P2
AM
C2
Three-Point Resistance Measurements

Test Methods
The three-point method, a variation of the four-point method, is usually used when making ground (earth) resis-
tance measurements. With the three-point method, the C1 and P1 terminals are tied together at the instrument and
connected with a short lead to the ground system being tested. This simplifies the test in that only three leads are
required instead of four. Because this common lead is kept short, when compared to the length of the C2 and P2
leads, its effect is negligible. Some ground testers are only capable of the three-point method, so are equipped
with only three test terminals. The three-point method for ground system testing is considered adequate by most
individuals in the electrical industry and is employed on the TPI MFT5010 and the TPI ERT1500.
AN0009-1
The four-point method is required to measure soil resistivity. This process requires a soil cup of specific dimen-
sions into which a representative sample of earth is placed. This process is not often employed in testing electrical
ground systems although it may be part of an initial engineering study.
GTEST1 Ground Testing Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Purpose / TPI Instrument Features
Purpose
The purpose of electrical ground testing is to determine the effectiveness of the grounding medium with respect to
true earth. Most electrical systems do not rely on the earth to carry load current (this is done by the system con-
ductors) but the earth may provide the return path for fault currents, and for safety, all electrical equipment frames
are connected to ground.
The resistivity of the earth is usually negligible because there so much of it available to carry current. The limiting
factor in electrical grounding systems is how well the grounding electrodes contact the earth, which is known as
the soil / ground rod interface. This interface resistance component, along with the resistance of the grounding
conductors and the connections, must be measured by the ground test.
In general, the lower the ground resistance, the safer the system is considered to be. There are different regula-
tions which set forth the maximum allowable ground resistance, for example: the National Electrical Code speci-
fies 25 ohms or less; MSHA is more stringent, requiring the ground to be 4 ohms or better; electric utilities con-
struct their ground systems so that the resistance at a large station will be no more than a few tenths of one ohm.
TPI Ground Test Instrument Characteristics
• To avoid errors due to galvanic currents in the earth, TPI ground test instruments use an AC current source.
• A frequency other than 60 hertz is used to eliminate the possibility of interference with stray 60 hertz currents
flowing through the earth.
• The three-point measurement technique is utilized to eliminate the effect of lead length.
• The test procedure, known as the Fall-of-Potential Method, is described on the following page.
Test Products International

Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Ground (Earth) Resistance Testers
Ground Testing
AN0009-2
TPI MFT5010 Multi -Function Tester TPI ERT1500 Earth Resistance Tester
Uses 570 Hz signal at less than 50 Volts RMS Uses 800 Hz signal at less than 50 Volts RMS
for Ground (Earth) Testing. for Ground (Earth) Testing.
Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Test Procedure
Ground Test Procedure

Refer to diagram and example graph on the following page.
In the Fall-of-Potential Method, two small ground rods - often referred to as ground spikes or probes - about 12 “
long are utilized. These probes are pushed or driven into the earth far enough to make good contact with the earth
( 8” - 10” is usually adequate). One of these probes, referred to as the remote current probe, is used to inject the
test current into the earth and is placed some distance (often 100’ ) away from the grounding medium being
tested . The second probe, known as the potential probe, is inserted at intervals within the current path and meas-
ures the voltage drop produced by the test current flowing through the resistance of the earth.
In the example shown on the following page, the remote current probe C2 is located at a distance of 100 feet from
the ground system being tested. The P2 potential probe is taken out toward the remote current probe C2 and
driven into the earth at ten-foot increments.
Based on empirical data (data determined by experiment and observation rather than being scientifically derived),
the ohmic value measured at 62% of the distance from the ground-under-test to the remote current probe, is taken
as the system ground resistance.
The remote current probe must be placed out of the influence of the field of the ground system under test. With all
but the largest ground systems, a spacing of 100 feet between the ground-under-test and the remote current elec-
trode is adequate. When adequate spacing between electrodes exists, a plateau will be developed on the test graph.
Note: A remote current probe distance of less than 100 feet may be adequate on small ground systems.
When making a test where sufficient spacing exists, the instrument will read zero or very near zero when the P2
potential probe is placed near the ground-under-test. As the electrode is moved out toward the remote electrode, a
plateau will be reached where a number of readings are approximately the same value (the actual ground resis-
tance is that which is measured at 62% of the distance between the ground mat being tested and the remote current
electrode). Finally as the potential probe approaches the remote current electrode, the resistance reading will rise
dramatically.
It is not absolutely necessary to make a number of measurements as described above and to construct a graph of
the readings. However, we recommend this as it provides valuable data for future reference and, once you are set-
up, it takes only a few minutes to take a series of readings.
The electrical fields associated with the ground grid and the remote electrode are illustrated on AN0009-5.
An actual ground test is detailed on AN0009-6, and a sample Ground Test Form is provided on AN0009-7.
See AN0009-8 for a simple shop-built wire reel assembly for testing large ground systems.
Short Cut Method

TPI MFT5010 & TPI ERT1500
The short cut method described here determines the ground resistance value and verifies sufficient electrode
Ground Testing
spacing - and it does save time. This procedures uses the 65’ leads supplied with the TPI instruments.
• Connect the T1 instrument jack with the 15’ green lead to the ground system being tested.
• Connect the T3 instrument jack with the red lead to the remote current electrode (spike) placed at distance of
65’ (full length of conductor) from the ground grid being tested.
• Connect the T2 instrument jack with the black lead to the potential probe placed at 40 feet (62% of the 65’
distance) from the ground grid being tested and measure the ground resistance.
• Move the P2 potential probe 6’ (10% of the total distance) to either side of the 40’ point and take readings at
AN0009-3
each of these points. If the readings at these two points are essentially the same as that taken at the 40’ point,
a measurement plateau exists and the 40’ reading is valid. A substantial variation between readings indicates
insufficient spacing.
Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Method
Instrument Set-Up
Ground System Under Test Yellow arrow indicates P2 potential probe @ 62 feet.
Potential probe taken out at 10 foot increments.
Keep this lead as short as Blue indicates return current path through earth.
possible.
T1 T2 T3
(C1 / P1) (P2) (C2)
Ground Test Instrument Remote current probe C2 @ 100’
Digital Display
TPI MFT5010 or
TPI ERT1500 FCN SW
Test Current Path
Select Earth ( RE )
• Test Current (AC ) flows from instrument T3 to
A Note on Instrument Labeling Conventions remote current probe C2 on the red lead.
• Test Current flows from remote current probe C2
The TPI MFT5010 and TPI ERT1500 use the back through the earth to the ground being tested as
terminal designations T1 (C1/P1), T2 (P2), and shown by dashed blue line.
T3 (C2). • Test current flows out of ground grid back to instru-
ment T1 on the short green lead.
The corresponding lead designations on the • Black potential lead P1 is connected to instrument
MFT5010 are E (Earth), S & H.
T2 and is taken out at 10’ increments. It measures
voltage drop produced by the test current flowing
The corresponding lead designations on the
through the earth. (P1 to P2 potential.)
ERT1500 are E (Earth), P (Potential), C (Current).
Sample Ground Resistance Plot

Remote current electrode C2 @ 100 feet.
Potential probe P1 taken out at 10 foot increments.
10
9
Insufficient electrode spacing has no plateau.

8
Resistance in Ohms
7
6
Ground Testing
4 5
3
2
Sufficient electrode spacing has plateau. Ohms @ 62% of distance = 3.3 ohms
1
AN0009-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance in Feet
Equal-Potential Planes
The Existence of Equal-Potential Planes
• When current flows through the earth from a remote test electrode (in the case of a ground test) or remote
fault, the voltage drop which results from the flow of current through the resistance of the earth can be illus-
trated by equal-potential planes. The equal-potential planes are represented in the dashed lines in drawings
below where the spacing between concentric lines represents some fixed value of voltage.
• The concentration of the voltage surrounding a grounding element is greatest immediately adjacent to that
ground. This is shown by the close proximity of lines at the point where the current enters the earth and again
at the point where the current leaves the earth and returns to the station ground mat.
• In order to achieve a proper test using the Fall-of-Potential Ground Test Method, sufficient spacing must exist
between the station ground mat being tested and the remote current electrode such that the equal-potential
lines do not overlap. As shown by the black line in the Sample Plot on the previous page, adequate electrode
spacing will result in the occurrence of a plateau on the resistance plot. This plateau must exist at 62% of the
distance between the ground mat and the remote electrode for the test to be valid. Insufficient spacing results
in an overlap of these equal-potential planes, as illustrated at the bottom of this page and by the red line on the
Sample Plot on the previous page.
• See the Safety Note on AN0009-6 for information on the hazards of Step and Touch-Potentials.
Station Ground Mat Remote Current Electrode

Current leaves the earth and or
returns to the source. Remote Fault
Representation of Equal-Potential Planes

Showing adequate spacing of electrodes
Ground Mat Remote Current Electrode

Ground Testing
AN0009-5

Showing inadequate spacing between the established ground and remote test electrode.
Actual Field Test
This actual ground test was conducted on a pad-mount transformer in a rural mountain area. The single-phase
transformer is supplied by a 12470/7200 volt grounded wye primary and the transformer is grounded by its own
ground rod as well as being tied to the system neutral which is grounded at multiple points along the line. The
distribution line is overhead with just the “dip” to the transformer being underground.
Setting-Up the Ground Tester TPI MFT5010 Instrument

Red arrow shows location of C2 probe. Showing the 50 foot reading of 4.0 Ohms.
Ground Test Data Test Procedure
Remote Current Probe C2 @ 100 Feet Terminal T1 of the TPI MFT5010 tester was connected to the
transformer case ground with the short green lead.
P2 Distance from Instrument Reading
Transformer in Feet in Ohms The remote Current Probe C2 was driven in the ground at a
location 100 feet from the transformer and connected to
10 1.83
Terminal T3 of the instrument with the red test lead.
20 3.59
Terminal T2 of the tester was connected, using the 100’
30 3.85 black lead, to the P2 potential probe. This ground stake was
40 3.95 inserted into the ground at 10’ intervals and a resistance
measurement was made at each location and recorded in the
50 4.0 table at the left.
60 4.25 The relatively constant readings in the 4 ohm range between
62* 4.3 40 and 70 feet is a definite plateau that indicates sufficient
lead spacing. The initial readings close to the transformer are
70 4.5 lower, and there is a pronounced “tip-up” as the P2 probe
approaches the remote current electrode C2.
80 5.4
Ground Testing
90 7.3 The measured ground resistance at 62 feet (62% of the dis-

tance) was 4.3 ohms and is taken as the system ground resis-
100 25.02 tance. This is an excellent value for this type of an installa-
* Actual Ground resistance. tion.
Safety Note - Possible Existence of Hazardous Step and Touch Potentials

AN0009-6
It is recommended that rubber gloves be worn when driving the ground rods and connecting the instrument leads.
The possibility of a system fault occurring at the time the ground test is being conducted is extremely remote.
However, such a fault could result in enough current flow through the earth to cause a possible hazardous step
potential between a probe and where the electrician is standing, or hazardous touch potential between the probes
and the system ground. The larger the system, in terms of available fault current, the greater the possible risk.
Ohms
A Shop-Built Ground Test Wire Reel Assembly
GTEST8
This simple, low-cost, and easy-to-build wire reel assembly is handy for making Ground (Earth) Resistance measurements on large ground systems.
The unit shown below has 500 feet of wire for testing medium-to-large ground fields typical of those found in industrial plants and substations. For test-
ing even larger systems, such as those installed for power generating plants, wire lengths of 1000 feet can be used. Wrap-on wire markers are installed
every ten feet on the current lead to simplify placement of the remote current and potential probes. Your electrical distributor will probably have empty
surplus reels available for the asking - the ones shown below are about 12 inches in diameter. The conductor is standard #12 THHN. Even though the
TPI ERT1500 and the MFT5010 use an AC test signal, the test results are unaffected by the inductance of any wire left on the reels.
Surplus Plastic Wire Reels 5/16” bolt inserted in tee-nut

(2 required) locks center shaft in position.
Outside conductor is
connected to remote Remote Potential Lead
current ground stake. Take out at ten-foot intervals
toward remote current stake.
Remote Current Lead
Mark at ten-foot intervals with
numbered wire markers to
simplify probe placement. 3/4” GRC Reel Shaft.
Thread ends and use pipe cap
on each end.
Bring short length of inside
Reel Assembly
Ground Testing
conductor out from each reel for

connection to instrument.
1/2” GRC Reel Crank Handle ( 2 )
with 3/8” bolt center shaft.
Fasten bolt solidly to reel but leave
3/4” Plywood Reel Support handle free to turn on shaft.
Outside conductor is
Carrying Handle (2 Required) connected to potential
Do not lift assembly by reel ground stake.
handles.
1-1/4” PVC Spacers
Detail
Center Shaft Spacers
AN0009-8
Ground Testing
Copyright 2004 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
HVCM1 AC Current Measurement Copyright 2004 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
On High Voltage Systems
Page 1 of 3
Overview
Quick, accurate, and safe current measurements can be made on medium and high-voltage systems at
the secondary of instrument current transformers (CT’s) using the TPI A254 Low-Current Clamp-On
Adapter. The low-range accuracy (down to 10 milliamps) of the adapter permits measurements on the
5-amp secondary of CT’s without placing the meter in series with the current transformer secondary,
and without being in close proximity to the high-voltage side of the current transformer.
WARNING! This procedure is intended for use by qualified individuals only. Work must be performed in
accordance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.269.
When making AC current measurements, the TPI A254 Adapter can be used with the TPI 122, 126,
133, 153, 163, and 183 Digital Multimeters, the TPI 440 Scopemeter, and the TPI 460 Dual-Channel
Oscilloscope. See additional Application Notes for specific instructions on the TPI 183, 440, and 460.
Applications
It is often necessary to make recordings of equipment operation, particularly of medium voltage motor
starting, in order to determine the motor actual locked-rotor-amps (LRA), full-load-amps (FLA), accelera-
tion time, and power factor. This data is often required to verify proper protective relay settings, for inclu-
sion in commissioning reports, and to establish an operating baseline for future system troubleshooting.
The TPI 440 Scopemeter, and 460 Oscilloscope both have the ability to store data and waveforms.
Optional software is available to permit downloading the stored information to a computer and then
printed to obtain a permanent hard-copy record.
The TPI A254 Adapter
The A254 is capable of current measurements on either AC or DC systems. For this ap-
plication only the AC mode is utilized.
The adapter’s low-range accuracy is due in part to the small clamp-on opening diameter
which insures good coupling but is large enough for metering, protective relaying, and
other instrument wiring.
As with all TPI current adapters, the clamp-on converts current to a proportional
millivoltage (mV). The adapter is plugged into the voltage input of the multimeter, 440
Scopemeter, or 460 Oscilloscope and the instrument display is read as current.
There are two switch-selectable ranges on the A254: 0-10 mV/amp and 0-100 mV/amp.
The A254 adapter is accurate down to 10 milliamps but it has a maximum rating of 60 amps so the in-
strument will not be over-ranged during measurements made on the secondary of the CT which, in the
case of a motor start trending, may momentarily go to six-times (or more) of the full-load current of the
motor. (Maximum permissible adapter current of 60 amps would be 12 times the CT 5 amp secondary.)
Application Note
WARNING! - Current Transformer Safety
• This procedure is for measurement only on the secondary circuit of current transformers and may
not be used within the high voltage equipment cubicle.
• The secondary of a current transformer must never be open-circuited. It must have a burden
connected or be short-circuited. An open circuited CT can develop a dangerously high secondary
voltage.
AN0008
For more information on Current Transformers and CT safety see The Industrial Electrician’s Notebook
Article 0016: Current Transformers - Part 1.
Page 2 of 3
Typical CT Current Loop
High Voltage Cubicle Low Voltage Control / Instrument Cubicle

High Voltage Bus
AM
50 51
CT Shorting Block
Current
Protective Relay Panel Ammeter
Transformer
in Draw-Out Case
Typical CT Secondary Loop
TPI Digital Multimeter

TPI 440 Scopemeter
TPI 460 Oscilloscope
WARNING !
Do not enter or make measure-
ments within this compartment. TPI A254 Current may be measured anywhere in
Low-Current Adapter the CT secondary loop within the low-
voltage cubicle.
Typical Measurement Calculation
Assume for this example the Current Transformer (CT) Ratio is 800/5.
Assume that with the A254 Low-Current Adapter switch placed in the 100 mV/A position, the meter reads
246 millivolts.
The CT secondary current would be 246 / 100 = 2.46 amps.
The CT primary current would be 2.46 x 160 = 393.6 amps. (Note 800/5 = 160/1.)
Determining the CT Ratio
The Current Transformer ratio can be determined using the System One-Line Diagram, or if an analog
panel meter is used, the full-scale value of the ammeter will indicate the CT primary current.
The CT ratio can also be determined from the Current Transformer nameplate, or may be painted in large
numbers on the CT. Do not open or enter the high-voltage compartment without following proper
de-energizing, lockout/tagout, and grounding procedures as per OSHA 29 CFR 1910.269.
Application Note
WARNING! - Current Transformer Safety
• This procedure is for measurement only on the secondary circuit of current transformers and may not
be used within the high voltage equipment cubicle.
• The secondary of a current transformer must never be open-circuited. It must have a burden
connected or be short-circuited. An open circuited CT can develop a dangerously high secondary
AN0008
voltage.
For more information on Current Transformers and CT safety see The Industrial Electrician’s Notebook
Article 0016: Current Transformers - Part 1.
Page 3 of 3
4500 H.P. Medium Voltage Synchronous Motor
4160 Volt Motor Control Center - Field Excitation / Relay Cubicle - Showing back of Door
Current measurement using the TPI A254 Low-Current Adapter and TPI 460 Oscilloscope.
Field Current Ammeter

Power Factor Meter
Ammeter
0 - 5 Amp Range TPI 460
Scale 0 - 800 Amps Dual-Channel
Oscilloscope
Synchronous Motor
Field Adjustment Autotransformer
DC Field Ground Relay
TPI A254 Low-Current Adapter
Ammeter Switch High Voltage Breaker Compartment

WARNING! Do not enter or make measurements within
the HV cubicle. Also see Safety Notes on Pages 1 & 2.
Schematic Diagram of Measurement Set-up
Low Voltage Cubicle 4160 Main Bus

WARNING! Measurements permitted in this switchgear section only.
A254 Adapter Motor

AM Protective
Relay* 52 Device
Trip
Motor Breaker
PF* AMS
Current Transformers (CT’s)

Isolate the meter and relay
circuits from the high volt-
*Potential transformer connections not shown.
age, provide for a grounded
Application Note
Measurement Notes secondary, and reduce the

Motor current to a 0 - 5 amp value.
For current measurement, adapter polarity
(placement around conductor) is not critical.
Legend
Convenience usually dictates the point at
which the current measurement is made. Any
AM - Panel Ammeter
phase CT secondary would be acceptable.
AMS - Ammeter Switch
AN0008
PF - Power Factor Meter

When using the 460 Oscilloscope, a direct
amperage reading can be obtained using
460 O’Scope Channel B.
XIST4 Transistor Test Procedure Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
An ohmmeter can be used to test the base-to-emitter PN junction and the base-to-collector PN junction of a bipolar
junction transistor in the same way that a diode is tested. You can also identify the polarity (NPN or PNP) of an
unknown device using this test. In order to do this you will need to be able to identify the emitter, base, and col-
lector leads of the transistor. Refer to a semiconductor data reference manual if you are not sure of the lead iden-
tification. Note: While this test can be used to determine that the junctions are functional and that the transistor is
not open or shorted, it will not convey any information about the common emitter current gain (amplification fac-
tor) of the device. A special transistor tester is required to measure this parameter known as the Hfe or Beta. .
TPI 183 Digital Multimeter PNP Test Procedure
• Connect the meter leads with the

polarity as shown and verify that
PNP Transistor the base-to-emitter and base-to-
Simplified Diagram collector junctions read as a for-
COLLECTOR
ward biased diode: 0.5 to 0.8
VDC.
• Reverse the meter connections to

the transistor and verify that both
Select P PN junctions do not conduct.
Diode Meter should indicate an open
circuit. (Display = OUCH or OL.)
BASE N
• Finally read the resistance from
P emitter to collector and verify an
open circuit reading in both direc-
tions. (Note: A short can exist
from emitter to collector even if
the individual PN junctions test
EMITTER
properly.)
TPI 183 Digital Multimeter NPN Test Procedure

the base-to-emitter and base-to-
NPN Transistor collector junctions read as a for-
Simplified Diagram ward biased diode: 0.5 to 0.8
VDC.
COLLECTOR

Application Note
Select PN junctions do not conduct.

Diode N Meter should indicate an open
BASE P • Finally read the resistance from
emitter to collector and verify an
N open circuit reading in both direc-
AN0007

properly.)
EMITTER
ACIMEAS AC Current Measurement Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
TPI 183 Multimeter
3 Phase Supply
MCP or Circuit Breaker
Typical Across-the-Line Three-Phase Starter
Select VH Z
Contactor
TPI A256 AC/DC Adapter OL

Polarity does not matter . Heaters
Adapter Dual Banana Plug

Insert in COM and V Select Current Range
2-Conductor Adapter Cable 40A or 400A Motor
Based on Motor Amps
Measuring AC Amps with Clamp Adapter
WARNING! Do not attempt to make a current measurement in excess of Clamp Adapter range switch setting.
Note: The TPI A256 Adapter has 40 amp and 400 amp switch positions. Set the adaptor switch for the maximum
expected current. For motor starting current measurement use motor Locked Rotor Amps (LRA). For motor
running amps use Motor Full-Load Amps (FLA).
CAUTION! Do not remove adapter dual banana plug from meter with clamp adapter around motor lead.
First remove clamp adapter from motor lead then unplug adapter dual banana plug.
Example: Determining Motor Amperage
• Set Meter Selector Switch on VHZ (AC Volts).

Application Note
Note: The TPI A256 Current Adapter converts amps to millivolts (1mV / amp).
• Plug Clamp Adapter dual banana plug into meter COM and V.
• Set the Adapter Range Switch for the maximum anticipated current (40 or 400 amps).
• Place adapter probe around single motor lead.
• Read millivolts as amps.
AN0006
ACEMEAS AC Voltage & Frequency Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
TPI 183 Multimeter Simultaneous AC Frequency Measurements
The TPI 183 triple-line display permits simultaneous AC Frequency

Measurements while making AC Volts Measurements.
Note: See separate Instrument Application Note for making frequency

measurement to 200 kHz using the Hz Selector Switch Position.
• Connect meter for AC Voltage Measurement as shown.
• Press unmarked gray button and read frequency on third display.
L1
Select VH Z
L2
FU1 FU2
L3
MCP
Measuring AC Volts
CAUTION! Do not attempt to make a voltage measurement if a test lead is plugged in the A or µmA input
jack. Instrument damage and/or personal injury may result.
Note: Voltage is always measured across two circuit points ( in parallel with circuit element under test).
On the voltage range with leads plugged-in to the meter as shown the meter has a very high input impedance
and draws almost no current from the circuit under test.
WARNING! Do not attempt to make a voltage measurements of more than 750 VAC or of a voltage level
that is unknown.
CAUTION! Always check meter test leads before use to be certain they are in good condition and use test
leads with an insulating rating acceptable for the system voltage.
Example: Measuring Control Transformer Secondary Voltage

Application Note
• Set meter selector switch on V HZ (AC Volts) position.

• Plug in meter leads as shown: Black lead - Meter COM (Common), Red lead - Meter V (Volts).
• Apply probes to circuit test locations. Read AC Voltage on main display.
The TPI 183 is auto-ranging (selects appropriate decimal point) and will display the voltage to the greatest
degree of accuracy possible.
AN0005
OMEAS Resistance Measurement Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
TPI 183 Multimeter
Typical Three-Phase Starter with Reduced Voltage Control
Select Ω
3-Phase
(Ohms)
Supply MOTOR
120 VAC Control Circuit
START
STOP OL
1 2 3
M
Ma
Caution: Breaker must be open or
fuses pulled to de-energize circuit.
Resistance (Ohms) Measurement
WARNING! Do not attempt to make resistance measurements with circuit energized.
Note: The ohmmeter internal battery provides power to make this measurement; therefore, ohms measurements
can be made only on de-energized circuits! When practical, isolate the component from the circuit before
attempting to measure its ohmic value to prevent a parallel path through other components. In the example
above, the normally open START push button and normally open auxiliary contact Ma prevent a parallel path
through the control transformer secondary.
Example: Checking the resistance of a contactor coil.

• Disconnect power from circuit to be measured.
• Select Meter Ω ( Ohms) function.
• Plug in the meter leads as shown: Black lead - Meter COM (Common), Red lead - Meter Ω (Ohms).
• Connect leads across coil (or any circuit component to be measured). Lead polarity does not matter. Read
OHMS value on display. OUCH indicates open circuit.
Application Note
AN0004
DCIMEAS DC Current Measurement Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
TPI 183 Multimeter
Typical 4-20 mA Control Loop
PLC Analog Input Module 24 VDC Loop

Select mA Power Supply
Other Loop-Powered
NEG POS
Inputs 2-Wire Transmitter
_ 4 - 20 mA output
+
+
POS _
Ch Input + _
COM
Optional Test Points Process Variable
Measuring DC Milliamps
CAUTION! Do not attempt to make a current measurement with the test leads connect in parallel with the
circuit to be tested. Test leads must be connected in series with the circuit.
Note: Current is always measured with the meter placed in series with the circuit. On the current range with
leads plugged-in to the meter as shown the meter has a very low input impedance and the current flow
through the meter is limited by the circuit elements in series with the meter.
WARNING! Do not attempt to make a current measurements if more than 600 volts is present. Instrument
damage and/or personal injury may result.
leads with an insulating rating acceptable for the system voltage.
Example: Process Control 4 -20 mA Loop Current Measurement

Application Note
• Set Meter Selector Switch on mA (AC or DC Milliamps).

• Plug in the meter leads as shown: Black lead - COM (Common), Red lead - µ mA (micro or milliamps).
• Open 4 - 20 milliamp loop and connect the meter in series with the loop. Note: This loop can be opened
at any one of three points. Convenience usually dictates the location. Caution - Be sure loop can be
opened safely without causing a system operating problem!
• Connect meter red lead clip to the Transmitter Negative terminal.
• Close the loop by connecting the meter black lead clip to the conductor which was removed from the
AN0003
Transmitter Negative terminal. (This results in a current flow through the meter in a positive to
negative direction.)
DCEMEAS DC Voltage Measurements Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
TPI 183 Multimeter
Minus sign
displayed when V
input (red lead)
is negative with
respect to COM
Bench-Type Adjustable DC Power Supply

---
Select V
OUTPUT ADJ
POS V
COM
NEG V
Measuring DC Volts
CAUTION! Do not attempt to make a voltage measurement if a test lead is plugged in the A or µmA input
jack. Instrument damage and/or personal injury may result.
Note: Voltage is always measured across two circuit points ( in parallel with circuit element under test).
On the voltage range with leads plugged-in to the meter as shown the meter has a very high input impedance
and draws almost no current from the circuit under test.
WARNING! Do not attempt to make a voltage measurements of more than 1000 VDC or of a voltage level
that is unknown.
leads with an insulating rating acceptable for the maximum system voltage.
Application Note
Example: Checking Double-Ended DC Power Supply Output Voltage

---
• Set Meter Selector Switch on V (DC Volts - Steady or Pulsing)
• Plug in the meter leads as shown: Black lead - Meter COM (Common), Red lead - Meter V (Volts).
• Clip black test lead to power supply COM (common).
• Clip red test lead to power supply POS V (PS DC Pos Out). Meter will display the positive DC voltage.
• To check PS NEG Out, move red lead to power supply NEG V. Meter will indicate the negative DC
voltage with negative sign on the display.
AN0002
The TPI 183 is auto-ranging (selects appropriate decimal point) and will display the voltage to the greatest
degree of accuracy possible.
VFD1 VFD Fundamentals Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Variable Frequency Drive Fundamentals
AC Motor Speed - The speed of an AC induction motor depends upon two factors:
1) The number of motor poles
2) The frequency of the applied power.

120 x Frequency
AC Motor Speed Formula: RPM =
Number of Poles
Example: For example, the speed of a 4-Pole Motor operating at 60 Hz would be:
120 x 60 / 4 = 7200 / 4 = 1800 RPM
Variable Frequency
Inverter Drives - An inverter is an electronic power unit for generating AC power. By using an inverter-type
AC drive, the speed of a conventional AC motor* can be varied through a wide speed range from zero through
the base (60 Hz) speed and above (often to 90 or 120 hertz).
Voltage and Frequency Relationship - When the frequency applied to an induction motor is reduced, the ap-
plied voltage must also be reduced to limit the current drawn by the motor at reduced frequencies. (The induc-
tive reactance of an AC magnetic circuit is directly proportional to the frequency according to the formula
XL = 2 f L. Where: = 3.14, f = frequency in hertz, and L= inductive reactance in Henrys.)
Variable speed AC drives will maintain a constant volts/hertz relationship from 0 - 60 Hertz. For a 460 motor
this ratio is 7.6 volts/Hz. To calculate this ratio divide the motor voltage by 60 Hz. At low frequencies the volt-
age will be low, as the frequency increases the voltage will increase. (Note: this ratio may be varied somewhat
to alter the motor performance characteristics such a providing a low-end boost to improve starting torque.)
Depending on the type of AC Drive, the microprocessor control adjusts the output voltage waveform, by one of
several methods, to simultaneously change the voltage and frequency to maintain the constant volts/hertz ratio
throughout the 0 - 60 Hz range. On most AC variable speed drives the voltage is held constant above the 60
hertz frequency. The diagram below illustrates this voltage/frequency relationship.
CONSTANT TORQUE CONSTANT HP VFD Speed Torque Characteristics

90 100
Blue = Horsepower
Red = Torque
80
PERCENT HP AND TORQUE
Green = Motor Nameplate Frequency (60 Hz)

60 70
In Constant Torque Area - VFD supplies rated

motor nameplate voltage and motor develops
full horsepower at 60 hertz base frequency.
50
40
In Constant Horsepower Area - VFD delivers

motor nameplate rated voltage from 60 Hertz to
20 30
120 hertz (or drive maximum). Motor horse-

power is constant in this range but motor torque
is reduced as frequency increases.
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Note: Motor HP = Torque x RPM

FREQUENCY HZ
Sheet 1
*Inverter Duty Motors - Initially standard AC motors were employed on inverter drives. Most motor manufacturers
now offer Inverter Duty Motors which provide improved performance and reliability when used in Variable Frequency
Applications. These special motors have insulation designed to withstand the steep-wave-front voltage impressed by
the VFD waveform, and are redesigned to run smoother and cooler on inverter power supplies.
VFD5 Inverter Principle Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Output Module
Shown below is a typical Medium Voltage VFD transistorized output module. One of these modules is used for
each phase in a three-phase drive. Modules are a complete functional block that may include: multi-stage amplifi-
ers, resistors, capacitors and free-wheeling diodes. Transistors are switched on and off by logic level base-to-
emitter signal (or gate signal in the case of IGBT’s) from the VFD microprocessor control. The length of time the
transistors are turned on (duty cycle) determines the pulse width.
DC Link Positive Terminal C1
Base-Emitter Signal Input Pins

Size of pictured module:
4.25” wide x 2.5” deep x 1.5” high
Variable Frequency
Phase Output Terminal E1 C2 DC Link Negative Terminal E2
Module Mounting Holes
Heat Sink on Module Back-Plane Module Schematic Diagram
VFD Output Section Schematic
DC Link Positive
Free-Wheeling Diodes (6)

Protect IGBT’s from reverse bias
inductive surges due to motor field
decay which results when the tran-
sistors turn off.
DC Link Negative
Voltage Pulses Resultant Current
One Output Module
Three-Phase Motor PWM Waveform Phase A to B
Inverter Principle
Inverter circuitry generates an Alternating Current (AC) by sequentially switching a Direct Current (DC) in alternate
directions through the load. The illustration above shows the generation of a single positive pulse (red) and a single
negative pulse (green) which occurs 180 electrical degrees later. To analyze the circuit assume a conventional current
flow (positive to negative direction). The black arrows on the emitter of each transistor indicate the direction of con-
ventional current through the transistors. This is a three-phase drive, so at certain times during the cycle transistors
will be turned on to cause current flow through the A - C and B - C motor windings (see next page) but for clarity this
is not shown in the above illustration. For this analysis also assume that the free-wheeling diodes are non-conducting.
Sheet 2
Transistors 1A and 2B are turned on and off by the microprocessor control and current flows from the DC bus positive,
through the motor windings as shown by the red arrows producing the positive (red ) voltage pulse, and back to the DC
bus negative. To generate the next half-cycle transistors 1B and 2A will be turned on and off and the current flow will
reverse through the motor winding as shown by the green arrows which result in the negative (green) pulse.
VFD6 Output Switching Sequence Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
The following illustrations show the switching sequence of the output transistors, SCR’s, or GTO’s used in a VFD to
produce a three-phase AC waveform. Since each these devices are functioning as solid-state switches, the circuit op-
eration can be easily visualized by representing these devices as open or closed mechanical switches.
Switches closed to the positive bus are shown in red, switches closed to the negative bus are shown in black, and open
switches are shown in gray. When a particular winding is connected to the same bus potential (either positive or nega-
tive) the voltage across that winding will be zero. If a winding is connected so that the positive voltage is connected to
the first letter of the winding label (for example the A in AB) the voltage produced across that winding is positive. If
a winding is connected so that the positive voltage is connected to the second letter of the winding label (for example
B in AB) the current flow reverses and the voltage produced across that winding will be of a negative polarity.
Below each diagram is a table listing of the number of electrical degrees through which the switches operate and the
resultant phase voltage produced. Note: On a six-step drive the output devices will be closed throughout the listed
operating range; on a PWM drive, pulses will be produced through this range. See next page for generated waveform.
Variable Frequency
DC LINK POSITIVE DC LINK POSITIVE DC LINK POSITIVE
DC LINK NEGATIVE DC LINK NEGATIVE DC LINK NEGATIVE

B B B
A C A C A C
THREE-PHASE MOTOR THREE-PHASE MOTOR THREE-PHASE MOTOR

0 - 60 DEG 60 - 120 DEG 120 - 180 DEG
VAB = 0 VAB = +E VAB = +E

VBC = +E VBC = 0 VBC = -E
VCA = -E VCA = -E VCA = 0
DC LINK POSITIVE DC LINK POSITIVE DC LINK POSITIVE
DC LINK NEGATIVE DC LINK NEGATIVE DC LINK NEGATIVE

B B B
A C A C A C
THREE-PHASE MOTOR THREE-PHASE MOTOR THREE-PHASE MOTOR

180 - 240 DEG 240 - 300 DEG 300 - 360 DEG
Sheet 3
VAB = 0 VAB = -E VAB = -E

VBC = -E VBC = 0 VBC = +E
VCA = +E VCA = +E VCA = 0
VFD7 VFD Three-Phase Waveform Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Waveform Development
The development of a variable frequency drive three-phase waveform is shown below. Refer to the previous
page to see the switching sequences that produce a particular portion of the waveform.
VAB
Variable Frequency
VBC
VCA
0o 60o 120o 180o 240o 300o 360o 60o 120o
Sheet 4
VFD8 Pulse Width Modulation Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
PWM Sine Wave Synthesis
Low Frequency High Frequency
Smaller pulse widths produce Larger pulse widths produce

lower resultant voltage. higher resultant voltage.
Resultant Sine Wave Current
Pulse Width Pulse Width
Variable Frequency
DC Link Voltage
One Cycle One Cycle
PWM Drive Characteristics
• VFD drive DC link voltage is constant .
• Pulse amplitude is constant over entire frequency range and equal to the DC link voltage.
• Lower resultant voltage is created by more and narrower pulses.
• Higher resultant voltage is created by fewer and wider pulses.
• Alternating current (AC) output is created by reversing the polarity of the voltage pulses.
• Even though the voltage consists of a series of square-wave pulses, the motor current will very closely ap-
proximate a sine wave. The inductance of the motor acts to filter the pulses into a smooth AC current wave-
form.
• Voltage and frequency ratio remains constant from 0 - 60 Hertz. For a 460 motor this ratio is 7.6 volts/Hz.
To calculate this ratio divide the motor voltage by 60 Hz. At low frequencies the voltage will be low, as the
frequency increases the voltage will increase. (Note: this ratio may be varied somewhat to alter the motor
performance characteristics such as providing a low-end boost to improve starting torque.)
• For frequencies above 60 Hz the voltage remains constant. Some AC drives switch from a PWM waveform
to a six-step waveform for 60 Hz and above.
Sheet 5
XIST1 Introduction to Transistors Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Introduction
Typical Transistor Switching Circuit • The transistor is a semiconductor device than can
function as a signal amplifier or as a solid-state
switch. A typical switching circuit using a PNP
transistor is shown at the left.
PLC Output Module Relay
• In a transistor a very small current input signal
(Transistor Load) PLC flowing emitter-to-base is able to control a much
DC Power larger current which flows from the system power
COLLECTOR Supply supply, through the transistor emitter-to-collector,
+
BASE through the load, and back to the power supply.
Small Input Current
From PLC logic. • In this example the input control signal loop is
+ shown in red and the larger output current loop is
EMITTER
Transistors
shown in blue. With no input the transistor will be
turned OFF (cutoff) and the relay will be dropped
Note: The arrow on the emitter lead of the transistor shows the
direction of conventional current flow (positive to negative)
out. When the low-level input from the PLC mi-
through the transistor. croprocessor turns the transistor ON (saturates)
current flows from the power supply, through the
transistor, and picks the relay.
Transistor Packages
There are many transistor case designs. Some conform to JEDEC Standards and are defined by Transistor Out-
line (TO) designations. Several case designs are illustrated below. Solid -state devices other than transistors are
also housed in these same packages. In general, the larger the unit, the greater the current or power rating of
the device.
Power Transistor Small Signal Transistors Power Tab Package

Shown about 1/2 actual size. Shown about twice actual size. Shown about actual size.
Used for power transistors,
three-terminal voltage
regulators, and SCR’s.
Heat Sink
Collector Mounting
Emitter
Tab
Emitter
Base TO-18
Base
Hermetically-Sealed
TO - 92
Case is Collector Case
Plastic Package
TO-3 Package
Center lead is common
with heat sink tab.
JEDEC Numbering System
The Joint Electronic Device Engineering Council - JEDEC - has established semiconductor interchangeability and
cross-reference standards. Devices which bear the same JEDEC number can directly substituted. For example: A
2N4123 transistor is an NPN device with specific voltage and current ratings, a specified gain (amplification factor),
conforms to specific temperature standards, and is housed in the TO-92 plastic package having a standardized pin con-
figuration. A device bearing this number can be substituted regardless of the manufacturer.
However, there are thousands of semiconductors that do not conform to JEDEC standards. In order to insure device
Sheet 1
interchangeability, many manufacturers of electronic systems purchase semiconductors that meet their specific system
requirements and then assign their own part numbers.
Component substitution is one of the most difficult problems facing industrial electricians and technicians.
XIST2 Transistor Types Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Introduction
There are three main classifications of transistors each with its own symbols, characteristics, design parameters,
and applications. See below and the following pages for additional details and applications on each of these
transistor types. Several special-function transistor types also exist which do not fall into the categories below,
such as the unijunction (UJT) transistor that is used for SCR firing and time delay applications. These special-
function devices are described separately.
• Bipolar transistors are considered current driven devices and have a relatively low input impedance. They
are available as NPN or PNP types. The designation describes the polarity of the semiconductor material
used to fabricate the transistor.
• Field Effect Transistors, FET’s, are referred to as voltage driven devices which have a high input imped-
ance. Field Effect Transistors are further subdivided into two classifications: 1) Junction Field Effect Tran-
Transistors
sistors, or JFET’s, and 2) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors or MOSFET’s.
• Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors, known as IGBT’s, are the most recent transistor development. This hy-
brid device combines characteristics of both the Bipolar Transistor with the capacitive coupled, high imped-
ance input, of the MOS device.
DEVICE NAME SYMBOL CHARACTERISTICS

NPN PNP A small input current signal flowing
emitter-to-base in the transistor
COLLECTOR COLLECTOR controls the transistor emitter-to-
collector internal resistance.
Bipolar BASE
BASE Used as amplifiers or switches in a
Transistor
wide variety of equipment ranging
EMITTER
from small signal applications to
EMITTER
high power output devices.
N-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL Input voltage signal is applied to the

gate-source junction in a reverse
FET DRAIN DRAIN biased mode, resulting in a high
Junction input impedance. Input signal varies
Field Effect GATE GATE the source-to-drain internal
Transistor resistance. Applications include
high input impedance amplifier
SOURCE SOURCE circuitry.
N-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL Similar to the JFET above except the

MOS input voltage is capacitive coupled
Metal Oxide DRAIN DRAIN to the transistor. The device is
Semiconductor easily fabricated, inexpensive, and
Field Effect GATE
SUB SUB has a low power drain, but is easily
GATE
Transistor damaged by static discharge.
SOURCE SOURCE Computer chips utilize CMOS
Similar to the Bipolar NPN above

COLLECTOR
except the input voltage is capacitive
IGBT coupled to the transistor as with the
Insulated Gate MOSFET devices. Main application
GATE
Sheet 2
Bipolar is as a switch for the output section

Transistor of small and medium size Variable
Frequency Drives (VFD’s).
EMITTER
XIST3 Transistor Fundamentals Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Bipolar Transistors
Introduction
Bipolar transistors have the following characteristics:
• Bipolar transistors are a three-lead device having an Emitter, a Collector, and a Base lead.
• The Bipolar transistor is a current driven device. A very small amount of current flow emitter-to-base (base
current measured in microamps - µA) can control a relatively large current flow through the device from the
emitter to the collector (collector current measured in milliamps - mA). Bipolar transistors are available in
complimentary polarities. The NPN transistor has an emitter and collector of N-Type semiconductor material
and the base material is P-Type semiconductor material. In the PNP transistor these polarities are reversed:
the emitter and collector are P-Type material and the base is N-Type material.
• NPN and PNP transistors function in essentially the same way. The power supply polarities are simply re-
versed for each type. The only major difference between the two types is that the NPN transistor has a higher
Transistors
frequency response than does the PNP (because electron flow is faster than hole flow). Therefore high fre-
quency applications will utilize NPN transistors.
Note: Bipolar transistors are usually connected in the Common Emitter Configuration meaning that the emitter
lead is common to both the input and output current circuits. The Common Collector and the Common Base con-
figurations are sometimes used in the input or output stages of an amplifier when impedance matching is required.
The following discussion is limited to the Common Emitter Configuration characteristics.
NPN Transistor Construction PNP Transistor

Simplified Diagram Simplified Diagram
• The bipolar transistor is a three-layer semiconductor.
COLLECTOR COLLECTOR
• The base lead connects to the center semiconductor material
of this three-layer device. The base region is dimensionally
thin compared to the emitter and collector regions.
N P
• Two PN (diode) junctions exist within a bipolar transistor.
One PN junction exists between the emitter and the base re-
BASE P gion, a second exists between the collector and the base re- BASE N
gion. (See How to Test a Bipolar Transistor on Sheet 4.)
N P
Bipolar Transistor Symbols

EMITTER
EMITTER
• The arrow is always on the emitter lead and points in the
direction of conventional current flow (positive-to-negative).
As with the diode, the nose of the arrow points to the nega-
tive, or N-Type semiconductor material, and the tail of the
NPN Symbol PNP Symbol
arrow is toward the P-Type material.
COLLECTOR COLLECTOR
• The arrow on the NPN points away from the base.
(Remember as NPN = Not Pointing iN.)
BASE BASE
•
Sheet 3
The arrow on the PNP points toward the base.

EMITTER (Remember as PNP = Pointing iN Pointer.)
EMITTER
DIODECK Diode Test Procedure Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
TPI 183 Digital Multimeter Unlike its predecessor, the Analog Ohmmeter, Digital Ohmmeters require
a special Diode Check Function because the current circulated by the
normal Ohms Function of a digital meter is too low to adequately check a
diode.
In the Diode Check Position, the reading given by a digital meter in the
forward bias direction (meter positive to diode anode and meter negative to
diode cathode) is actually the voltage required to overcome the internal
diode junction potential. For a silicon diode this will be about 0.5 - 0.8
volt; a germanium diode will read slightly lower, about 0.3 - 0.5 volt.
Symbol Notation K (or C) = Cathode, A = Anode.
Select Reverse Bias - Diode Blocks

K A Correct reading: TPI Meter will read
OUCH (open circuit).
Forward Bias - Diode Conducts

A K
Correct reading: Meter will read
about 0.5 - 0.8 volt.
Incorrect readings: If diode reads 0 in both

directions, it is shorted. If it reads OUCH
(open circuit) both directions, it is open.
Diode Test Procedure
WARNING! Ohms and Diode Check measurements can be made only on de-energized circuits! The Ohmmeter
battery provides power to make this measurement. You may need to remove the diode from the circuit to get a
reliable test. See Note below.
• Plug in the meter leads as shown: Black lead - COM (Common), Red lead - Ω (Ohms).
• Select the (Diode Test) function.
• Connect the leads to the Diode-Under-Test as shown in the drawing above and verify the readings are correct
for both a forward and reverse bias. (This is sometimes referred to as checking the front-to-back ratio.)
Note: Large Stud-Mounted Diodes are bolted to a heat sink and Hockey Puck Units are compressed between the
heat sinks; removing them from the circuit can be time-consuming and may be unnecessary. In these situations,
test the entire assembly first, then, if the assembly tests shorted, remove and test the diodes individually. Hockey
Puck Diodes must be compressed in a heat sink assembly or test fixture to be tested as they require compression to
Application Note
make-up the internal connections.
Stud-Mounted Rectifiers may be either Standard

Band Identifies Cathode Polarity (Stud Cathode - Upper Left Illustration)
or Reverse Polarity (Stud Anode - Lower Right ).
A K If unmarked, you can test the diode to determine
AN0001
its polarity. With the meter connected as above,

Typical Axial-Lead Diode when the meter indicates the diode is conducting
(about 0.5 - 0.8 volt) the red lead is connected to
the diode anode and the black lead to the cathode.
XIST4 Transistor Test Procedure Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
An ohmmeter can be used to test the base-to-emitter PN junction and the base-to-collector PN junction of a bipolar
junction transistor in the same way that a diode is tested. You can also identify the polarity (NPN or PNP) of an
unknown device using this test. In order to do this you will need to be able to identify the emitter, base, and col-
lector leads of the transistor. Refer to a semiconductor data reference manual if you are not sure of the lead iden-
tification. Note: While this test can be used to determine that the junctions are functional and that the transistor is
not open or shorted, it will not convey any information about the common emitter current gain (amplification fac-
tor) of the device. A special transistor tester is required to measure this parameter known as the Hfe or Beta. .
TPI 183 Digital Multimeter PNP Test Procedure

PNP Transistor the base-to-emitter and base-to-
Simplified Diagram collector junctions read as a for-
Transistors
COLLECTOR
ward biased diode: 0.5 to 0.8
VDC.

Select P PN junctions do not conduct.
Diode Meter should indicate an open
BASE N
• Finally read the resistance from
P emitter to collector and verify an
open circuit reading in both direc-
EMITTER
properly.)
TPI 183 Digital Multimeter NPN Test Procedure

the base-to-emitter and base-to-
NPN Transistor collector junctions read as a for-
Simplified Diagram ward biased diode: 0.5 to 0.8
VDC.
COLLECTOR

Select PN junctions do not conduct.
Diode N Meter should indicate an open
BASE P • Finally read the resistance from
emitter to collector and verify an
N open circuit reading in both direc-
Sheet 4

properly.)
EMITTER
XIST5 Transistor Specifications Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
NPN Bipolar Transistor
Transistor Curves
A number of performance curves are published on any particular transistor. The Collector Characteristic Curves
are among the most useful. This set of curves plots the Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCE ) and the Collector Current
( IC ) in milliamps for various values of Base Current ( Ib ) in microamps. In the drawing below each curve repre-
sents a base current step of 5 microamps beginning with the bottom curve and progressing upward.
2N4123 Curve Interpretation
The following design consideration refers to the schematic

Region
diagram on the following page. In this example a power

Load Line supply voltage of 30 volts DC was selected and the maxi-
Transistors
mum collector current established at 20 milliamps.
30µa Base Current
• Before the Collector Characteristic Curves can be util-
ized a load line must be established which shows the
circuit operation of the specific application. Here the
maximum applied voltage VCE is shown by the red dot
Saturation
5 µa Curve and the Maximum Collector Current IC is shown by the

green dot. A load line has been constructed between
these two points.
• To evaluate the circuit operation, select a specific base

current and follow it to the intersection of the base
Cutoff VCE Region current line and the load line (shown by the yellow
dot). From intersection of the selected curve and the
• Saturation Region load line, project straight down to determine the VCE
The transistor is fully turned ON and the value (the voltage which will appear across the transistor
of collector current IC is determined by the value from emitter to collector as a result of the 30 microamp
of the load resistance RL . The voltage drop base current) and project straight across to determine
across the transistor VCE is near zero. IC (the current which will flow in the collector as a
result of the specified base current.
• Cut Off Region
The transistor is fully turned OFF and the value In this example for a base current Ib of 30 microamps:
of the collector current IC is near zero. Full the transistor collector voltage VCE across the transistor
power supply voltage appears across the transis- will be 15 volts, and the collector current IC is 10 milli-
tor. Because there is no current flow through the amps. The voltage across the amplifier load resistor
transistor, there is no voltage drop across the RL will be the difference between the power supply
load resistor RL . voltage of 30 VDC and the 15 volts dropped across the
transistor.
• Active Region (Linear Amplification Area)
Is the region to the left of the load line. Linear
amplifiers operate in this area of the curves.
The Common Emitter Configuration
The emitter lead is common to both the input and output current loops. This is the most common circuit configura-
tion because it provides both a current gain and a voltage gain. The common base and common collector configu-
rations are generally used for impedance matching only.
Sheet 5
The common emitter current gain is defined as the BETA or Hfe (which stands for: H parameters, forward current
transfer ratio, common emitter configuration).
There is a 180 degree phase shift between the input and output signals in the common emitter configuration.
XIST6 Transistor Amplifiers Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
NPN Bipolar Transistor
Amplification
An amplifier is a circuit that uses a small input variable to control a larger output quantity. Amplifiers may be
electronic, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanical. In the case of a bipolar transistor amplifier a small base
current in microamps changes the transistor internal resistance and controls a larger amount of current in milli-
amps or amps which flows through the transistor emitter to collector. The emitter to collector current is sourced
by the system power supply. The transistor load is normally placed in the collector circuit of the transistor. Tran-
sistor amplifiers can amplify either AC or DC signals. A single transistor circuit will have a specific circuit gain,
or amplification factor. Where additional gain is required multiple stages of amplification are employed.
Single-stage NPN Transistor Amplifier Power Supply 30 VDC
+ _
Note 1 mA
Amplifiers
RL Load Resistor
Output Coupling Capacitor
RB1
Input Coupling Capacitor C
µA 2N4123 Amplified AC Signal
Phase-Shifted 180o
Small AC Input Signal Note 2 E
RB2
Note 1: Placement of milliammeter for measurement of transistor collector current.

Note 2: Placement of microammeter for measurement of transistor base current.
Note 3: See previous page for the transistor collector characteristic curves and operating parameters for this amplifier.
Note 4: This is a common emitter amplifier; the emitter lead is common to both the input and output signal loops.
Circuit Analysis
Biasing - The two rules for biasing a common emitter amplifier (either NPN or PNP) are:
1) The emitter-to-base junction is always forward biased. In this example because the transistor is an NPN the base
is P-Type material. The voltage divider consisting of RB1 and RB2 provides this forward bias as the base will be posi-
tive with respect to the emitter. Resistors are sized to set the quiescent or steady state operating point at the middle of
the load line (shown by the yellow dot on load line).
2) The collector is always reverse biased. Because this is an NPN the collector is N-Type material so the collector
is connected to the power supply positive.
Load Resistor - Is sized to limit the collector current to 20 milliamps (shown by the green dot on the curves) when
the transistor is fully turned on (saturated). Use Ohms Law to calculate this: Power supply voltage divided by IC.
Supply Voltage - Any voltage can be used as long as it is below the maximum allowable collector voltage for the
transistor (which for the 2N4123 is 40 VDC). 30 VDC has been chosen for this example and is shown by the red dot.
Input Signal - This is the AC signal to be amplified. For example: a microvolt radio signal off of an antenna. This
signal passes through the input coupling capacitor and adds to the base bias during the positive half-cycle and sub-
tracts from the base bias during the negative half-cycle. It is said that the signal “swings around the base bias”.
Sheet 6
Output Signal - The AC input signal applied to the transistor base causes the DC collector current to vary from its
quiescent steady-state value upward and downward at an AC rate. The AC component of the signal then passes
through the output coupling capacitor for further amplification or detection. To prevent output waveform distortion
(amplitude limiting or clipping) the output signal should not hit the cutoff or saturation levels of the transistor.
Transformer Polarity Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
The Importance of Polarity An understanding of polarity is essential to correctly construct three-phase transformer
banks and to properly parallel single or three-phase transformers with existing electrical systems. A knowledge of
polarity is also required to connect potential and current transformers to power metering devices and protective relays.
The basic theory of additive and subtractive polarity is the underlying principle used in step voltage regulators where
the series winding of an autotransformer is connected to either buck or boost the applied line voltage.
Transformers
Transformer Polarity refers to the relative direction of the induced voltages between the high voltage terminals and
the low voltage terminals. During the AC half-cycle when the applied voltage (or current in the case of a current trans-
former) is from H1 to H2 the secondary induced voltage direction will be from X1 to X2. In practice, Polarity refers to
the way the leads are brought out of the transformer.
Bushing Arrangement The position of the High Voltage Bushings is standardized on all power and instrument trans-
formers. The rule is this: when facing the low voltage bushings, the Primary Bushing H1 is always on the left-hand side
and the Primary Bushing H2 is on the right-hand side (if the transformer is a three-phase unit, H3 will be to the right of
H2).
Distribution Transformers are Additive Polarity and the H1 and X1 bushings are physically placed diagonally oppo-
site each other. Since H1 is always on the left, X1 will be on the right-hand side of a distribution transformer. This
standard was developed very early in the development of electrical distribution systems and has been adhered to in or-
der to prevent confusion in the field when transformers need to be replaced or paralleled with existing equipment.
Instrument Transformers (PT’s and CT’s) and large substation transformers are Subtractive Polarity, so the H1 and
X1 Bushings will be on the same side of the transformer. This standard was later adopted to make it easier to read elec-
trical schematics and construct phasor diagrams.
Additive Polarity
Primary Bushing H1 Primary Bushing H2
H1 and X1 bushings are located diagonally opposite.

Secondary Bushing X3 Secondary Bushing X1
Secondary Bushing X2 (Neutral)
A Typical Distribution Transformer

Two-bushing primary and center-tapped 120 / 240 volt three-bushing secondary.
Subtractive Polarity .
Primary H1Terminal Primary H2 Terminal
H1 and X1 on same side of transformer.

Sheet 1
Secondary X1 Terminal Secondary X2 Terminal

24 kV Potential Transformer
Transformer Polarity Test Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Polarity Test In situations where the secondary bushing identification is not available or when a transformer has
been rewound, it may be necessary to determine the transformer polarity by test. The following procedure can be
used.
The H1 (left-hand) primary bushing and the left-hand secondary bushing are temporarily jumpered together and a test
Transformers
voltage is applied to the transformer primary. The resultant voltage is measured between the right-hand bushings. If
the measured voltage is greater than the applied voltage, the transformer is Additive Polarity because the polarity is
such that the secondary voltage is being added to the applied primary voltage. If, however, the measured voltage
across the right-hand bushings is less than the applied primary voltage, the transformer is Subtractive Polarity.
Note: For safety and to avoid the possibility of damaging the secondary insulation, the test voltage applied to the
primary should be at a reduced voltage and should not exceed the rated secondary voltage.
In the example below, if the transformer is actually rated 480 - 120 volts, the transformer ratio is 4:1 (480 / 120 = 4).
Applying a test voltage of 120 volts to the primary will result in a secondary voltage of 30 volts (120 / 4 = 30). If
transformer is subtractive polarity, the voltmeter will read 90 volts (120 - 30 = 90). If the voltmeter reads 150 volts,
the transformer is additive polarity (120 + 30 = 150).
The red arrows indicate the relative magnitude and direction of the primary and secondary voltages.
120 VAC 120 VAC

Ind = 90 Ind = 150
Temporary Temporary
Jumper V V
Jumper
30 VAC 30 VAC
Sheet 2
Instrument Transformers Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Instrument Transformers Current Transformers and Potential (voltage) Transformers are used to supply a reduced
value of current or voltage to instrument circuits. They provided isolation from the high voltage system, permit
grounding of the secondary circuit for safety, and step-down the magnitude of the measured quantity to a value that
can be safely handled by the instruments.
Transformers
Burden The load on an instrument transformer is referred to as a “burden”.
Polarity All instrument transformers are subtractive polarity.
Potential Transformers (PT’s) are voltage transformers which are used to supply a proportional
voltage to the voltage input of metering and relaying equipment. The standard PT secondary volt-
age is 120 VAC to match the standard full-scale value of switchboard indicating instruments,
power metering equipment, and protective relays. The transformer high-side voltage rating will
be the same as the nominal system voltage. PT ratios are expressed as the ratio of the high volt-
age divided by the secondary voltage. The Potential Transformer pictured at the left has a 24000
volt (24 kV) primary and a standard 120 volt secondary, so the ratio is 200:1 (24000 / 120 = 200).
Where three-phase Delta systems are metered, 2 two-bushing PT’s would normally be connected
open-delta. Three-phase Wye systems would normally be metered with 3 single-bushing PT’s
connected phase-to-ground, or with 3 two-bushing PT’s, rated for the phase-to-ground voltage,
200:1 Two-Bushing PT having one primary bushing on each transformer connected to ground.
Current Transformers (CT’s) are used to supply a proportional current to the current input of metering and relay-
ing equipment. The standard CT secondary current is 5 amps to match the standard full-scale current rating of
switchboard indicating devices, power metering equipment, and protective relays. CT ratios are expressed as a ratio
of the rated primary current to the 5 amp secondary.
The 300:5 CT pictured below will produce 5 amps of secondary current when 300 amps flows through the primary.
As the primary current changes the secondary current will vary accordingly. For example, with 150 amps through
the 300 amp rated primary, the secondary current will be 2.5 amps ( 150 : 300 = 2.5 : 5 ).
On the Window or Donut-type CT’s, such a pictured below, the conductor, bus bar, or bushing which passes
through the center of the transformer constitutes one primary turn. On Window-type units with low primary current
ratings, where the primary conductor size is small, the ratio of the transformer can be changed by taking multiple
wraps of the primary conductor through the window. If, for example, a window CT has a ratio of 100:5, placing
two primary conductor wraps (two primary turns) through the window will change the ratio to 50:5. Some types of
equipment employ this method to calibrate the equipment or to permit a single ratio CT to be utilized for several
different sizes (ampacities) of equipment.
Caution: the secondary of a Current Transformer must always have a burden (load) connected; an open-circuited
secondary can result in the development of a dangerously-high secondary voltage. Draw-out type meter and relay
cases incorporate shorting contacts which short-circuit the CT secondary when the instrument is removed from the
circuit for calibration.
X2 X1
Secondary (X1) Polarity Mark

Polarity marks identify (are adjacent
to) the H1 and X1 terminals.
Sheet 3
Primary (H1) Polarity Mark
300:5 Window-Type CT
Polarity Marking Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Polarity Marks To insure correct wiring, polarity marks are shown on Instrument Connection Diagrams,
Control Schematics, and Three-Line Power Diagrams. The polarity mark is usually shown as a round dot, on
or adjacent to, the H1 and X1 terminals of PT’s and CT’s. Sometimes alternate marking, in the form of a
square dot, slash mark ( / ), or plus/minus sign ( + ) will be used to identify the polarity terminals on electrical
drawings.
Transformers
Instrument transformers may also have the terminals identified with polarity marks as shown in the illustration
of the 300:5 CT on Sheet 3. If instrument transformers do not have polarity marks on them, it is understood
that the H1 (primary) and the X1 (secondary) terminals are polarity.
Meters, relays, and other equipment which require proper polarity connections may also have polarity marks,
but usually this information must be obtained from the Instrument Connection Diagram.
CT Primary Polarity Mark

PT Primary Polarity Mark
PT Secondary Polarity Mark Transformer Secondary Circuit Grounds
CT Secondary Polarity Mark
Instrument
Voltage Coil
Instrument Current Coil
Typical Current and Potential Transformer Connection Diagram
The PT, CT, and instrument polarity marks are shown by the red dots on the above drawing. (Red dots were
used in this example only for clarity.)
Current elements of the instruments are connected in series, voltage inputs are connected in parallel.
Polarity is not a consideration on single-element devices such as an ammeter or voltmeter, but is essential
for proper operation of power measuring devices, and for directional or differential protective relays.
Sheet 4
TAB6 Manufacturers’ Literature File Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Don’t throw those instructions away ! File them in Section 6 of your Industrial Electrician’s Notebook.
Section 6 of the Industrial Electrician’s Notebook has been reserved for filing Manufacturers’ Data Sheets. Next
time you open a box containing an electrical component, save the literature by inserting it in your own copy of
the Electrician’s Notebook . There is a wealth of information on those little, folded-up sheets supplied with
every electrical component. So, whether it be a push button, contact block, relay, lighting ballast, control trans-
former, fuse link, overload heater, or other small component, read the information and then save it for future
reference. Inclusion of the data sheet in your notebook will, during the course of your electrical career, result in
the compilation of valuable reference library; you’ll be surprised how little time it takes and how often you will
refer to it.
Save those manufacturers’ data sheets.
To begin your collection of data sheets, use your browser back button to return to the Electrician’s Notebook
Page and click the Typical Data Sheet link to download a two-page data sheet on auxiliary contacts provided by
Instructions
General Electric.
Sheet 1
SYNCMTR1 Synchronous Motor Copyright 2004 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Characteristics
Synchronous Motors are three-phase AC motors which run at synchronous speed, without slip.
(In an induction motor the rotor must have some “slip”. The rotor speed must be less than, or lag
behind, that of the rotating stator flux in order for current to be induced into the rotor. If an induc-
tion motor rotor were to achieve synchronous speed, no lines of force would cut through the rotor,
so no current would be induced in the rotor and no torque would be developed.)
Sync Motors
Synchronous motors have the following characteristics:
• A three-phase stator similar to that of an induction motor. Medium voltage stators are often used.
• A wound rotor (rotating field) which has the same number of poles as the stator, and is supplied by an external
source of direct current (DC). Both brush-type and brushless exciters are used to supply the DC field current to
the rotor. The rotor current establishes a north/south magnetic pole relationship in the rotor poles enabling the
rotor to “lock-in-step” with the rotating stator flux.
• Starts as an induction motor. The synchronous motor rotor also has a squirrel-cage winding, known as an
Amortisseur winding, which produces torque for motor starting.
• Synchronous motors will run at synchronous speed in accordance with the formula:
120 x Frequency
Synchronous RPM =
Number of Poles
Example: the speed of a 24 -Pole Synchronous Motor operating at 60 Hz would be:
120 x 60 / 24 = 7200 / 24 = 300 RPM
Synchronous Motor Operation
• The squirrel-cage Amortisseur winding in the rotor produces Starting Torque and Accelerating Torque to
bring the synchronous motor up to speed.
• When the motor speed reaches approximately 97% of nameplate RPM, the DC field current is applied to the
rotor producing Pull-in Torque and the rotor will pull-in -step and “synchronize” with the rotating flux field in
the stator. The motor will run at synchronous speed and produce Synchronous Torque.
• After synchronization, the Pull-out Torque cannot be exceeded or the motor will pull out-of-step. Occasion-
ally, if the overload is momentary, the motor will “slip-a-pole” and resynchronize. Pull-out protection must be
provided otherwise the motor will run as an induction motor drawing high current with the possibility of
severe motor damage.
Advantages of Synchronous Motors
The initial cost of a synchronous motor is more than that of a conventional AC induction motor due to the
expense of the wound rotor and synchronizing circuitry. These initial costs are often off-set by:
• Precise speed regulation makes the synchronous motor an ideal choice for certain industrial processes and as a
prime mover for generators.
• Synchronous motors have speed / torque characteristics which are ideally suited for direct drive of large horse-
power, low-rpm loads such as reciprocating compressors.
Sheet 1
• Synchronous motors operate at an improved power factor, thereby improving overall system power factor and
eliminating or reducing utility power factor penalties. An improved power factor also reduces the system volt-
age drop and the voltage drop at the motor terminals.
Construction
2000 Horsepower Synchronous Motor

In Refinery Service Characteristics and Features
• The rotation of a synchronous motor is established

by the phase sequence of the three-phase AC applied
to the motor stator. As with a three-phase induction
Sync Motors
motor, synchronous motor rotation is changed by
reversing any two stator leads. Rotor polarity has no
effect on rotation.
• Synchronous motors are often direct-coupled to the

load and may share a common shaft and bearings
with the load.
• Large synchronous motors are usually started across-

the-line. Occasionally, reduced voltage starting
methods, such as autotransformer or part-winding
starting, may be employed.
Electric Machinery Photo

DC field leads (2) attached to shaft.
Synchronous Motor Rotors

Bearing Retainer
• The Salient-Pole unit shown at the right is a
brush-type rotor that uses slip rings for ap-
plication of the DC field current.
• Low voltage DC is used for the rotating

field. 120 VDC and 250 VDC are typical.
Bearing
• Slip ring polarity is not critical and should
be periodically reversed to equalize the
wear on the slip rings. The negative polarity DC Slip Rings ( 2 )
ring will sustain more wear than the positive
ring due to electrolysis. Wound Field Poles
• Slip rings are usually made of steel for Amortisseur (Squirrel Cage) Winding
extended life.
Detail of Amortisseur Winding
Synchronous motors start as an induction motor utilizing the

Amortisseur winding which is a squirrel-cage-type winding
with short-circuited rotor bars.
Wound Field Pole - Energized by separate source of DC for

synchronous operation.
Squirrel-Cage Rotor Bars
Shorting Ring - One on each end of rotor.

Sheet 2

Brush-Type Excitation Systems
Excitation Methods
Two methods are commonly utilized for the application of the direct current (DC) field current to the rotor of a
synchronous motor.
• Brush-type systems apply the output of a separate DC generator (exciter) to the slip rings of the rotor.
Sync Motors
• Brushless excitation systems utilize an integral exciter and rotating rectifier assembly that eliminates the
need for brushes and slip rings.
Brush-Type Excitation System
Three-Phase AC
Field Control High-Voltage
Stator Power
Single -Phase
Static
Control Power
Field
Control
Field Excitation
Control 52a
52 Breaker (or Running Contactor)
Negative DC Brushes 56 Stator Windings (AC)
Exciter Drive Output Shaft to Driven Load
Commutator Rotating Field (DC)

56
Positive DC Brushes Exciter Synchronous Motor

Field Application Relay
Exciter Stationary Field Pole Slip Rings Kilowatt Classroom Drawing
System Analysis
In this excitation method the DC field current for the synchronous motor is provided by a separate DC generator
known as an exciter. The exciter is a shunt-or compound-wound DC machine that is driven either by the synchro-
nous motor itself (dashed line) or by a separate drive motor. Excavators, for example, often have an “exciter line”
consisting of a number of exciters which are driven by an single AC induction motor.
The shunt field of the exciter is separately excited by the solid state control. Some excitation controls provide for
manual adjustment of the field strength. Other systems automatically regulate the synchronous motor field in a
closed-loop configuration designed to maintain adequate field strength for varying loads or to maintain a
constant power factor. The exciter shunt field is energized when the 52a auxiliary contact in the main breaker
closes..
In the above illustrated system, the exciter shunt-field strength controls the DC output of the exciter which is
picked off by the commutator brushes, bused to the motor slip-ring brushes, and applied via the slip rings to the
main rotating field of the synchronous motor.
Sheet 3
The synchronous motor starts as a induction motor. When the rotor achieves near-synchronous speed, the motor
field current is applied by the closure of the Field Application Relay (Standard Device Designation #56).
Brushless Exciters
Brushless Excitation System
Three-Phase AC
Field Control High-Voltage
Stator Power
Single -Phase Static
Sync Motors
Control Power Field
Control
Field Excitation
Control 52a
Rotating Rectifier Assy 52 Breaker (or Running Contactor)
Exciter Stationary Field Poles Common Shaft

Stator Windings (AC)
Output Shaft to Load
Exciter Rotor Rotating Field (DC)

Exciter
Synchronous Motor
Field Application SCR
Kilowatt Classroom Drawing
Brushless Machine Rotor
Exciter Rotor
Motor Rotor (Field)

Rotating Rectifier Assembly
Cage Winding Shorting-Rings
System Analysis
This excitation method eliminates the need for brushes, both on the exciter and the motor.
When the motor is started the machine breaker (Std Device #52) closes and applies three-phase AC to the motor stator
windings. The motor starts as an induction motor using the Amortisseur winding in the rotor.
The Machine Breaker 52a auxiliary contact also closes and applies the DC output of the solid-state Field Control to the
exciter stationary winding. A three-phase alternating current is induced in the exciter rotor windings and this induced
voltage is rectified by the rotating rectifier assembly. When the rotor achieves near synchronous speed the Field
Application SCR is fired by the Synchronizing Control Package and the rectified DC is applied to the synchronous
Sheet 4
motor rotating field. See schematic on the next page for additional details.
Synchronizing Principle
Schematic Diagram Three-Phase AC

Synchronous Motor Brushless Excitation System
Field Monitor Relay monitors the power factor of the PT Input

Field
Sync Motors
system and trips the motor and exciter field off if
Monitor
synchronism is not achieved within a specific length
Relay Breaker Trip
of time or if the motor pulls out-of-step.
78
Device
CT Input
Exciter Control Trip
Exciter Stationary Field
Positive Bus
SCR1
Exciter FDR
Armature Field
Rotating Field
3-Phase Application Stator
AC Out Circuit
SCR2
Sync. Motor
Negative Bus
Rotating Components Kilowatt Classroom Drawing
Field Application System
The Field Application Circuit in a synchronous motor excitation system must perform three functions:
• Provide a discharge path for the current which is induced into the wound rotor during start and open this cir-
cuit when excitation is applied. During start the motor is operating as an induction motor with the torque be-
ing produced by the squirrel cage winding. The wound rotor is also being cut by the rotating stator flux and
has a voltage induced in it. During this phase of the start-up SCR2 in the above diagram is gated “on” by the
Field Application Circuit and provides a discharge path for the induced rotor current through the Field
Discharge Resistor (FDR) as shown by the dashed red arrows. The frequency of this induced rotor current
“tells” the application circuit the speed at which the rotor is running. See oscilloscope waveform below.
• When the rotor speed reaches about 97% of synchronous and the rotor polarity is correct to achieve synchro-
nism, SCR2 will turn “off ” and SCR1is gated “on” allowing the rectified DC current from the rotating three-
phase bridge rectifier to flow through the rotating field, as shown by the green dashed arrows, producing the
necessary Synchronizing Torque for the rotor to pull-in step with the rotating stator flux.
• The Field Application Circuit must remove excitation immediately if the motor pulls out-of-step.
Frequency of Field Discharge Current Motor Synchronized

60 Hz 30 Hz 6 Hz 3 Hz
Sheet 5
0% 50% 90% 95%

Percent Motor Speed
Waveform of Induced Field Current During Start

Power Factor
Synchronous Motor Power Factor
An important advantage of a synchronous motor is that the motor power factor can be controlled by adjusting the
excitation of the rotating DC field. Unlike AC induction motors which always run at a lagging power factor, syn-
chronous motors can run at unity or even at a leading power factor. This will improve the over-all electrical sys-
Sync Motors
tem power factor and voltage drop and also improve the voltage drop at the terminals of the motor. (See The
Electrician’s Notebook article Principles of Voltage Regulation for a description of how improving the system
power factor also improves the system voltage drop.)
Typical “V” Curves
Interpreting “V” Curves
The synchronous motor “V Curves” shown above illustrate the effect of excitation (field amps) on the armature
(stator) amps and on system power factor. There are separate “V” Curves for No-Load and Full-Load and some-
times the motor manufacturer publishes curves for 25%, 50%, and 75% load. Note that the Armature Amperage
and Power Factor “V” Curves are actually inverted “V’s”.
Assume it is desired to determine the field excitation which will produce unity power factor operation at full
motor load. Project across from the unity power factor (100%) operating point on the Y-Axis to the peak of the
inverted Power Factor “V” Curve (blue line). From this intersection, project down (red line) from the full-load
unity power factor (100%) operating point to determine the required field current on the X-Axis. In this example
the required DC field current is shown to be just over 10 amps. Note at unity power factor operation the
armature (stator) full-load amps is at the minimum value.
Increasing the field amps above the value required for unity power factor operation will cause the machine to run
with a leading power factor, while field weakening caused the motor power factor to become lagging. When the
motor runs either leading or lagging, the armature (stator) amps increases above the unity power factor value.
Sheet 6
SCR1 SCR Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier
This article, written by Elwood Gilliland, was first published in the June, 1982 Issue of Electrical Contractor Magazine.
A portion of the original material is reproduced here with permission of the author.
Definition Auxiliary
Cathode Lead (Red)
Extends cathode
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a semiconductor device that is a member potential to the
of a family of control devices known as Thyristors. The SCR has become the control circuit.
Gate Lead
workhorse of the industrial control industry. Its evolution over the years has (White)
yielded a device that is less expensive, more reliable, and smaller in size than ever
before. Typical applications include : DC motor control, generator field regula-
tion, Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) DC Bus voltage control, Solid State Relays
and lighting system control.
• The SCR is a three-lead device with an anode and a cathode (as with a stan- Cathode Lead
dard diode) plus a third control lead or gate. As the name implies, it is a recti-
Thyristors
fier which can be controlled - or more correctly - one that can be triggered to
the “ON” state by applying a small positive voltage ( VTM ) to the gate lead.
• Once gated ON, the trigger signal may be removed and the SCR will remain
conducting as long as current flows through the device.
• The load to be controlled by the SCR is normally placed in the anode

circuit. See drawing below.
Commutation
For the SCR to turn OFF the current flow through the device must be interrupted,
or drop below the Minimum Holding Current ( IH ) , for a short period of time
(typically 10 -20 microseconds) which is known as the Commutated-Turn-Off-
Time ( tq ).
• When applied to Alternating Current circuits or pulsating DC systems, the

device will self-commutate at the end of every half -cycle when the current Stud Anode
goes through zero.
• When applied to pure DC circuits, in applications such as alarm or trip circuit Stud- Mounted SCR
latching, the SCR can be reset manually by interrupting the current with a 110 Amp RMS Rating
push button. When used in VFD’s or inverters, SCRs are electronically
forced OFF using additional commutating circuitry, such as smaller SCRs and
capacitors, which momentarily apply an opposing reverse-bias voltage across
the SCR. (This is complicated - everything has to be exactly right.)
The GTO
Anode
AC SOURCE
Another member of the Thyristor Family is the GTO,
or Gate-Turn-Off Device. While this component has
been around for many years, it has just recently GATE Cathode
evolved to the point where it is capable of carrying
the high currents required for motor control circuitry.
Unlike the SCR, the GTO can be turned ON and OFF SCR Connection Diagram
with a signal applied to the gate. The turn-on signal is Showing load placement in the anode circuit.
Sheet 1
a small positive voltage; the turn-off signal is a nega-

tive current pulse. The GTO is now finding applica- This arrangement would provide control of one-
tions in the output stage of medium-voltage, high half of the sine wave. For full-wave control, the
horsepower, Variable Frequency Drives. SCRs would be arranged in a bridge configuration.
Theory of Operation
Volt-Ampere Characteristics
Figure One below illustrates the volt-ampere characteristics curve of an SCR. The vertical axis + I represents the
device current, and the horizontal axis +V is the voltage applied across the device anode to cathode. The parameter
IF defines the RMS forward current that the SCR can carry in the ON state, while VR defines the amount of voltage
the unit can block in the OFF state.
Biasing
The application of an external voltage to a semiconductor is referred to as a bias.
Forward Bias Operation
• A forward bias, shown below as +V, will result when a positive potential is applied to the anode and negative to
the cathode.
Thyristors
• Even after the application of a forward bias, the device remains non-conducting until the positive gate trigger
voltage is applied.
• After the device is triggered ON it reverts to a low impedance state and current flows through the unit. The unit
will remain conducting after the gate voltage has been removed. In the ON state ( represented by +I), the cur-
rent must be limited by the load, or damage to the SCR will result.
Reverse Bias Operation
• The reverse bias condition is represented by -V. A reverse bias exists when the potential applied across the
SCR results in the cathode being more positive than the anode.
• In this condition the SCR is non-conducting and the application of a trigger voltage will have no effect on the
device. In the reverse bias mode, the knee of the curve is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage PIV (or Peak Re-
verse Voltage - PRV) and this value cannot be exceeded or the device will break-down and be destroyed. A
good Rule-of -Thumb is to select a device with a PIV of at least three times the RMS value of the applied volt-
age.
SCR Volt-Amp Characteristics

NOTE: In the drawing that a
small amount of leakage current
through the device exists even
REVERSE LEAKAGE when it is in the OFF state.
CURRENT
CAUTION: When working on
solid-state equipment, the equip-
ment must be disconnected with a
separate disconnecting means to
insure that the equipment is de-
energized; simply stopping the
equipment may still result in the
existence of a hazardous potential.
Sheet 2
Phase Control
In SCR Phase Control, the firing angle, or point during the half-cycle at which the SCR is triggered, determines
the amount of current which flows through the device. It acts as a high-speed switch which is open for the first
part of the cycle, and then closes to allow power flow after the trigger pulse is applied.
Figure Two below shows an AC waveform being applied with a gating pulse at 45 degrees. There are 360 electri-
cal degrees in a cycle; 180 degrees in a half-cycle. The number of degrees from the beginning of the cycle until
the SCR is gated ON is referred to as the firing angle, and the number of degrees that the SCR remains conducting
is known as the conduction angle.
The earlier in the cycle the SCR is gated ON, the greater will be the voltage applied to the load. Figure Three
shows a comparison between the average output voltage for an SCR being gated on at 30 degrees as compared
with one which has a firing angle of 90 degrees. Note that the earlier the SCR is fired, the higher the output volt-
age applied to the load.
The voltage actually applied to the load is no longer sinusoidal, rather it is pulsating DC having a steep wavefront
Thyristors
which is high in harmonics. This waveform does not usually cause any problems on the driven equipment itself;
in the case of motor loads, the waveform is smoothed by the circuit inductance. However, radio or television in-
terference can occur. Often times the manufacturer of the SCR equipment will include an Electro-Magnetic-
Interference (EMI) filter network in the control to eliminate such problems.
Sheet 3
Protection / Firing Circuits / Testing
SCR Protection
The SCR, like a conventional diode, has a very high one-cycle surge rating. Typically, the device will carry from
eight to ten time its continuous current rating for a period of one electrical cycle. It is extremely important that the
proper high-speed, current-limiting, rectifier fuses recommended by the manufacturer be employed - never substi-
tute with another type fuse. Current limiting fuses are designed to sense a fault in a quarter-cycle and clear the
fault in one-half of a cycle, thereby protecting the SCR from damage due to short circuits.
Switching spikes and transients, which may exceed the device PIV rating, are also an enemy of any semiconductor.
Surge suppressors, such as the GE Metal-Oxide-Varistor (MOV), are extremely effective in absorbing these short-
term transients. High voltage capacitors are also often employed as a means of absorbing these destructive spikes
and provide a degree of electrical noise suppression as well.
Computing the Required Firing Angle
Thyristors
For accurate SCR gating, the Firing Circuit must be synchronized with the AC line voltage being applied anode-
to- cathode across the device. Without synchronization, the SCR firing would be random in nature and the system
response erratic.
In closed-loop systems, such as motor control, an Error Detector Circuit computes the required firing angle based
on the system setpoint and the actual system output.
The firing circuit is able to sense the start of the cycle, and, based on an input from the Error Detector, delay the
firing pulse until the proper time in the cycle to provide the desired output voltage. An analogy of a firing circuit
would be an automobile distributor which advances or retards the spark plug firing based on the action of the vac-
uum advance mechanism.
In analog control systems the error detector circuit is usually an integrated circuit operational amplifier which takes
reference and system feedback inputs and computes the amount of error (difference) between the actual output
voltage and the desired setpoint value.
Even though the SCR is an analog device, many new control systems now use a microprocessor based, digital,
firing circuit to sense the AC line zero -crossing, measure feedback and compare it with the setpoint, and generate
the required firing angle to hold the system in-balance.
Testing the SCR
Shorted SCRs can usually be detected with an ohmmeter check (SCRs usually fail shorted rather than open).
Measure the anode-to-cathode resistance in both the forward and reverse direction; a good SCR should measure
near infinity in both directions.
Small and medium-size SCRs can also be gated ON with an ohmmeter (on a digital meter use the Diode Check
Function). Forward bias the SCR with the ohmmeter by connecting the red ( + ) lead to the anode and the black
( - ) lead to the cathode. Momentarily touch the gate lead to the anode; this will provide a small positive turn-on
voltage to the gate and the cathode-to-anode resistance reading will drop to a low value. Even after removing the
gate voltage, the SCR will stay conducting. Disconnecting the meter leads from the anode or cathode will cause
the SCR to revert to its non-conducting state.
When conducting the above test, the meter impedance acts as the SCR load. On larger SCRs, the unit may not
latch ON because the test current is not above the SCR holding current. Special testers are required for larger
SCRs in order to provide an adequate value of gate voltage and load the SCR sufficiently to latch ON.
Hockey puck SCRs must be compressed in a heat sink (to make-up the internal connections to the semiconductor)
Sheet 4
before they can be tested or operated.
Some equipment manufacturers provide tabulated ohmmeter check-data for testing SCR assemblies.
Dedication
During the forty-plus years that I’ve worked in the electrical field, more people than I can possibly mention have
helped me understand the many facets of this special trade. Some were experts in electrical theory, while others
stressed the importance of craftsmanship, the necessity for teamwork, or fostered the development of safe work
practices. Often a fellow worker shared a technique to accomplish a task better, faster, or easier. By far the most
influential of my mentors has been my father, Vail Gilliland, who always has time for questions. He continues to
enthusiastically encourage me in my writing, teaching, and experimentation. His outstanding knowledge and skill,
coupled with infinite patience and a willingness to share, are characteristics I greatly admire and appreciate.
I dedicate this work to him.
Preface
The harnessing of electrical power to lighten mankind’s work-load is only a little over a century old. During my
own career, I have witnessed many changes in equipment, work methods, industry organization, and company
philosophies. In today’s fast-paced work environment, one of the greatest challenges electricians face is that of
keeping abreast with technological change. Interestingly, part of the solution may be technology itself - we now
have powerful, inexpensive computers and the Internet. These tools greatly simplify the tasks of writing,
illustration, and dissemination of information. This medium seems the logical avenue to communicate the
specialized knowledge that we as electricians need so acutely.
I’ve long thought about compiling a book containing information that would help apprentices and electricians to
better understand and perform their jobs. I’m planning to write and publish this information in seria l form on my
web site www.kilowattclassroom.com. I envision a book that will provide, in addition to electrical theory and
reference data, a section for manufacturers’ literature, a place to keep personal notes and records from various
jobs, and a section to file other related technical articles and information. It’s also important, I believe, to
remember the contributions of some of the electrical industry’s early pioneers – it helps us to keep our own
knowledge in perspective - so the beginning of each chapter will contain some historical information as well. It
will be in loose-leaf form so it can be easily updated with new information and permit removal of the data that is
obsolete or no longer needed. You can, of course, download only the material which is of interest to you.
Eventually, perhaps, these articles can be made available as an e-book with hyperlinks that can quickly jump the
reader to related articles, definitions, or required reference data.
I hope you find The Electrician’s Notebook interesting and helpful.
Elwood V. Gilliland
The Electrician’s Notebook

© 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Published by
Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Electric Power Training for Industry
9267 Red Creek Road Casper, Wyoming 82601
www.kilowattclassroom.com
The information made available free-of-charge at www.kilowattclassroom.com is for personal use only.
All rights reserved. Reproduction or use without express permission, of editorial or pictorial content in
any manner, is prohibited. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the
publisher assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages
resulting from the use of the information contained herein.
PAM1 Phase Angle Measurement Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Requirements for Phase Angle Measurement
• The phase angle meter is a valuable tool for verifying the proper installation of medium- and high-voltage
primary metering equipment and sophisticated protective relays that receive input from Potential and Cur-
Measurements
rent Transformers (PTs & CTs).
• Phase angle meters are also used to verify the correct connection of three-phase transformer banks which
must be paralleled with an existing electrical bus or high voltage line. The process of making these meas-
urements is known as “phasing-out” and is performed before the tie-in is made.
• This equipment is also used for conducting electrical system load and power factor studies. The system
power factor is equal to the cosine of the phase angle (expressed as a percent) that exists between the system
voltage and current. Once the system power factor is determined, the system power triangle (true power in
watts, apparent power in volt-amperes, and reactive power in vars) can be developed and analyzed.
• Phase angle measurement is also employed to analyze the operation of AC synchronous generators and syn-
chronous motors to verify the proper operation of field regulators and synchronizing equipment.
Types of Meters
Numerous manufacturers offer phase angle meters, either as a separate metering device, or as an integral part of
AC power measurement and recording equipment. The display readout is generally digital but may also be analog
viewed in quadrants, analog with a circular 360o scale, or as a phasor diagram displayed on a laptop computer.
The ATS-100 Phase Angle Meter described in this article is a low-cost, easy to operate unit developed by
Kilowatt Classroom LLC. It is unique in that it can measure the phase angle directly on distribution power lines to
34.5 kV using an insulated fiber optic link. Operation of the ATS-100 is similar to other stand-alone instruments
and is featured in this article to illustrate the measurement procedure.
For background information on this subject see The Industrial Electrician’s NotebookTM articles: Understanding
Transformer Polarity, and Power in AC Circuits on the web @ www.kilowattclassroom.com
ATS-100 Phase Angle Meter

Used for voltage-voltage or voltage-current phase angle measurements.
Analog Scale
360o Electrical Degrees
Displayed in four quadrants.
Circuit Two
Circuit One Accepts voltage or current input.
Reference Voltage
120 / 208-240 / 480 VAC
Scale Selection Switch
TPI A256 Current Adapter

Permits direct voltage-current phase Switch / Label Side is Polarity
Sheet 1
angle measurement on circuits to Place this side toward current

400 amps and 600 VAC. source or CT polarity mark.
(See Sheet 2 for listing of
additional adapters.)
PAM2 ATS-100 Phase Angle Meter Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Instrument Arrangement
Front Panel Layout
1 3
Measurements
CIRCUIT TWO LEADS CIRCUIT ONE 2
NORMAL NULL
DELTA
4 5
See Sheet 3 for Scale Interpretation Instructions and Sheet 4 for Condensed Operating Instructions.
1. CIRCUIT ONE - Reference Voltage Input. Input ranges 120 / 208-240 / 480 with respect to Common (COM).
2. CIRCUIT TWO - Adapter Input Receptacle which accepts the following adapters:
Voltage Adapter - 120, 208 - 240, and 480 VAC adapters are available.
Low Current Adapter - TPI Model 254 (10 mA to 60 amps). Recommended for current measurements
on the secondary of 5 amp Instrument Current Transformers (CT’s).
High Current Adapter - TPI Model 256 (0 to 400 amps). For direct phase angle measurement on motors and
other loads to 400 amperes.
Fiber Optic Adapter - ATS Model 110 Receiver. For use with the ATS Model 111 Fiber Optic Transmitter
which permits direct phase angle measurement on distribution power lines to 34.5 kV up to 400 amps.
3. ANALOG METER - Displays the number of electrical degrees which CIRCUIT TWO leads CIRCUIT ONE.
Two scales, 0 - 360 degrees in four quadrants, five degrees / division.
4. SCALE SWITCH - Selects the UPPER (90o - 360o / 0 - 270o ) meter scale, or the LOWER (270o - 180o - 90o )
meter scale.
5. DELTA NULL SWITCH - Used to simplify voltage-current phase angle measurement on Delta Systems. On a
Delta System, at unity power factor, there is a 30o phase shift between the phase voltage and the line current.
Holding this momentary-action switch in the NULL position will automatically compensate for this phase shift.
(Switch is spring return to the NORMAL position.)
Sheet 2
Scale Interpretation
Measurement Standards
Phase Angle Meters are manufactured using two different standards:
Measurements
1) Showing the number of degrees that Circuit Two leads Circuit One.
2) Showing the number of degrees that Circuit Two lags Circuit One.
Because Phasors (electrical vectors) are always analyzed with a Counter Clockwise Rotation (CCW), the first stan-
dard, showing the number of degrees Circuit Two leads Circuit One, is more consistent with this theory and is em-
ployed on the ATS-100 instrument. The second standard, showing degrees of lag, is sometimes preferred when
power factor measurements only are being made as the angle of lag for single-phase analysis will always be in the
fourth quadrant.
The ATS-100 instrument displays the 360o electrical degree measurement two quadrants at a time as determined by
the position of the SCALE SWITCH (see previous page). The UPPER SCALE switch position is for Quadrants 1 &
4 with the number of degrees being read from the Upper 90o - 360o / 0o - 270o meter scale. The LOWER SCALE
switch position is for Quadrants 2 & 3 and the number of degrees is read from the lower 270o - 180o - 90o meter
scale. When making measurements, place the SCALE SWITCH in the position that gives an upscale reading.
CIRCUIT TWO LEADS CIRCUIT ONE
Upper scale meter reading corresponds to red phasor position illustrated below.
90o
Lower Meter Scale Upper Meter Scale
Circuit Two
Voltage or Current
Angle of Lead
Quadrant2 2
Quadrant Quadrant 1
30o
0o Circuit One
180o Reference Voltage
360o Zero Degrees
Quadrant
Quadrant 3 3 Quadrant 4
Sheet 3
270o
Condensed Operating Instructions
Refer to Illustration on Sheet 2
Making Voltage-Voltage Phase Angle Measurements
Measurements
1) Apply the reference potential to the appropriate CIRCUIT ONE input banana jacks. Use the red lead for the
polarity (+) connection and the black lead for the common (COM) connection. (With voltage applied, the
meter hand will move upscale from the position indicated by the dashed blue line to the 90o / 270o mark
shown by the solid blue line.)
2) Connect the appropriate voltage adapter with potential leads to the CIRCUIT TWO adapter input. Use the
red lead for the polarity connection and the black lead for the non-polarity connection.
3) Place the SCALE SWITCH in the position that provides an upscale reading and read the indicated phase an-
gle from the appropriate scale. For example: if an upscale reading is obtained with the SCALE SWITCH in
the UPPER position the reading indicated by the red hand would be read as 30 degrees; if an upscale reading
is obtained with the SCALE SWITCH in the LOWER position, the reading would be taken from the LOWER
scale, which for this example, would be read as 210 degrees. The meter scale indicates the number of electri-
cal degrees that the potential applied to CIRCUIT TWO leads the reference voltage applied to CIRCUIT
ONE.1)
Note: All voltage-voltage phase angle measurements are made with the momentary-action DELTA NULL
SWITCH in the NORMAL position.
See Sheet 6 for information on determining the system phase rotation and Sheets 7 & 8 for details on making
measurements and constructing a system phasor diagram.
Making Voltage-Current Phase Angle Measurements
1) Apply the reference potential to the appropriate CIRCUIT ONE input banana jacks. Use the red lead for the
polarity (+) connection and the black lead for the common (COM) connection.
2) Use the TPI A254 Low Current Adapter when making measurements on the 5 amp secondary side of instru-
ment Current Transformers (CT’s), on small loads under 60 amperes (600 volts or less), or for analyzing
small motor starting where the Locked Rotor Amps (LRA) is less than 60 amps. The TPI A256 Clamp
Adapter should be used (600 volts or less) on for loads up to 400 amps, motor loads where the Full Load
Amps (FLA) does not exceed 400 amps, or for analyzing motor starts where the LRA does not exceed 400
amps.
Connect the appropriate current adapter to the CIRCUIT TWO adapter input. A special identification circuit
in the adapter plug “tells” the instrument which adapter is being used.
Place the Current Adapter Selector Switch in the AC position and place the adapter around the current-
carrying conductor . The side of the adapter with the writing and switch is the polarity side (+) and must be
placed toward the power source or toward the current transformer polarity mark when measuring on the sec-
ondary side of a CT.
3) Place the SCALE SWITCH in the position that provides an upscale reading. The meter scale indicates the
number of electrical degrees that the current applied to CIRCUIT TWO leads the reference voltage applied to
CIRCUIT ONE.
4) The DELTA NULL SWITCH can be placed in the NULL position to compensate for the 30o phase shift that
exists between the phase voltage and the line current in a Delta System. Leave the NULL switch in the NOR-
MAL position for making Voltage-Current phase angle measurements on a WYE System.
Sheet 4
See Sheet 6 for information on determining the system phase rotation and Sheets 7 & 8 for details on making
measurements and constructing a system phasor diagram.
PAM6 Transformer Bank Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Connections and Phasor Diagrams
Paralleling Considerations
The following connection diagrams illustrate how a change in the connection of three single-phase transform-
ers in a three-phase bank will change the phasor diagram for the bank. This condition holds true for all bank
Measurements
configurations; only the Delta-Delta connection with additive polarity transformers is shown here.
In order for the transformer banks to be paralleled, the banks must be connected so that the same phasor dia-
grams results. Prior to interconnection of a three-phase bank with an existing bank or an existing system (bus
or line) the proper connection is verified by a process known as “phasing-out”. This can be accomplished on
Low Voltage Systems (below 600 volts) using a voltmeter. On Medium Voltage Systems a Phase Angle Meter
can be used to compare the 120 volt secondaries of Instrument Potential Transformers (PT’s), or insulated
Phase Sticks, which incorporate a meter and voltage dropping resistors, can be employed. Lamp -type high
voltage testers should not be used for phasing-out because a small angular difference between the systems,
such as exists with a 30o phase shift, may not produce enough voltage to illuminate the lamp.
Angular Displacement 0 o Angular Displacement 180o
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1
X1 X2 X3 X1 X2 X3
The connection above produces the standard phase The connection above produces the non-standard phase
relationship illustrated below. This connection would relationship illustrated below. This configuration is
be used internally on a three-phase transformer but most common on distribution lines because of its sim-
would not normally be used for connecting three sin- plicity (no crossed conductors) and will parallel with
gle-phase transformers where a standard phasor rela- other banks provided they are wired exactly the same.
tionship is not required. This bank will not parallel with the one shown at the
left.
H2 X2 H2 X3 X1
H1 H3 X1 X3 H1 H3 X2
The dashed lines in the symbols above indicate the phase relationship between the primary and secondary of a
particular connection configuration. For the connection shown above left, which has a 0o angular displacement
between the primary and the secondary, the position of the dashed reference is identical. In the configuration
shown above right, the position of the dashed lines indicate a 180o phase shift between the primary and the
secondary.
Sheet 5
PAM6 System Rotation Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Determining Rotation
The rotation of a three-phase system or motor can be changed

by reversing any two of the three leads.
Measurements
Summit SPD480 Phase Rotation Indicator
An easy way to determine the phase rotation of a three-phase
system is to use a phase rotation indicator such as the one
shown at the left. The unit pictured is an induction–disk in-
strument that is essentially a three-phase induction motor. The
lead identification is: A Phase - Red, B-Phase - Blue, C Phase -
White. When connected to a system with ABC rotation the
disk rotates clockwise. If the system rotation is ACB the disk
rotates counter-clockwise.
Phase rotation indicators which use lamps to show the phase

sequence are also available.
A motor rotation indicator is also made which can be used to

determine the phase sequence required to produce the desired
motor rotation. The instrument is connected to the motor leads
prior to wiring and then the motor shaft is turned in the desired
direction of rotation; the meter will show the necessary phase
sequence to be applied. (When the motor shaft is turned, the
motor acts as an induction generator.)
Standard Phasor Rotation
While the rotation of electric motors is referred to as either clockwise or counter-clockwise, for the purpose of
analyzing three-phase systems, the rotation of electrical phasors is always shown as counter-clockwise (CCW)
with the reference phasor drawn horizontally pointing to the right. (Phasors are electrical vectors which show
magnitude and direction.) If the observer stands at Point X in the drawing below, the phasors can be imagined as
turning past the observer in a CCW direction.
• To illustrate an ABC system rotation the phasors are labeled so as to appear in an ABC sequence.
• To show reversed system rotation the phasors are labeled so that the phase labels appear in a ACB sequence.
Assigning the labels A, B, and C is actually somewhat arbitrary; all one really knows is the rotation sequence. The
A, B, C labels are usually initially applied at the source transformer or facility main disconnect and then follow the
conductors through the system. The National Electrical Code reference on the subject is shown below.
BC Wye Phasor Diagram

Axis of Rotation CCW Phasor Rotation
Black letters show ABC rotation.
Blue letters show ACB rotation
AA X Reference @ Zero Degrees
Imagine standing at point X and watching
Observer the phasors rotate past. Wait until A goes
CB past and then note the following order.
2002 NEC Code Reference: ARTICLE 408 Switchboards and Panelboards. 408.3 Support and Arrangement
Sheet 6
of Busbars and Conductors. 408.3(E) Phase Arrangement. The phase arrangement on 3-phase buses shall be A, B,
C from front to back, top to bottom, or left to right, as viewed from the front of the switchboard or panelboard.
The B phase shall be that phase having the higher voltage to ground on 3-phase, 4-wire, delta connected systems.
Other busbar arrangements shall be permitted for additions the existing installations and shall be marked.
PAM7 Phasor Measurement Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Sample Phase Angle Measurement Problem
Assume it is desired to measure the phase angles that exist on the secondary of the transformer bank connected
Measurements
in the manner shown below and then to construct the secondary phasor diagram from the measurements. (In
this case we already know the answer based on the phasor diagram with the angular displacement of 180o
shown on the Sheet 5.) Assume, also, that high-side bus potential transformers (not shown) are available for
supplying a reference potential for the phase angle meter, and that the primary phasor diagram and the secon-
dary lead designations (X1, X2, X3) are known.
Bank Connection Diagram Phasor Diagram
H1 H2 H3 Primary Construct
Diagram Secondary
High Voltage is Known Diagram
H2 X3 X1
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
H1 H3 X2
X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1
V8o
Open Delta
Metering PT
480 VAC Secondary
X1 X2 X3
V7 V9
Phase Angle Meter Connections
The reference phasor is always drawn horizontally to the right; selecting the primary H1 to H3 voltage for a
meter reference will result in an applied voltage that is in the same direction. Because the primary is high volt-
age, and the meter Circuit One input voltage is 120 VAC, the high voltage bus potential transformers (PTs) are
used to supply the 120 VAC for the meter reference input. The PT secondary V7 to V9 voltage will be in the
same direction as the primary H1 to H3 voltage.
• Connect the PT secondary V7 to V9 voltage to Circuit One of the phase angle meter. The PT secondary
V7 is connected to the phase angle meter Circuit One red + lead. The PT V9 is connected to the Circuit
One black lead.
• Using the 480 Volt Circuit Two Adapter, sequentially connect the transformer bank secondary potentials
X1, X2, and X3 to the phase angle meter Circuit Two input leads as shown in the following table. The
phase angle degree measurement that would result for each input is recorded in the Measured Angle De-
grees column of the table.
Measurement Results
Circuit Two Lead Connections Measured Angle
Degrees
Red Lead + Black Lead
X1 X2 240
X2 X3 120
Sheet 7
X3 X1 0
See Sheet 8 for phasor diagram construction based on the above measurements.
PAM8 Phasor Diagram Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Construction
Plot of the phase angle measurements made on Sheet 7
Measurements
90o
Lower Meter Scale Upper Meter Scale
Circuit Two
Voltage
120o Angle of Lead
Quadrant 1 30o
Quadrant 2
0o 0o Circuit One
o Reference Voltage
180
Quadrant 3 360o V7 + to V9
Quadrant 4
240o
270o
Construct the phasor diagram in the space below in accordance with the following rules:
• Move each of the phasors to the space below without changing its orientation.
• Label each phasor with the X designation used for the measurement. The tail of each arrow is the polarity
+ end of the phasor.
• Connect the phasors together: X1 to X1, X2 to X2, and X3 to X3.
Move X3 Label Connect
X3 X1
X3 X1
X2 X3 X1
X1
X2 X2
Sheet 8
This matches the diagram on

the right of Sheet 5
X2
Voltage-Current
Purpose
There are two reasons for making electrical system voltage-current phase angle measurements.
Measurements
1. To determine the system power factor for system load studies and power factor correction studies.
2. To verify that power metering equipment and protective relays are properly connected.
EC IC Lags EC by 15o Phasor rotation ( blue arrow) is always

shown CCW.
Wye System Vectors This system rotation is shown to be ABC
by the labeling of the phasors. (A is first,
Showing different angle of followed by B, followed by C)
current lag on each phase.
Black - Voltage EA Reference Drawn @ Zero Degrees

Red - Current
IA On A-Phase IA lags EA by 30o .

o
IB Lags EB by 20 Shown by violet dashed arrow.
It can also be said that:

EB IA leads EA by 330o . ( 360o - 30o = 330o )
Shown by green dashed arrow.
1. Phase Angle Measurement for Power Factor Determination
In the ideal AC electrical system the voltage and current are in phase. This condition only occurs on systems
where all of the load is resistive, such as electric heat, incandescent lighting, or fluorescent lighting with power
factor corrected ballasts. Electrical utilization equipment such as motors and welders have a considerable amount
of inductance and the inductive reactance (XL which is measured in ohms) causes the circuit current to lag the ap-
plied voltage. The actual amount, or number of degrees of lag, depends on the ratio of the Inductive Reactance
( XL ) in ohms to the ohmic value of Resistance ( R ) of the system.
The system power factor is the cosine of the phase angle between the system voltage and the system current ex-
pressed as a percent. For example, if the current is determined by measurement to lag the applied voltage by 30
degrees, as shown for A-Phase in the example above, the power factor of the system would be 86.6 percent. This
is determined by finding the cosine of 30 degrees which is 0.866 (you can use either a Trigonometry Table or an
Engineering Calculator for this) and multiplying the cosine of the angle by 100 to obtain the percent power factor.
Once the system power factor is known, power factor correction, if desired, can be applied to the system using
power factor correction capacitors or by using synchronous motors, either of which can supply leading Volt Am-
peres Reactive (VARs) to the system to compensate for the lagging power factor. Most electric utilities charge a
penalty for poor system power factor, so keeping the power factor above the required minimum value will result in
a lower utility bill and will also improve the voltage drop on the system.
When using the ATS-100 Phase Angle Meter, or similar instrument, the power factor is measured one-phase-at-a-
time. On a three-phase system the load will rarely be perfectly balanced, so the power factor on each phase may
differ because of the unbalance of the single-phase loads. If all of the load was due to three-phase motors the
power factor on each phase would be the same, at least in theory. However, in practice, there is always some volt-
age imbalance between phases which will result in an even greater percentage of current imbalance.
Sheet 9
Wye System
Instrument Connections
EC C-PHASE CONDUCTOR
Measurements
NAMEPLATE SIDE OF CLAMP -ON IS
POLARITY AND MUST FACE SOURCE
480 VOLT EA
THREE-PHASE
GROUNDED WYE MOTOR
SOURCE A-PHASE
(277 VOLTS TO CONDUCTOR
GROUND) VOLTAGE
POLARITY
RED LEAD
B-PHASE CONDUCTOR
EB
VOLTAGE
NON-POLARITY 2-CONDUCTOR CABLE
BLACK LEAD
NORMAL NULL
DELTA
Measurement Analysis
Voltage-Current phase angle measurement is easily accomplished on a WYE system because, on any given phase,
the phase current and the phase-to-ground voltage are in-phase at unity power factor. The voltage-current phase
angle measurement may be taken directly from the phase angle meter. See the following page for a description of
the requirements for making voltage-current phase angle measurements on a DELTA system.
With all phase angle measurements, whether they be voltage-voltage or voltage-current, lead polarity is critical.
Polarity for the voltage leads and current probe for the ATS-100 are shown above. Check the instruction manual
for the instrument you are using.
Some phase angle meters, including the ATS-100, measure the angle of lead between the reference voltage which
Sheet 10
is applied to CIRCUIT ONE of the meter and the current which is applied to CIRCUIT TWO of the meter. When
a meter using this standard is employed, the measurement reading is subtracted from 360o to give the angle of lag.
In the example on the preceding page, the 30o angle of lag would be read on the upper scale of this meter as 330o
lead.
Ungrounded Delta System - Sheet 1 of 2
Instrument Connections
B
B-PHASE CONDUCTOR
Measurements
480 VOLT
UNGROUNDED
DELTA
SOURCE
C-PHASE
C CONDUCTOR THREE-PHASE
A MOTOR
NAMEPLATE SIDE OF CLAMP -ON IS
POLARITY AND MUST FACE SOURCE
A-PHASE CONDUCTOR
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
POLARITY NON-POLARITY
RED LEAD BLACK LEAD
2-CONDUCTOR CABLE
NORMAL NULL
DELTA
Measurement Analysis
On a DELTA system, there is an inherent 30o phase shift (at unity power factor) between the line (phase) voltage
and the line current which must be accounted for. This is because the line current on a DELTA system is the vector
sum of two separate phase currents (see the DELTA system phasor diagram on Sheet 1of the AC Systems Article).
In order to obtain a correct reading, voltage and current of the proper phase and polarity must be applied to the in-
strument. See the following page, Sheet 12, for information on phase identification and meter connections.
The diagram above shows the proper connections for measuring the phase angle between the A-Phase Current and
the A-Phase Voltage (Line EC-A ). Assume the motor is running at a 30o lag (86% Power Factor). Because the ATS-
100 meter indicates the number of degrees that Circuit Two leads Circuit One, the 30o lag will be read as 330o lead.
Sheet 11
However, because of the inherent 30o lag on the DELTA system, the meter will actually read 300o lead as shown by
the solid red hand. The 30o difference must be added to the 300o to obtain the correct 330o reading. On the ATS-
100, holding the momentary action DELTA switch in the NULL position will automatically adjust the reading by
30o and the meter hand will register the 330o reading as shown by the dashed red line.
Ungrounded Delta System - Sheet 2 of 2
Phase Identification
Measurements
Phase identification for correct instrument connection on a DELTA system is most easily accomplished using a
phase rotation meter (See Sheet 6). Simply connect a rotation meter to the phase conductors so that a clockwise
ABC rotation is indicated on the meter, then label the phases to match the A, B, C, labeling on the rotation meter
leads. (Remember, even though the rotation meter shows a clockwise rotation, for the purpose of system analy-
sis, all phasors are assumed to have a Counter-Clockwise Rotation.)
The table below shows the voltage and current connections required for making phase angle measurements on a
DELTA system.
Current and Voltage Polarity for Delta System Phase Angle Measurement
Current Probe on Phase Potential Lead Connections
(Polarity Toward Source) Red ( + ) Polarity Black (COM)
A A C
B B A
C C B
Sheet 12
The Industrial
Electrician’s Notebook
SM
Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Industrial Electrical Training
www.kilowattclassroom.com
“Interfacing Technology and Craftsmanship”

IND1 Inductors Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Schematic Symbols
Inductor Adjustable Inductor Iron Core Inductor
Inductors
Powdered Iron Core
Radio frequency “choke”

17 mh power supply coil wound on ceramic
smoothing reactor. powdered iron core.
One-half actual size. Above: Large DC link reactors Shown actual size.
used in 4160 volt 5000 hp VFD.
Left: Reactor used in conjunction

with capacitors for harmonic filtering.
Inductor Characteristics
• An inductor is created when a conductor is wound into a coil.
• The unit of inductance is the Henry - named after the American inventor Joseph Henry. By definition: an in-
ductor has an inductance of one (1) henry if an electromotive force of one (1) volt is induced in the inductor
when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of one (1) ampere per second. The abbreviation for
the Henry is h and mh stands for millihenry.
• The inductance of a coil is affected by a number of factors including: the type and size of the core material, the
size of the conductor, and the way in which the coil is wound.
• In an electrical circuit, an inductor opposes a change in current. This characteristic has resulted in the term
“choke coil”, particularly in radio work.
• Adjustable inductors are made by changing the amount of core material within the coil. The drawing below
left illustrates a common method of achieving “slope control” in a welder by raising or lowering the iron core
within the coil. The the AM broadcast band antenna coil pictured below right is tuned by moving the position
of the powdered iron core within the coil form; a non-magnetic “tuning wand” is required for this adjustment.
Tuning Wand Adjustment Slot

Adjustable Powdered
Coils (3) Iron Core
Non-magnetic
Threaded Rod
Threaded clip fits into

bottom of coil form.
Sheet 1
Loopstick Antenna Coil

Arc Welder Slope Control Shown with core slug removed from coil form.
Shown one-half actual size.
XL1 AC Theory Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Inductive Reactance - Page 1
• Inductive Reactance is the opposition to the flow of current in an electrical circuit due to inductance and is
measured in ohms.
• The symbol for reactance is X; inductive reactance is represented by the symbol XL .
AC Theory
• The formula for inductive reactance is: XL = 2 fL
Where: XL = Inductive Reactance in ohms, f = Frequency in hertz, L = Inductance in henrys, 2 = 6.28.
• As illustrated by the formula above, inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency. When an alter-
nating current is applied to an inductor, the inductive reactance will increase as the frequency increases.
• The opposition offered to the flow of steady-state Direct Current (DC) by an inductor is equal to the resis-
tance of the inductor only (the ohmic value of the conductor with which the coil is wound ). During the appli-
cation of DC to an inductor, during any fluctuations or ripple, or during de-energization of the coil, inductive
reactance becomes a factor.
• An inductor opposes a change in current. The mechanical analogy of inductance is inertia.
Voltage of Self Inductance
When a changing current is applied to an

inductor, a counter electromotive force
(cemf) is generated. This generated voltage
is termed a “counter” or “back” emf because
it is in a direction which opposes the applied
voltage.
Figure A of the drawing at the right illus-

trates how this counter emf is generated. As
current is applied to a coil and flows through
the conductors of that coil, an expanding
magnetic field will be established that sur-
rounds each of the conductors. This expand-
ing flux cuts through the adjacent conductors
and induces a voltage in these adjacent con-
ductors. Using the Left Hand Rule, it can be
seen that the direction of this induced volt-
age is in a direction that opposes the applied
DC voltage.
When the switch is opened (or the level of

the applied voltage is reduced), the reverse
effect takes place. The magnetic field will
collapse and effectively cut through the adja-
cent conductors in the opposite direction
than was previously described. The counter
emf will reverse and will oppose the reduc-
tion on the applied voltage. This directional
change is illustrated in Figure B, on the right.
Remember - To Generate a Voltage:
Lenz’s Law A conductor can be moved so as to cut the lines of force of a

magnetic field .
Sheet 2
The induced EMF in any circuit is always Or

in a direction to oppose the effect that pro- An expanding or collapsing magnetic field can cut through
duced it. a stationary conductor.
XL2 AC Theory Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Inductive Reactance - Page 2
Continued from Page 1

In a purely inductive circuit, the circuit current will lag the applied voltage by 90o . This is a theoretical condition,
since any circuit will have some value of resistance or capacitive reactance in addition to the inductance.
In this circuit the current is all reactive and no work will be done. Single-phase power in watts in an AC circuit is:
AC Theory
P =E x I x Cos 0. The phase angle in this case is 90o . Since Cos 90o = 0, the circuit power therefore equals zero.
Remember:
• There are 360 degrees in a sine wave.
• Electrical Phasors rotate counter-clockwise (CCW).
• Phasors (electrical vectors) show two things: (1) magnitude, and (2) direction.
Phasor (Reference Voltage @ 0o )

Axis of E REF X Observer
Rotation
o
0 = 90 Angle of lag
(Circuit Current) I
CCW Phasor Rotation
AC L
Phasor Diagram
If the observer stands a point X above and watches the phasors rotate CCW,
Circuit Diagram the voltage phasor will appear first, followed 90o later by the current phasor.
T0 Time Increasing
180o
90o
0o
Degrees shown for voltage waveform
Positive 1/2 Cycle
Zero Amplitude
Negative 1/2 Cycle
0 Phase Angle 0 = 900 Lagging (Voltage is Reference)
Sine Wave Relationship

Red - Current
Black - Voltage
Sheet 3
In the above drawing, the voltage crosses zero and goes positive 90o before the current crosses zero and goes
positive.
4PTRES Resistance Measurements Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Three- and Four-Point Method
Four-Point Resistance Measurements
Ohmmeter measurements are normally made with just a two-point measurement method.
Test Methods
However, when measuring very low values of ohms, in the milli- or micro-ohm range, the two-point method is
not satisfactory because test lead resistance becomes a significant factor.
A similar problem occurs when making ground mat resistance tests, because long lead lengths of up to 1000
feet, are used. Here also, the lead resistance, due to long lead length, will affect the measurement results.
The four-point resistance measurement method eliminates lead resistance. Instruments based on the four-point
measurement work on the following principle:
• Two current leads, C1 and C2, comprise a two-wire current source that circulates current through the resis-
tance under test.
• Two potential leads, P1 and P2, provide a two-wire voltage measurement circuit that measures the voltage
drop across the resistance under test.
• The instrument computes the value of resistance from the measured values of current and voltage.
Four-Point Measurement Diagram
Leads may be any length.
Instrument
C1
P1
Readout
Current Source VM in Resistance Being Measured
May be AC or DC. Ohms
P2
AM
C2
Three-Point Resistance Measurements
The three-point method, a variation of the four-point method, is usually used when making ground (earth)
resistance measurements. With the three-point method, the C1 and P1 terminals are tied together at the instru-
ment and connected with a short lead to the ground system being tested. This simplifies the test in that only
three leads are required instead of four. Because this common lead is kept short, when compared to the length
of the C2 and P2 leads, its effect is negligible. Some ground testers are only capable of the three-point method,
so are equipped with only three test terminals. The three-point method for ground system testing is considered
adequate by most individuals in the electrical industry.
Sheet 1
The four-point method is required to measure soil resistivity. This process requires a soil cup of specific di-
mensions into which a representative sample of earth is placed. This process is not often employed in testing
electrical ground systems although it may be part of an initial engineering study.
Methods
Purpose
The purpose of electrical ground testing is to determine the effectiveness of the grounding medium with respect to
true earth. Most electrical systems do not rely on the earth to carry load current (this is done by the system con-
Ground Testing
ductors) but the earth may provide the return path for fault currents, and for safety, all electrical equipment frames
are connected to ground.
The resistivity of the earth is usually negligible because there so much of it available to carry current. The limiting
factor in electrical grounding systems is how well the grounding electrodes contact the earth, which is known as
the soil / ground rod interface. This interface resistance component, along with the resistance of the grounding
conductors and the connections, must be measured by the ground test.
In general, the lower the ground resistance, the safer the system is considered to be. There are different regula-
tions which set forth the maximum allowable ground resistance, for example: the National Electrical Code speci-
fies 25 ohms or less; MSHA is more stringent, requiring the ground to be 4 ohms or better; electric utilities con-
struct their ground systems so that the resistance at a large station will be no more than a few tenths of one ohm.
Grounding methods and techniques for ground system improvement will be covered in a future article.
Fall-of-Potential Instrument Characteristics
• To avoid errors due to galvanic currents in the

earth, most ground test instruments use an AC
current source.
• A frequency other than 60 hertz is used to elimi-

nate the possibility of interference with stray 60
hertz currents flowing through the earth. The TPI
instrument pictured at left uses 575 Hz @ less
than 50 volts.
• A three- or four-point measurement technique is

utilized to eliminate the effect of lead length.
• The test procedure, known as the Fall-of-Potential

Method, is described on the following page.
TPI MFT5010 Multi -Function Tester
A Three-Point Fall-of Potential Instrument
Clamp-On Instrument Characteristics
The clamp -on ground test instrument is a relatively new con-

cept which is particularly well suited for testing the effective-
ness of individual equipment grounding conductors that are
connected to an existing ground grid.
• Clamp -on type ground testers are simple and easy-to-use.

The instrument injects a current pulse into the ground
conductor and calculates the value of the ground conduc-
tor resistance from the current pulse amplitude.
• Some instruments can store the result of a number of

readings which simplifies field record keeping.
Sheet 2
• Calibration loop is included with instrument. Clamp-On Type Ground Tester

Shown with calibration loop
Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Test Procedure
Ground Test Procedure

Refer to Diagram and Example Graph on the Following Page.
The instrument connections shown on the following page are for a three-point instrument, so C1 and P1 are com-
Ground Testing
mon on the instrument and only three test leads are used. To use a four-point instrument, simply tie the C1and P1
leads together (most four-point instruments have a removable shorting link between the C1 and P1 terminals for
this purpose).
AC current of a non-standard frequency is usually used for ground testing to minimize the effect of galvanic (DC)
currents as well as 60 Hz fundamental and harmonic currents which are present in the earth. The TPI 5010 Multi-
function tester detailed in this article produces a 50 volt, 575 Hz test signal.
In the Fall-of-Potential Method, two small ground rods - often referred to as ground spikes or probes - about 16 “
long are utilized. These probes are pushed or driven into the earth far enough to make good contact with the earth
( 8” - 12” is usually adequate). One of these probes, referred to as the remote current probe, is used to inject the
test current into the earth and is placed some distance (often 100’ ) away from the grounding medium being
tested . The second probe, known as the potential probe, is inserted at intervals within the current path and meas-
ures the voltage drop produced by the test current flowing through the resistance of the earth.
In the example shown on the following page, the remote current probe C2 is located at a distance of 100 feet from
the ground system being tested. The P2 potential probe is taken out toward the remote current probe C2 and
driven into the earth at ten-foot increments.
Based on empirical data (data determined by experiment and observation rather than being scientifically derived),
the ohmic value measured at 62% of the distance from the ground-under-test to the remote current probe, is taken
as the system ground resistance.
The remote current probe must be placed out of the influence of the field of the ground system under test. With all
but the largest ground systems, a spacing of 100 feet between the ground-under-test and the remote current elec-
trode is adequate. With adequate spacing between electrodes exists, a plateau will be developed on the test graph.
Note: A remote current probe distance of less than 100 feet may be adequate on small ground systems.
When making a test where sufficient spacing exists, the instrument will read zero or very near zero when the P2
potential probe is placed near the ground-under-test. As the electrode is moved out toward the remote electrode, a
plateau will be reached where a number of readings are approximately the same value (the actual ground resis-
tance is that which is measured at 62% of the distance between the ground mat being tested and the remote current
electrode). Finally as the potential probe approaches the remote current electrode, the resistance reading will rise
dramatically. The electrical fields associated with the ground grid and the remote electrode are illustrated on Sheet
5. An actual ground test is detailed on Sheet 6 and a sample Ground Test Form is provided on Sheet 7.
Short Cut Method
It is not absolutely necessary to make a number of measurements as described above and to construct a graph of
the readings. We recommend this as it provides valuable data for future reference and, once you are set-up, it
takes only a few minutes to take a series of readings. However, the short cut method described here determines
the ground resistance value and verifies sufficient electrode spacing - and it does save time.
• Connect the instrument P1/C1 lead to the ground system being tested with a short conductor.
• Locate the remote current electrode C2 at distance of 100 feet from the ground grid being tested.
• Place the P2 potential probe at 62 feet from the ground grid being tested and measure the ground resistance.
Sheet 3
• Move the P2 potential probe 10’ to either side of the 62’ point (this would be at 52’ and 72’ from the ground
grid) and take readings at each of these points. If the readings at these two points are essentially the same as
that taken at the 62’ point, a measurement plateau exists and the 62’ reading is valid.
Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Method
Instrument Set-Up
Ground Testing
Ground Mat Under Test Yellow arrow indicates P2 potential probe @ 62 feet.
Potential probe taken out at 10 foot increments.
Keep this lead as short as Blue indicates return current path through earth.
possible.
T1 T2 T3
(C1 / P1) (P2) (C2)
Ground Tester Remote current probe C2 @ 100’
Digital Display
TPI 5010
Multifunction Tester FCN SW
Test Current Path
Select Earth ( RE )
• Test Current (575 Hz ) flows from instrument T3 to
remote current probe C2 on the red lead.
A Note on Instrument Labeling Conventions
• Test Current flows from remote current probe C2
back through the earth to the ground being tested as
Most Ground Testers are single-function units and
shown by dashed blue line.
the test terminals are referred to as C1/P1, P2 &
• Test current flows out of ground grid back to instru-
C2, as shown in parenthesis in the diagram above.
The test leads carry the same designations. ment T1 on the short green lead.
• Black potential lead P1 is connected to instrument
The TPI tester is a multifunction tester and uses the T2 and is taken out at 10’ increments. It measures
terminal designations T1, T2, & T3. The corre- voltage drop produced by the test current flowing
sponding lead designations are E (Earth), S & H. through the earth. (P1 to P2 potential.)
Sample Ground Resistance Plot

Remote current electrode C2 @ 100 feet.
Potential probe P1 taken out at 10 foot increments.
10
9
Insufficient electrode spacing has no plateau.

8
Resistance in Ohms
7
6
4 5
3
2
Sufficient electrode spacing has plateau. Ohms @ 62% of distance = 3.3 ohms
1
Sheet 4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance in Feet
Equal-Potential Planes
The Existence of Equal-Potential Planes
• When current flows through the earth from a remote test electrode (in the case of a ground test) or remote
fault, the voltage drop which results from the flow of current through the resistance of the earth can be illus-
Ground Testing
trated by equal-potential planes. The equal-potential planes are represented in the dashed lines in drawings
below where the spacing between concentric lines represents some fixed value of voltage.
• The concentration of the voltage surrounding a grounding element is greatest immediately adjacent to that
ground. This is shown by the close proximity of lines at the point where the current enters the earth and again
at the point where the current leaves the earth and returns to the station ground mat.
• In order to achieve a proper test using the Fall-of-Potential Ground Test Method, sufficient spacing must exist
between the station ground mat being tested and the remote current electrode such that the equal-potential
lines do not overlap. As shown by the black line in the Sample Plot on the previous page, adequate electrode
spacing will result in the occurrence of a plateau on the resistance plot. This plateau must exist at 62% of the
distance between the ground mat and the remote electrode for the test to be valid. Insufficient spacing results
in an overlap of these equal-potential planes, as illustrated at the bottom of this page and by the red line on the
Sample Plot on the previous page.
• See the Safety Note on Sheet 6 for information on the hazards of Step and Touch-Potentials.
Station Ground Mat Remote Current Electrode

Current leaves the earth and or
returns to the source. Remote Fault

Showing adequate spacing of electrodes
Ground Mat Remote Current Electrode

Sheet 5

Showing inadequate spacing between the established ground and remote test electrode.
Actual Field Test
This actual ground test was conducted on a pad-mount transformer in a rural mountain area. The single-phase
transformer is supplied by a 12470/7200 volt grounded wye primary and the transformer is grounded by its own
ground rod as well as being tied to the system neutral which is grounded at multiple points along the line. The
distribution line is overhead with just the “dip” to the transformer being underground.
Ground Testing
Setting-Up the Ground Tester TPI MFT5010 Instrument
Red arrow shows location of C2 probe. Showing the 50 foot reading of 4.0 Ohms.
Ground Test Data Test Procedure
Remote Current Probe C2 @ 100 Feet Terminal T1 of the TPI 5010 tester was connected to the
transformer case ground with a short green lead.
P2 Distance from Instrument Reading
Transformer in Feet in Ohms The remote Current Probe C2 was driven in the ground at a
location 100 feet from the transformer and connected to Ter-
10 1.83
minal T3 of the instrument with the red test lead.
20 3.59
Terminal T2 of the tester was connected, using the 100’
30 3.85 black lead, to the P2 potential probe. This ground stake was
40 3.95 inserted into the ground at 10’ intervals and a resistance
measurement was made at each location and recorded in the
50 4.0 table at the left.
60 4.25 The relatively constant readings in the 4 ohm range between
62* 4.3 40 and 70 feet is a definite plateau that indicates sufficient
lead spacing. The initial readings close to the transformer are
70 4.5 lower, and there is a pronounced “tip-up” as the P2 probe
approaches the remote current electrode C2.
80 5.4
90 7.3 The measured ground resistance at 62 feet (62% of the dis-
tance) was 4.3 ohms and is taken as the system ground resis-
100 25.02 tance. This is an excellent value for this type of an installa-
* Actual Ground resistance. tion.
Safety Note - Possible Existence of Hazardous Step and Touch Potentials

It is recommended that rubber gloves be worn when driving the ground rods and connecting the instrument leads.
Sheet 6
The possibility of a system fault occurring at the time the ground test is being conducted is extremely remote.
However, such a fault could result in enough current flow through the earth to cause a possible hazardous step
potential between a probe and where the electrician is standing, or hazardous touch potential between the probes
and the system ground. The larger the system, in terms of available fault current, the greater the possible risk.
Ohms
FM1 Field Monitor Relay Copyright 2004 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Purpose
Pictured below is the Dresser Rand (EEMIC) Field Monitor II relay used to provide pull-out protection for
large synchronous motors (IEEE Standard Device Designation 78) . The Field Monitor Relay measures the
power factor of the motor and trips the motor stator and DC exciter field if synchronism is not achieved within
a specific length of time or if the motor pulls out-of-step while running. Connection of the field monitor relay
Sync Motors
in the synchronous motor control scheme is shown in simplified form on Sheet 5 and a detailed connection
diagram of the current and potential inputs is provided on Sheet 8. Note: This article provides general
installation and operation information only. If troubleshooting or installing a similar system, be sure to
use the exact relay connection diagram and system prints for the specific switchgear.
Field Monitor Relay Sync Motor Field Excitation Cubicle

Detail Component Arrangement
Kilowatt Classroom Photo Kilowatt Classroom Photo
Exciter
Field
Rectifier
Transformer
AC Supply
CR2 Reset
Circuit Breaker
Push Button
Field Monitor
Relay
Restart
Timer
Field
Supply
Transformer
Exciter
Field Fuses
See connection diagram on Sheet 8. DC leads to exciter stationary field.
See diagram on Sheet 4.
Relay Connections
For correct connection of the relay, the rotation of the system must be known and a single-phase voltage and cur-
rent of the correct phase relationship and polarity must be supplied. To assist the user in this regard, the manufac-
turer provides the Connection Table shown on the following page. The basic field monitor connection criteria are
as follows:
• The voltage connection is line-to-line and the required matching current in derived from the other phase.
• For the correct connection, the applied field monitor current will lead the applied voltage by 90o when the syn-
chronous motor is running at unity power factor.
• If the polarity of the voltage is reversed, the correct connection can be maintained by reversing the polarity of
the corresponding current.
• To verify correct connection of the current and potential, the analog output terminals 8 (-) and 9 (+) of the
Sheet 7
Field Monitor II Relay can measured. This voltage will be about 4 VDC with the system at unity power factor.
The DC analog output voltage will increase toward a maximum of 8 VDC as the system goes leading and will
decrease below 4 VDC as the motor runs lagging.
Connections
Connection Diagram
Dashed lines show example connection.
Medium Voltage Bus
Sync Motors
A L1
Potential Transformer
B L2
L3
52 or 42
V7 V80
C3
5
C2
Field Monitor Relay 4
C1
78 Device
See Note 1 See Note 2

CO
CR1 See Note 3 CR2
PT Primary Circuit - Blue

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 CT Secondary Circuit - Red
STATOR
See Note 4
Note 1: CR1 - Excitation (Field On) Interlock.

52a or 42a Note 2: CR2 - Cage Winding Protection Interlock. To 52 circuit breaker trip or 42 contactor hold coil.
Run Note 3: Analog Output - 0 to 8 VDC proportional to motor power factor.
Note 4: When motor starts, auxiliary contact applies voltage to field monitor relay to initiate timer .
Field Monitor Connection Table

(Highlighted areas show connection example.)
If A & B
Voltage And the phase sequence is: And the phase sequence is:
is connected as 1- 2 - 3 3-2-1
shown
A L1 L3 L2 L1 L3 L2 L1 L2 L2 L3 L3 L1
B L3 L1 L1 L2 L2 L3 L2 L1 L3 L2 L1 L3
Connect 4 & 5
Current
as shown
4 C2 CO C3 CO C1 CO C3 CO C1 CO C2 CO
5 CO C2 CO C3 CO C1 CO C3 CO C1 CO C2
Determination of PT and CT Connections
Assume when measuring the system phase rotation at the bus potential transformer secondary fuses (see photo on
Sheet 9) it is determined that the system rotation is L1, L2, L3. Assume also the Field Monitor voltage input is
connected with L1 to Terminal 6 (follow Line 1 through the transformer to V7 ), and L2 to Terminal 7 (follow
Sheet 8
Line 2 through the transformer to V80 ), For these conditions, the current transformer input must be connected with
Terminal 4 to CO and Terminal 5 to C3. The correct phase relationship can verified by measuring the analog out-
put of the Field Monitor as described on the preceding page.
Verifying System Phasing & Rotation
System Phasor Diagram
In this example, assume two Bus Potential Transformers (PT’s) are used and they are connected in an open-
delta configuration. The 120 volt secondary phase designations are V7 , V80 , V9 , with B-Phase (Line 2) being
grounded. This ground is indicated by the V80 labeling where the suffix “0” indicates a grounded connection.
( If Line 2 were not grounded, it would be referred to a V8 ).
Sync Motors
Assume also that the system rotation was shown to be L1, L2, L3 using the phase rotation indicator. The delta
would be labeled as shown in the diagram below left. Because phasors are always rotated counter-clockwise
for analysis, a reversed system rotation would be shown by re-labeling the delta as L1, L3, L2, or L3, L2, L1.
(On a three-phase system, reversing any two leads changes the rotation.)
The phasor diagram shown below right has been constructed to illustrate the 90 degree phase relationship
between the current phasor C3 and the L1-L2 voltage phasor and shows the current leading the voltage by 90o
as required for proper operation of the Field Monitor II Relay. Using a similar process the other voltage and
current combinations in the Connection Table can be analyzed.
To construct the phasor diagram shown on the right, keep L1-L2 phasor in its original orientation and move the
tail of the C3 phasor over to tail of L1-L2 phasor without changing the angular relationship of C3. The tail of
the C3 phasor is CO.
L2 (V80 ) L2 (V80 )
Phasors rotate CCW

(counter-clockwise)
C2 for analysis.
Axis of Rotation
C1 C3 C3
C3’
L1 (V7 ) L3 (V9 )
Move C3 over to C3’
L1 (V7 ) position.
PT & CT Secondary Phasors Relationship of L1-L2 Phasor to C3 Phasor

Showing C3 leading L1-L2 by 90 degrees.
Phase Rotation Measurement Example

Switchgear Bus PT Cubicle TPI Phase Sequence Indicator
PT Secondary Fuse Block

Phase rotation check was
made at this location.
Potential Transformers (PT’s)

and high voltage fuses
located behind swing-out
panel.
Sheet 9
Phase Sequence Indicator The sequence indicator leads are connected:

Used to establish system rotation as required Red - Line 1, White - Line 2, Blue - Line 3.
for correct Field Monitor II connection. See The disk turns clockwise for a L1, L2, L3 system
table on Sheet 8. rotation, and runs counter-clockwise if the
rotation is reversed.
DIODE1 Semiconductor Diodes Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
The Semiconductor Diode
The semiconductor diode is a device that will conduct current in one direction only. It is the electrical equivalent
of a hydraulic check valve. The semiconductor diode has the following characteristics:
• A diode is a two-layer semiconductor consisting of an Anode comprised of P-Type semiconductor material

and a Cathode which is made of N -Type semiconductor material.
• The P-Type material contains charge carriers which are of a positive polarity and are known as holes. In the
N-Type material the charge carriers are electrons which are negative in polarity.
• When a semiconductor diode is manufactured, the P-Type and N-Type materials are adjacent to one another
creating a P-N Junction.
Biasing
Diodes
A bias refers to the application of an external voltage to a semiconductor. There are two ways a P-N junction can
be biased.
• A forward bias results in current flow through the diode (diode conducts). To forward bias a diode, a positive
voltage is applied to the Anode lead ( which connects to P-Type material) and the negative voltage is applied
to the Cathode lead ( which connects to N-Type material).
• A reverse bias results in no current flow through the diode (diode blocks). A diode is reverse biased when the
Anode lead is made negative and the Cathode lead is made positive.
P-N Junction Characteristics
The P-N Junction region has three important characteristics:
1) The junction is region itself has no charge carriers and is known as a depletion region.
2) The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage. A forward
bias decreases the thickness of the depletion region; a reverse bias increases the thickness of the depletion
region.
3) There is a voltage, or potential hill, associated with the junction. Approximately 0.3 of a volt is required to
forward bias a germanium diode; 0.5 to 0.7 of a volt is required to forward bias a silicon diode.
+I Symbol Axial Lead Diode

Anode Cathode A C (K)
Current Flow
PIV
P N
-V +V
VF + -
Forward Bias
P N
Sheet 1
-I
- +
Diode
X-Y Characteristic Curve Reverse Bias (No Current Flow)
DIODE2 Silicon Diodes Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Ratings
Three characteristics must be defined for proper application or replacement of a semiconductor diode:
Voltage Rating is the maximum voltage which the diode will block in the reverse-biased mode.
• This is expressed as the Peak-Reverse-Voltage (PRV) or Peak-Inverse-Voltage (PIV).
• It is important to remember that this is a peak value of voltage not the root-mean-square (RMS) value. As a
“Rule -of-Thumb, to provide a margin of safety, the PIV rating of a diode should be at least 3 times the RMS
voltage of the circuit.
Current Rating is the maximum current the device can carry in the forward biased direction.
Package Configuration
Diodes
• Small, low current diodes are available in an axial lead configuration. The band end is the cathode.
• High current diodes come in a press-fit, stud- mounted, or hockey puck package.
Stud mounted diodes are available in Standard Polarity (stud cathode) and Reverse Polarity (stud anode).
Thermal Limits
• It is essential that semiconductors operate within the device temperature ratings.
• Semiconductor charge carriers are released thermally as well as electrically. Heat-sinking may be required
during soldering and when the device is in operation to prevent thermal damage.
• The forward resistance of a diode decreases with temperature; this results in an increase in current, which in
turn produces more heat. As a result, thermal run-away can occur and destroy the semiconductor.
Sheet 2
DIODE3 Diode Test Procedure Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Unlike its predecessor, the Analog Ohmmeter, Digital Ohmmeters re-

TPI 183 Digital Multimeter quire a special Diode Check Function because the current circulated by
the normal Ohms Function of a digital meter is too low to adequately
check a diode.
In the Diode Check Position, the reading given by a digital meter in the
forward bias direction (meter positive to diode anode and meter negative
to diode cathode) is actually the voltage required to overcome the inter-
nal diode junction potential. For a silicon diode this will be about 0.5 -
0.8 volt; a germanium diode will read slightly lower, about 0.3 - 0.5 volt.
Symbol Notation K (or C) = Cathode, A = Anode.
Select Reverse Bias - Diode Blocks

K A Correct reading: TPI Meter will read
Diodes
OUCH for open circuit indication. (Some
meters read OL.)
A K Forward Bias - Diode Conducts.

Correct reading: Meter will read
about 0.5 - 0.8 volt.
Incorrect Readings: If meter reads 0 both

directions, it is shorted. If it reads OUCH
(open circuit) both directions, it is open.
Diode Test Procedure
Caution: Ohms and Diode Check measurements can be made only on de-energized circuits! The Ohmmeter
battery provides power to make this measurement. You may need to remove the diode from the circuit to get a
reliable test. See Note below.
• Connect leads to meter as shown - Black COM, Red Ω .
• Select the (Diode Test) function.
• Connect the leads to the Diode-Under-Test as shown in the drawing above and verify the readings are correct
for both a forward and reverse bias. (This is sometimes referred to as checking the front-to-back ratio.)
Note: Large Stud-Mounted Diodes are bolted to a heat sink and Hockey Puck Units are compressed between the
heat sinks; removing them from the circuit can be time-consuming and may be unnecessary. In these situations,
test the entire assembly first, then, if the assembly tests shorted, remove and test the diodes individually. Hockey
Puck Diodes must be compressed in a heat sink assembly or test fixture to be tested as they require compression to
make-up the internal connections.
Sheet 3
Rectifier Circuits Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
DIODE4
Rectification
• Rectification is the process of converting an Alternating Current (AC) to a Direct Current (DC).
• In the circuits below, the DC output voltage is defined as pulsating DC because it has the same waveform as
one-half cycle of the applied alternating current. It is DC because it always has the same polarity with respect
to zero volts. On single-phase rectifiers, the output DC voltage goes to zero after each rectified half cycle.
• To convert a pulsating DC to a pure DC, such as that produced by a battery or DC generator, the DC output
voltage must be filtered.
• The diode symbol points in the direction of conventional current flow (positive to negative).
• To analyze the operation of a rectifier circuit supplied by an AC circuit, arbitrarily assign a polarity to the
transformer winding and analyze the diode operation, then reverse the polarity assignment and again analyze
the operation of the diode. When the anode of the diode is made positive with respect to the cathode the diode
Rectifiers
will conduct. When the anode of the diode is made negative with respect to the cathode the diode will block
the flow of current.
• When the diode is conducting, current flows through the diode and the voltage drop across the diode is very
small (typically 0.5 - 0.7 volts for a silicon diode). The current flow through the load resistor produces a volt-
age drop across the load resistor.
• When the diode is non-conducting, no current flows through the diode and the applied voltage appears across
the diode. Because there is no current flow, there will be no voltage drop across the resistor.
AC Input Voltage DC Output Voltage
+
24 VAC RMS
120 VAC 24 VAC RL 0V 0V
_ DCOUT = VRMS / 2 = 12 VDC
Half-Wave Rectifier
_ 24 VAC RMS
+ 0V 0V
120 VAC 24
RL DCOUT = VRMS = 24 VDC
Bridge Circuit
12VAC
_ 12 VAC RMS
+
120 VAC 0V 0V
RL DCOUT = VRMS = 12 VDC
Sheet 4
12VAC
Center-Tap Circuit
DIODE5 Three-Phase Rectifiers Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Delta-Wye
Rectifier Transformer
A
B
+
RL Output Waveform
C
Rectifiers
Three-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier
On three-phase rectifiers, the pulsations do not return to zero as with a single phase rectifier. This reduces the
amount of ripple and simplifies filtering.
A diode is forward biased when the anode is made more positive with respect to the cathode. Each of the diodes is
forward biased when the voltage of the phase leading it becomes lower than the diode anode voltage and the diode is
reverse biased when the voltage of the phase lagging it becomes higher that diode anode voltage.
Positive Bus
+
RL
Negative Bus
Three-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier
Showing rectifier transformer delta secondary only. When the diodes are replaced with SCR’s, the output voltage of
the rectifier can be controlled by phase-firing of the SCR’s. This arrangement is referred to as a six-pulse system.
Six-Phase Systems
Some special medium-voltage rectifier transformers have dual secondary windings -

one delta, the other wye - which are 30 degrees out-of-phase. The phase-to-phase
voltage of the wye matches the phase voltage of the delta. The outputs are individu-
ally rectified and the rectifiers are connected in series, resulting in a six-phase sys-
tem with very low ripple, that has an output voltage which is double the voltage of
the individual windings. The dashed line in the corner of the delta shows the phase
Sheet 5
shift between the two windings.

DELTA Three-Phase AC Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Delta System
The Delta is a 3-wire system which is primarily used to provide power for three-phase motor loads. The system is
normally ungrounded and has only one three-phase voltage available. The lack of a system ground makes it diffi-
cult to protect for ground faults. Often, a ground detection scheme, employing ground lamps, is used to provide an
indication or alarm in the event of a system ground. The Delta System is sometimes corner grounded to protect for
ground faults on the other two phases.
AC Systems
In a delta system the line voltage is equal to the phase voltage i.e. (Line Voltage E Line 1 - 3 = E A Phase ) and the line
current is the vector sum of two individual phase currents i.e. (Line Current I1 = IA + IC’ ). For balanced loads: Line
Current I1 = IA x 1.732.
On 240 volt Delta Systems, where single -phase lighting is desired, a 4- wire system can be configured by ground-
ing the center-tap of one 240 volt transformer to provide 120 volts single-phase for lighting. The corner of the
delta which is opposite the lighting circuit ground is referred to as the “high leg” or “wild leg” and cannot be used
for lighting as the voltage to ground is 1.732 times the voltage of the single-phase center-tapped transformer. When
this 4-wire scheme is utilized, the lighting transformer will usually have a larger kVA rating because it must carry
both the single-phase lighting load and the three-phase motor or other loads.
Center-tapped lighting transformer (4-wire system).

Note: Only one inten-
tional system ground
point can be utilized, AF
otherwise a short circuit
would exist. CF
“wild leg” or “high leg”

(opposite center-tapped BF
ground)
Corner Ground (if used)
IC’
Phasors rotate CCW

Reference Phasor @ zero degrees
X = Observer
2002 NEC Code Reference: Article 110.15 High-Leg Marking. On a 4-wire, delta-connected system where the
midpoint of one phase winding is grounded to supply lighting and similar loads, the conductor or busbar having the
Sheet 1
higher phase voltage to ground shall be durably and permanently marked by an outer finish that is orange in color or
by other effective means. Such identification shall be placed at each point on the system where a connection is
made if the grounded conductor is also present. See also ARTICLE 408. 3 (E) Phase Arrangement.
Three-Phase AC Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
WYE
Wye System
The Wye (also know as Star - especially in the motor rewind industry) is a 4-wire system which provides two dif-
ferent supply voltages. The center-point of the Wye is the system neutral and is usually solidly grounded. Where
it is desirable to limit the phase-to-ground fault magnitude the center-point of the Wye may be connected to
ground through and neutral grounding resistor or a current limiting reactor. Because the system is tied to ground it
AC Systems
is easy to provide system ground fault protection. Three-phase loads can be connected phase-to-phase and single-
phase loads can be connected from any phase to the system neutral. On a wye system, the phase unbalance current
is carried by the system neutral.
On a Wye system the line current is equal to the phase current i.e. ( ILine 1 = IPhase A ) and the line-to-line voltage is
equal to the vector sum of two individual phase voltages i.e. (E Line1 -2 = E PhaseA + E PhaseB’ ). In a Wye system the
phase-to-phase voltage is 1.732 x the phase-to-ground voltage. Some typical Wye system voltages are: 120/208Y,
277/480Y, 2400/4160Y, 4160/7200Y, 7200/12470Y, 7620/13200Y,and 19920/34500Y.
Ground Resistor
If Used Three-Phase Load
A
Neutral Ground
B
Single -Phase Loads

System Neutral
EB’ IB’
Sheet 2
CT1 Current Transformers Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Ratio / Polarity / Types
Application
Current Transformers (CT’s) are instrument transformers that are used to supply a reduced value of current to me-
ters, protective relays, and other instruments. CT’s provide isolation from the high voltage primary, permit
grounding of the secondary for safety, and step-down the magnitude of the measured current to a value that can be
Transformers
safely handled by the instruments.
Ratio
The most common CT secondary full-load current is 5 amps which matches the standard 5 amp full-scale current
rating of switchboard indicating devices, power metering equipment, and protective relays. CT’s with a 1 amp
full-load value and matching instruments with a 1 amp full-range value are also available. Many new protective
relays are programmable for either value.
CT ratios are expressed as a ratio of the rated primary current to the rated secondary current.
For example, a 300:5 CT will produce 5 amps of secondary current when 300 amps flows through the primary. As
the primary current changes the secondary current will vary accordingly. With 150 amps through the 300 amp
rated primary, the secondary current will be 2.5 amps ( 150 : 300 = 2.5 : 5 ). When the rated primary amps is ex-
ceeded, which is usually the case when a fault occurs on the system, the amount of secondary current will increase
but, depending on the magnetic saturation in the CT, the output may not be exactly proportional.
Polarity
All current transformers are subtractive polarity. Polarity refers to the instantaneous direction of the primary cur-
rent with respect to the secondary current and is determined by the way the transformer leads are brought out of
the case. On subtractive polarity transformers the H1 primary lead and the X1 secondary lead will be on the same
side of the transformer (the left side when facing the low-side bushings). See the article Understanding Trans-
former Polarity in the Archive Catalog of the Kilowatt Classroom Web Site for more information on polarity.
On the Window or Donut-type CT’s, such as pictured on

Donut or Window-Type CT the left, the conductor, bus bar, or bushing which passes
through the center of the transformer constitutes one primary
turn. On Window-type units with low primary current rat-
ings, where the primary conductor size is small, the ratio of
White Lead is
the transformer can be changed by taking multiple wraps of
Secondary Polarity
the primary conductor through the window. If, for example,
a window CT has a ratio of 100:5, placing two primary con-
Primary Polarity ductor wraps (two primary turns) through the window will
Mark change the ratio to 50:5. Some types of equipment employ
this method to calibrate the equipment or to permit a single
Startco Engineering Ltd Photo ratio CT to be utilized for several different ampacities of
equipment.
Bar-Type CT’s have primary connections that Bar -Type CT

Primary
bolt-up directly to the substation bus bars.
Polarity Mark
Outdoor-rated versions of this equipment are
used in pole-mounted primary metering H1 Terminal
installations.
Sheet 1
This type of CT often has compensating X1 Terminal

windings which improve the accuracy across
the full-load range of the transformer. X1 Polarity Mark X2 Terminal H2 Terminal
Kilowatt Classroom Photo

Symbols
Current Flow Analysis
In analyzing the current flow in a system utilizing CT’s the following observation can be made:
When current flows in the CT primary from the H1 lead (polarity + ) to the non- polarity H2 lead, current will
Transformers
be forced out the secondary X1 (polarity + ) lead, through the burden (load), and return to the secondary X2
non-polarity lead. The next half-cycle the current will reverse, but for the purpose of analysis and for con-
structing phasor diagrams, only the above indicated one-half cycle is analyzed.
Electrical Drawing Conventions
The polarity marking on electrical drawings may be made in several different ways. The three most common
schematic conventions are shown below. The drawing symbol for meters and relays installed in a draw-out
case that automatically short the CT secondary is shown in the drawing at the lower right.
CT One-Line Diagram Symbol
Secondary Winding
One-Turn Primary
Secondary Conductors to Relays or Instruments
Polarity Marks Shown as Dots Polarity Marks Shown as Squares
Source Source
Current Elements in Meters or Relays Current Elements in Meters or Relays
H1
X1
X2
H2
Secondary Safety Ground Secondary Safety Ground
Load Load
Polarity Marks Shown with Slash Draw-Out Meter or Relay Case
Source Source Symbol for draw-out case with CT Shorting

Current Elements in Meters or Relays
Secondary Safety Ground Secondary Safety Ground

Load Load
Sheet 2
Shorting Methods
Caution: The secondary of a Current Transformer must always have a burden (load) connected; an open-
circuited secondary can result in the development of a dangerously-high secondary voltage. Energized but
unused CT’s must be kept short-circuited.
Transformers
Startco MPU-16
Draw-Out Instrument Cases
Motor Protective Relay
Meters and protective relays are available in draw-out cases that auto-
Retrofit installation in
matically short-circuit the CT when the instrument is removed for test-
draw-out case.
ing and calibration. Voltage and trip-circuit contacts will be opened.
Startco Engineering Ltd Photo
See symbol for draw-out case on Sheet 2.
CT Shorting Terminal Strips
The illustration below shows the termination of a multi-ratio CT on a special shorting terminal strip.
Insertion of shorting screw through shorting bar ties isolated terminal strip points together. Any
shorted winding effectively shorts the entire CT.
X1 Shorting Bar
X2 Shorting screw in any other locations shorts CT.
X3
Multi-Ratio CT Relay connected to CT tap which
X4 provides the desired ratio.
Lead X3 becomes polarity.
X5
Shorting screw ties X5 CT lead to ground.
Safety Ground
Shorting screw ties shorting bar to ground.
Spare Shorting Screw
Stored for future shorting requirement.
Terminal Strip Mounting Hole
Auxiliary Current Transformers
Startco Engineering Ltd has developed a system utilizing an Auxiliary CT

(pictured at left) which permits safe removal of hard-wire protective relays from
the system. The current transformers are permanently wired to the input of the
Auxiliary CT and the output of the Auxiliary unit is wired to the protective relay
current inputs. This arrangements keeps a burden on the CT secondary circuits
and permits the protective relays to be removed for repair, calibration, or replace-
ment.
Sheet 3
The Auxiliary CT is installed as close as possible to the current transformers.

Startco Engineering Ltd Photo
This reduces the CT burden by reducing the length of the CT secondary current
conductors.
CT Accuracy Classes
ANSI Accuracy Classes
Current Transformers are defined by Accuracy Classes depending on the application.
• Metering Accuracy CT’s are used where a high degree of accuracy is required from low-load values up to
Transformers
full-load of a system. An example of this application would be the current transformers utilized by utility
companies for large capacity revenue billing.
• Relaying Accuracy CT’s are used for supplying current to protective relays. In this application, the relays do
not normally operate in the normal load range, but they must perform with a reasonable degree of accuracy at
very high overload and fault-current levels which may reach twenty times the full-load amplitude.
Notes:
1) Instrument Transformers (PT’s & CT’s) are defined in ANSI C57.13-1978.
2) The load on an instrument transformer (PT or CT) is referred to as the “burden”.
Metering Accuracy Classifications
Available in Maximum Ratio Error Classes of: + 0.3% , + 0.6% , + 1.2%, +2.4%.
For Burdens (Loads) of: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 0.9, 1.8 ohms.
Which equals 2.5, 5.0, 12, 22-1/2, 45 volt-amperes ( va ).
Since Power = I2 xR, use 5 amp secondary for I, and burden value for R.
Typical Number
0.3 B 0.2
Max Ratio Error + % Burden Ohms (Burden)
Relaying Accuracy CT’s
Class C (C for Calculated) is low leakage reactance type - typical of donut units - Formerly Class L ( L for Low
Leakage).
Class T (T for Tested) is high leakage reactance type - typical of bar-type units - Formerly Class H ( H for High
Leakage).
Typical Number
10 C 800
10% Max Ratio Error at 20 times Rated Current
Low Leakage Unit
Max secondary voltage developed at 20 times rated current without exceeding the +10% ratio error.
Sheet 4
Available secondary voltages: 10, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800.
Will support burdens of: 0.1, 0.2, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0 ohms.
Multi- Ratio CT’s
Westinghouse Multi-Ratio Bushing-Type CT Installation Considerations

For External Installation
This bushing CT is designed for use on existing
circuit breakers and power transformers and is
Transformers
installed externally (See Sheet 11). It is housed
in an aluminum case which provides electrostatic
shielding.
Care must be taken with the installation to insure

that the mounting clamp bolts do not contact the
case resulting in a one-turn primary short circuit.
Also because the case is metal and is installed

externally it can decrease the bushing strike dis-
tance. The circuit breaker or transformer manu-
facturer should be consulted to verify acceptabil-
ity of the installation.
600/5 CT Secondary Turns Diagram
Diagram at the left shows the number of turns for

each winding on a 600/5 multi-ratio CT. The full
number of 120 turns, from X1 - X5, is used to
obtain the 600/5 ratio. (Since there is one primary
Polarity Mark
turn, 120:1= 600:5).
Another example: X1 - X2 has 20 turns, so

20:1= 100:5. Any combination of adjacent turns
can be utilized. The lowest lead number of the
combination will be the polarity lead. See the CT
shorting strip diagram on Sheet 7 for a typical
termination arrangement.
Selection Guide
Shows ANSI Accuracy Classes, Dimensions, and Mfg Style Number
Sheet 5
Typical Excitation Characteristics
Excitation Curves
The family of curves below describe the excitation characteristics for the 600/5 multi-ratio bushing current
transformer shown on the previous sheet. This is a plot of the CT secondary current against secondary voltage.
These curves illustrate how high the secondary voltage will in rise in order to force the rated secondary current
Transformers
through the burden. The effect of magnetic saturation is also illustrated by the knee of the curve.
Next month’s article will show how to perform a CT Saturation Curve Test.
Sheet 6
Typical Installations
Load-Side CT’s Line-Side CT’s
Bushing CT’s
Bushing CT’s may be mounted externally or internally

on circuit breakers and transformers.
Transformers
Multi-ratio units are often used.
Where single-ratio CT’s are employed, the CT primary

rating may match either the full-load ampacity of the
circuit breaker or of the feeder. In the latter case, up-
grading the feeder ampacity will require replacement of
the CT’s.
The CT secondary leads land on a termination strip in

the breaker or transformer control cubicle.
Siemens SF6 Circuit Breaker

With externally mounted bushing CT’s
External Portion of Bushing

Note “Petticoats” which shed
moisture and increase creepage
distance.
Multi-Ratio CT
Bushing Internal Porcelain

This section is submerged in oil.
Westinghouse Oil-Filled Vacuum Recloser

With tank dropped showing internally mounted CT’s on line-side bushings. In this configu-
ration the protective relays fed by the CT’s are said to “look through” the breaker.
Control Circuit Contact Block

Mates with breaker control block.
Bus Bars
Breaker Bus-Side Stabs

With single donut CT on B-Phase
Breaker Machine-Side Stabs

With donut CT on A and C Phases
Sheet 7
General Electric 480 Volt Metal-Clad Switchgear

Cubicle with generator breaker racked out.
Types
Hall Effect CT’s
Hall-Effect CT’s are not current transformers in the conventional sense, rather they
are electronic circuit transducers which can be applied in the measurement of either TPI
AC or DC circuit currents. These devices have many applications; they are com- AC/DC Current Probe
monly used in Variable Frequency Drives (VFD’s) to measure the DC link current
Transformers
and are also employed in AC/DC instrument probes such as the TPI-A254 Current
Adapter shown at the right.
Hall-Effect devices contain an null-balance type amplifier circuit. The magnetic

flux (field) produced by the current flow through the primary (usually one-turn)
results in an output voltage which is balanced by an equal and opposite output from
the control or measuring circuit. Because the circuit is an amplifier, it requires ex-
ternal operating power which is supplied by the control circuit power supply, or in
the case of a portable instrument probe, batteries are used.
Probe employs the Hall-
As with conventional current transformers, Hall-Effect devices provide isolation Effect principle and produces
from the high voltage circuit and reduce the measured current to a proportional a millivoltage output that is
value which can be safely measured by the control or instrument circuit. applied to a TPI Digital
Multimeter. The meter inter-
Hall-Effect devices do not pose the same danger as conventional bus-bar or donut- prets the probe voltage as a
type CT’s with regard to an open circuited secondary. (Note: some instrument cur- current value. Batteries are
rent probes are conventional CT’s; these usually have a burden resistor within the used in the probe to power
probe or may be protected from an open circuit with back-to-back zener diodes.) the amplifier circuitry.
However, good practice dictates that instrument current probes should not be
disconnected from the meter while current is passing through the device primary.
Test Products International Photo
Hall-Effect CT
Used on the DC Link of a 5000 H.P. VFD.
Control Circuit Connections

Heat Sink
Tubular High Voltage Bus Bar

Passes through Hall-Effect CT
Power Transistors
Typical VFD Block Diagram

Showing Hall-Effect CT (HCT) Connections
DC Link 3-Phase AC Motor

Single or
Three-Phase Rectifier Inverter
AC Input HCT
HCT Output Signal HCT Power

Sheet 8
Speed Frequency Control Signal

Reference Regulator
Motor Voltage Feedback

CT Saturation Curve Testing
CT Saturation Curve Tester Sheet 1 of 2

Designed by Vail Gilliland
Purpose
Test Methods
This circuit is used to plot the Saturation Curve of an Instrument Current Transformer. The test results are
compared with the manufacturer’s published data (see sample curves on Sheet 6 of the Current Transformer
article published last month). A transformer with shorted secondary turns or a one-turn primary short due to
improper mounting will result in a test plot which varies from the published curve. This test is performed only
on de-energized, out-of-service equipment. The CT under test need not be removed from the equipment pro-
vided the primary is first de-energized and isolated and the secondary is then disconnected. See Circuit De-
scription and Test Procedure on Sheet 10.
WARNING !
This test set-up develops high voltage.
The test procedure is intended for use by experienced electrical personnel only and requires the use of
established safety procedures and proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
This test is performed only on de-energized, out-of-service equipment, and requires that the CT primary
be de-energized and isolated, and then the CT secondary must be disconnected from its burden (load).
Be certain to properly reconnect the current transformer at the conclusion of the test - an open-circuited
CT can develop a dangerously-high voltage; an incorrectly connected CT may not trip the protective relay!
AUTOTRANSFORMER SWITCH
120 VAC HOT
AUTOTRANSFORMER FUSE
ADJUSTABLE
AUTOTRANSFORMER
2000 VA, 0 - 135 VAC
DIGITAL AMMETER 0 - 10 AMPS

SEE CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION ON
120 VAC NEUTRAL
THE FOLLOWING SHEET.
SAFETY GROUND ON
Sheet 9
TRANSFORMER CASES
Test Set Schematic

CT Saturation Curve Testing
CT Saturation Curve Tester Sheet 2 of 2
Test Method Overview
The circuit on the preceding page (Sheet 9) is used to provide an adjustable 0 - 1000 VAC which is injected on
the secondary winding of the current transformer being tested. Using the adjustable autotransformer, the secon-
Test Methods
dary excitation voltage and current applied to the CT are gradually increased from zero while incremental volt-
age and current readings are taken. A plot of the CT secondary voltage and current is made on log - log
(logarithmic) scale engineering graph paper at each step of the test. The constructed plot is then compared
with the manufacturers published curves (see Sheet 6 ); a deviation from these curves indicates either a pri-
mary one-turn short circuit due to improper mounting or shorted secondary turns.
Circuit Description
Two 480 - 120 volt control transformers are back-fed with the 120 volt windings connected in parallel and the
480 volt windings connected in series. (The kVA rating of these transformers must be large enough to supply
5 amps of current on a momentary basis to get above the “knee” of the saturation curve.) An adjustable 0 - 135
VAC is supplied by the autotransformer which feeds the parallel connected 120 volt transformer windings.
To achieve accurate test results, both the CT secondary excitation voltage and excitation current need to be
accurately measured.
The voltmeter must have a 1000 VAC range.
One method of measuring the excitation current is to series a Digital Multi-Meter (DMM) with the test circuit
output and measure the current directly using the AC amps function. Care needs to be taken not to exceed the
internal current rating of the instrument (10 amps on most DMM’s).
An alternate approach, for making the current measurement, is to use a low-current clamp -on adapter such as
the TPI A254 (see picture on Sheet 8) which has the ability to read AC currents as low as 10 milliamps. Sev-
eral wraps of the conductor through this current probe will extend the low-end accuracy; the meter reading is
then divided by the number of turns used.
Test Procedure
WARNING! This test set-up develops high voltage - see precautions on previous sheet.
• Verify that the adjustable autotransformer is un-plugged, turned off, and set at zero.
• Connect the test equipment as shown in the diagram on the preceding page and connect the output leads to
the secondary leads of the current-transformer-under-test.
• Apply the 120 VAC power to the autotransformer input.
• Gradually increase the autotransformer setting until a small output current is measured. Ten milliamps
(0.010 amps) is a good first step. Read the voltage at this step and plot the voltage and current readings on
the log-log graph paper.
• Continue to increase the autotransformer setting in a series of small steps, taking voltage and current read-
ings at each step and plotting the results on the graph paper. Watch for the development of the “knee” of
the curve and make very careful adjustments in this voltage and current range. The current will increase
in much larger increments at this point for a given amount of voltage increase, so use care to prevent
blowing a meter fuse or autotransformer fuse.
• At the conclusion of the test, reduce the autotransformer output voltage to zero and remove power from
Sheet 10
the system.
HCT1 Current Injection Testing Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Purpose
Electrical equipment such as circuit breakers, protective relays, and meters are routinely tested to verify proper
operation of current sensing elements. This testing is performed using high-current, low-voltage test equipment
that provides a means of adjusting the value of current and also of measuring the operating time of the device un-
Test Methods
der test. The output waveform of the test current is critical and must be sinusoidal; testing with equipment that
produces a non-sinusoidal waveform - such as SCR’s - will not produce accurate results.
CAUTION! Current injection testing is performed on de-energized, out-of-service equipment only!
Types of High-Current Testing
• Primary Injection Testing is used to test the overall operation of a current circuit. In this type of test, a high
current is injected in the Current Transformer (CT) primary winding and the resulting secondary current is
measured in each of the CT secondary devices such as meters and relays. This test is primarily conducted
during commissioning of new equipment or after a major circuit modification to insure that the equipment is
correctly connected. The polarity of the current may also be critical and other equipment, such as a Phase
Angle Meter, may be used in conjunction with the high-current test source.
• Secondary Injection Testing is periodically performed on the individual devices such as relays and meters to
verify the accuracy and proper operation of the equipment. These devices receive their input current from the
CT secondary winding so these tests will be at a much lower level of current than that used for primary injec-
tion. Proper operation of the current-sensing protective equipment can be verified by comparing the device
operating characteristics with the manufacturers published time-current characteristic curves.
Frequency of Tests
The frequency of these preventive maintenance current tests depend up the importance of the protection: high volt-
age equipment will often be tested annually; medium-voltage equipment is often tested and calibrated every-other
year, and a three- or four-year interval for 480 volt equipment may be considered adequate.
Testing Thermal Devices
• Thermal overload relays for 480 volt and lower voltage equipment - either bimetallic or melting alloy type -
are not usually tested as the test current can damage the element. (Critical applications should be protected by
a more reliable device such as an electromechanical or electronic relay.)
• Large thermal circuit breakers are sometimes periodically tested for proper operation by current injection.
If successive tests are made the device must have time to cool-down between tests for accurate results to be
obtained.
• Electromechanical thermal relays must be tested within the instrument case for proper results. As with ther-
mal breakers, the device must have time to cool down between successive tests.
Testing Instantaneous Elements
• Because of the high current involved when testing magnetic trip elements in circuit breakers or relays, the cur-
rent should be adjusted as quickly as possible using the test set MOMENTARY FUNCTION to prevent dam-
age to the equipment-under-test.
• The maximum trip point setting of the instantaneous magnetic trip element of a thermal/magnetic circuit
breaker is usually 10 times the thermal element value. Testing the magnetic element may result in damage to
the thermal element (which is in series with the magnetic trip coil) if the test current is prolonged. Motor
Circuit Protectors (MCP’s) have a magnetic trip element only and can be safely tested.
Sheet 11
• Protective relay instantaneous elements are tested at either the engineered setting or the “as -found” setting.
HCT2 High Current Testing Copyright 2003 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
CT Primary Injection
Test Set-Up
In the photo below a high current test set is used to check the trip and reclose timing on a three-phase 35.4 kV
substation vacuum recloser. The relaying scheme is tested one-phase-at-a-time. The high current leads are
attached to the phase being tested. The test set timer start/stop leads are attached to a different phase using this
Test Methods
pole as a “dry” set of contacts. See Sheet 7 for a photo of the recloser internal bushing current transformers.
This recloser uses 130 VDC station battery for trip and close power.
CAUTION ! This procedure cannot be used on electronic controlled reclosers that have a high-voltage
closing coil or on hydraulic reclosers that have a high-voltage series trip coil and a high-voltage closing
coil.
Recloser is out-of-service.
Note open disconnect ( 6 total ).
Test set high current leads attached to A -Phase bushings.
Timer start/stop leads attached to C-Phase bushings.
Vacuum Recloser
Control Cabinet
High Current Test Set
Field Test on 34.5 kV Recloser

Test Set-Up Schematic

Recloser shown top view.
Load-Side Bushings Line-Side Bushings
Blue = High Current Leads

Red Circles = Internal Bushing CT’s
T A
High Current Test Set
Red Dashed Lines = CT secondary leads to
T = Timer multi-function protective relay. Relay “looks”
A = AC Ammeter ADJ through the breaker. When the relay trips the
ADJ = Amps Adjust Control breaker, the fault current is interrupted and the
protective relay will reset.
Sheet 12
Green = Timer Start / Stop Leads

Recloser Main Contacts
Electrical Fundamentals –Tab 1
Electrical Basics –Electrical terms, electrical symbols for formulas and prints, electrical calculations, measurement methods,
sources of electrical energy, resistance in electrical circuits
DC Circuits – Ohms Law; electrical power; series, parallel and series-parallel circuits
AC Circuits – Magnetism, Sine Wave fundamentals, inductance, capacitance, reactance, impedance, single-phase AC systems
Three-Phase AC Systems – Delta, Wye, three-phase power measurements and calculations, power factor correction
Electrical Equipment – Tab 2

Introduction to Electrical Equipment – Switches, relays
Transformers
Electrical Protective Devices – Fuses, Overload Relays, Circuit Breakers, MCP’s
DC Motors & Generators
AC Motors & Generators
Electrical Control Systems – Tab 3

Fundamentals of Motor Control
Introduction to Solid State Components – Diodes, transistors, SCR’s, FET’s, IGBT’s, GTO’s; introduction to integrated circuits
Introduction to Analog and Digital Systems – Analog Systems: op amps. Digital Systems: logic circuits, counters, shift registers.
Programmable Control Systems – Programmable Relays, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC’s)
Motor Drives – DC Motor Drives. AC Motor Drives: Soft Start Systems, Variable Frequency Drives
Medium Voltage Systems – Tab 4

Electric Power Substations
Distribution Systems –Underground, Overhead, Surface Mine
Radial Feeder Analysis - System Impedances, Available Fault Current, Motor Starting Voltage Drop
Introduction to Protective Device Coordination
Principles of Voltage Regulation
Reference Data – Tab 5

Symbols
Formulas
Standard Device Designation Numbers
Types of Electrical Prints – Block Diagrams, Schematics, Wiring Diagrams, Flow Charts, One-Line Diagrams
Manufacturer’s Data Sheets – Tab 6

Insert manufacturers’ data sheets and instructions in this section.
My Notes – Tab 7
A handy place to keep your personal field notes from various jobs.
Appendix – Tab 8
Technical Article File – Insert trade publication articles, stories, and other literature you want to keep in this section.
See back for Details Electrical Fundamentals
Electrical Equipment
Electrical Control Systems
Medium Voltage Systems
Reference Data
Manufacturers’ Data Sheets
My Notes
Appendix
CAP1 Capacitors Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Schematic Symbols
Capacitors
Capacitor Polarized DC Capacitor Adjustable Capacitor
Plus sign indicates proper Tuning and trimming
connection polarity very small values only
Oil-filled AC Capacitor Non-polarized Mica Polarized Electrolytic

Note lead polarity mark Adjustable Capacitor
17.5 mfd @ 280 volts 0.1 mfd @ 100 volts 10 - 30 picofarads
470 mfd @ 50 VDC
Capacitor Characteristics
• A capacitor consists of two plates separated by an insulating medium known as a dielectric. (A dielectric is
similar to an insulator but is more electrically “flexible”. All dielectrics are insulators, but not all insulators
make good dielectric material.)
• A capacitor is a device which stores an electrostatic charge.
CAUTION: All power capacitors must be fully discharged before working on the equipment!
• Capacitors are rated in Farads - named after the scientist Michael Faraday. By definition: a one (1) Farad
capacitor will store a one (1) Coulomb charge when connected across a one (1) Volt potential. The farad is a
very large quantity, so capacitors are rated in picofarads (10-12 farads), nanofarads (10-9 farads ), or micro-
farads (10-6 farads). The abbreviations pf for picofarads, nf for nanofarads, and mf or mfd for microfarads, are
commonly used.
• Electrolytic capacitors can be applied to DC circuits only and must be connected in the circuit with the correct
polarity in order for the dielectric material to properly form. The capacitor case will indicate the required lead
polarity. With a electrolytic capacitor it is possible to manufacture capacitors of large microfarad ratings (up
to several thousand microfarads) in a relatively small case.
CAUTION: Improperly connected electrolytic capacitors may explode!
• Capacitors used on AC systems must be of the non-polarized type.
• All capacitors have a “working voltage” voltage which cannot be exceeded.
• In an electrical circuit a capacitor opposes a change in voltage.
• In an electrical circuit a capacitor will block Direct Current (DC) and will pass Alternating Current (AC).
• Many electrical components, other than capacitors, exhibit a certain amount of capacitance. For example:
high voltage cable which has an inner conductor and an outer shield can act as a capacitor and will store a con-
siderable charge. (The cable conductor acts as one capacitor plate, the shield becomes the second capacitor
plate, and the cable insulation constitutes the capacitor dielectric.)
Sheet 1
CAUTION: All cables, motor windings, and other components which can exhibit capacitance must be discharged
before working on the components or associated circuitry!
Factors Determining Capacitance
The formula for determining the capacitance of a capacitor is given below left. A table of some typical capacitor
dielectric materials along with the approximate dielectric constant K is included below right. As the dielectric con-
stant K is in the numerator of the formula, the capacitance C of the capacitor is directly proportional to this value.
An increase in the value of K will result in an increase in capacitance.
Capacitors
Dielectric Constants
Approx
Kind of Dielectric K
Value
Capacitance Parallel Plate Capacitor

Air (at atmospheric Pressure) 1.0
K S (N - 1)
Bakelite 5.0
C = 0.224
d Cambric 4.0
Where Fiber 5.0

Glass 8.0
C = Capacitance in picofarads
Mica 6.0
K = Dielectric Constant
Paraffin Coated Paper 3.5
S = Area of one plate in square inches Porcelain 6.0
N = Number of plates Pyrex 4.5

Quartz 5.0
d = Distance between plates in inches
Rubber 3.0
Wood 5.0
These values are approximate since true values de-

pend on grade of material used , moisture content,
temperature, and frequency characteristics.
The distance d between the plates is in the denominator of the capacitance formula, so the capacitance C will be
inversely proportional to this value. The adjustable trimmer capacitor pictured below left has a mica dielectric
material and the capacitance is varied by adjusting the screws which change the distance d between the plates.
Tightening the screws brings the plates closer together, causing the capacitance to increase; loosening the screws
allows the plates to separate, resulting in a decrease in capacitance. A non-metallic tuning wand must be used to
prevent affecting the adjustment.
Trimmer Capacitor Tuning Capacitor

Sheet 2
The capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the effective area S of the plates. The tuning capacitor
pictured above right utilizes this formula parameter for achieving a change in capacitance. As the shaft is rotated,
a change in the plate mesh between the rotor and stator plates will result in a change in the plate area.
RC Time Constant
The length of time it takes for a capacitor to charge to 63.2% of the supply voltage is the RC Time Constant. (The 63.2%
figure is used because the charging curve, as shown below, is logarithmic and it is difficult to tell exactly when the capacitor
is fully charged - the 63.2% value can be more readily determined.) The Time Constant Formula is: T = RC
Where: T = the time is seconds to reach 63.2% charged, R = the resistance in Ohms, and C = the capacitance in farads.
Capacitors
For electronic work, a more usable set of values (making a decimal point change) is: T = time in milliseconds,
R = resistance in k ohms, and C=capacitance in microfarads. It takes approximately five (5) time constants for a capacitor to
become fully charged.
RC Charge and Discharge Circuit

The circuit at the right can be used to illustrate the
RC Time Constant.
When the switch is moved to the Charge position,
the capacitor C begins to charge through the resistor
R. The larger the ohmic value of R, the longer it EC
will take the capacitor to charge.
With the capacitor fully charged (EC = 10 Volts ), IC = 10 Amperes
when the switch is moved to the Discharge position
the capacitor will discharge through R.
Voltage Charge / Discharge Curve

As shown at the right, a capacitor opposes a Charge Discharge
change in voltage. When the switch is closed 100
current begins to flow immediately to the ca-
pacitor, but the voltage across the capacitor 80
builds at a logarithmic rate and the length of 63.2% @ 1RC
EC Volts
time for the capacitor to charge is determined 60

by the rating of the capacitor and the size of
the series resistor in accordance with the for- 40
mula T=RC. 36.8% on Discharge
20
Circuit Applications 0
1RC 2RC 3RC 4RC 5RC
RC Time Constant Circuits have many appli-
catons. Analog time delay relays, for example,
rely on this principle. The relay time delay is Charge Discharge
set by an adjustable resistor which is in series 10
with the timing capacitor. When the firing
voltage of a transistor or SCR is reached, an 8
output relay is energized.
6
Free-running oscillators based on this principle
IC Amperes
generate a characteristic “sawtooth” waveform. 4
Capacitor Charge / Discharge Current 0

The graph at the right shows the immediate rise -1
in charging current when the switch is placed in
the Charge position. The current then decays to -2
zero amps as the capacitor becomes fully
charged. -3
Sheet 3
When the switch is moved to the Discharge po- -4

sition, the current instantaneously reverses in
direction and then decays to zero as the capacitor -5
become fully discharged. T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
XC1 AC Theory Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Capacitive Reactance - Page 1
• Capacitive Reactance is the opposition to the flow of current in an electrical circuit due to capacitance and is
measured in Ohms.
• The symbol for reactance is X; capacitive reactance is represented by XC
AC Theory
• The formula for capacitive reactance is:
1
XC =
2 fC
Where:
XC = Capacitive reactance in ohms
f = Frequency in hertz
C = Capacitance in farads
2 = 6.28 [Note: the value of pi ( ) is 3.1416]
• As illustrated by the formula above, capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency.
• Direct Current (DC) will not flow through a capacitor because the frequency of pure DC (having no ripple
or changes in amplitude) is zero hertz , therefore the value of capacitive reactance in ohms is,
theoretically, infinite (there is always some small amount of leakage current through the capacitor
dielectric). A capacitor is said to “block” direct current. Even though direct current will not flow
through a capacitor, the impressed voltage will cause an electrostatic charge to accumulate on the plates
and the capacitor will store an electrical charge according to the formula:
Q = CE
Where:
Q = Quantity stored in coulombs
E = Potential across the capacitor in volts
C = Capacitance in farads
• The drawing below illustrates how an electrostatic charge accumulates on the plates of a capacitor.
Orbital Electrons in Capacitor Dielectric Material

Figure (A) No charge on capacitor. Position of dielectric electrons
undistorted without presence of electro-
static field.
Capacitor Plate
Capacitor Plate
Position of dielectric electrons is
Figure (B) Charged capacitor. distorted with presence of electrostatic
field and an electrical charge accumulates
Sheet 4
on the plates. In this illustration, the left

Positive Plate plate is positive and the right is negative.
Continued on Sheet 5 Negative Plate
XC2 AC Theory Copyright 2002 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
Capacitive Reactance - Page 2
Continued from Sheet 4
In a purely capacitive circuit, the circuit current will lead the applied voltage by 90o . This is a theoretical condition,
since any circuit will have some value of resistance or inductive reactance in addition to the capacitance.
AC Theory
In this circuit the current is all reactive and no work will be done. Single-phase power in watts in an AC circuit is:
P = E x I x Cos The phase angle in this case is 90o . Since Cos 90o = 0, the circuit power therefore equals zero.
Remember:
• There are 360 degrees in a sine wave.
• Electrical Phasors rotate counter-clockwise (CCW).
• Phasors (electrical vectors) show two things: (1) magnitude, and (2) direction.
• The symbol Theta is used to represent phase angle.
I (Circuit Current)
CCW Phasor Rotation
C
AC
Phasor = 90 o Angle of lead
Axis of E REF X Observer
Rotation Phasor Diagram (Reference Voltage @ 0o )
Circuit Diagram If the observer stands a point X above and watches the phasors rotate CCW,
the current phasor will appear first, followed 90o later by the voltage phasor.
T0 Time Increasing
180 o
90 o
0o
Degrees are shown for current waveform.
Positive 1/2 Cycle
Zero Amplitude
Negative 1/2 Cycle
Phase Angle = 900 Leading (Voltage is Reference)
Sine Wave Relationship

Red - Current
Black - Voltage
Sheet 5
In the above drawing, the current crosses zero and goes positive 90o before the voltage crosses zero and goes
positive.
BE1 Brushless Excitation Copyright 2004 Kilowatt Classroom, LLC.
EM Synchro-Pac®
Rotating Assembly Components

Refer to “Rotating Components” section of Schematic Diagram on Sheet 5.
In this brushless excitation system, the exciter stationary DC field induces three-phase AC into the rotating
exciter armature. The armature leads (3) are attached to the motor shaft and connect to the rotating three-phase
bridge rectifier. The DC output of the rotating rectifier is applied to the DC rotating field of the synchronous
Sync Motors
motor, with these leads also being fastened to the motor shaft, so that no bushes, commutator, or slip rings are
required The rotating assembly, often referred to as the Diode Wheel, in addition to the rotating rectifiers, also
carries the field discharge resistors, the Syncrite® Field Application Module, the Syncrite® Filter, and the
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR’s) used for the application of the DC field for synchronous operation (SCR1)
and to discharge the voltage induced in the rotating field (SCR2) during motor start-up.
Inspecting Rotating Field Assembly Components

Electric Machinery 4500 HP Synchronous Motor
Inspection cover removed.
Rotating Assembly
(Diode Wheel)
Opposite Drive End

(ODE)
Pedestal Bearing
Motor Shaft
Rotating Assembly
Close-Up View
Syncrite® Filter
Syncrite Filter Mounted on back (inboard)
Mounting bolts and side of diode wheel.
insulator.
Insulated stand-off bushings
(3) for connection of exciter
Positive Bus Diodes armature leads to three-phase
(3) Stud Cathode Units diode assembly.
Leads (3) from exciter

DC Positive Heat Sink armature. Shown discon-
Heat Sink Insulator nected for insulation
resistance test of armature
winding and to use the
Top portion of Diode Wheel Tester (See
Rotating Assembly description on Sheet 13).
Sheet 10
(Diode Wheel)
See next page for layout of components on the Diode Wheel.
Synchro-Pac® and Synchrite® are registered trademarks of the Electric Machinery Division of Dresser-Rand.
EM Synchro-Pac®
Rotating Assembly Component Arrangement

Viewed from inspection access opening. Shaft must be rotated for all components to be visible.
Refer to “Rotating Components” section of Schematic Diagram on Sheet 5.
Sync Motors
Inspection access opening.
Shown by dashed red line.
Field Discharge Resistors (6)
Termination
Access Hole
Field Lead Terminals
Negative Bus SCR 2

Diodes
See Notes 2 & 7 FWD D3
See Note 5
See Note 6
Exciter Armature
Field Application
Lead Terminals
Syncrite
Syncrite
Module
Filter
Termination
Access Hole
Positive Bus
SCR 1
Diodes
See Note 4
See Note 1
Field Discharge Resistors (6)

Kilowatt Classroom Drawing
See Note 3
Notes
1. Positive Bus heatsink with three (3) stud cathode diodes.

2. Negative Bus heatsink with three (3) stud anode diodes.
3. Field Discharge Resistors (12 units) are 24 ohms each and are connected in series/parallel for 4 ohms total.
(Depending on the size of the rotating field, different wattage and ohmic values are used - consult instructions.)
4. SCR 1 applies rectified DC to the rotating field of the synchronous motor when fired by the Syncrite®
Field Application Module.
5. SCR 2 connects synchronous motor rotating field to the field discharge resistors during start as induction motor.
Free-Wheeling Diode D3 protects SCR 2 against high counter-emf voltage produced by collapsing motor field.
6. Syncrite® modules, six field discharge resistors, exciter and field termination insulators/studs, and
Sheet 11
interconnecting wiring harnesses are mounted on back (inboard) side of wheel.

7. Blue rectangles are heatsinks for stud-mounted diodes and SCR’s. Heatsinks are insulated from diode wheel.
Synchro-Pac® and Syncrite® are registered trademarks of the Electric Machinery Division of Dresser-Rand.
EM Synchro-Pac®
Component Testing
While brushless excitation systems eliminate the need for brushes, a commutator, and slip rings, testing and ad-
justment of the systems can be difficult because the components cannot be checked or adjusted with the unit in
service. Because all the excitation components are rotating, the equipment must be shut-down for inspection and
maintenance.
Sync Motors
To assist the user in making the necessary tests, EM developed two specialized testers. The Syncrite® Module
Tester (shown below) is used to test the Syncrite® Field Application Module and the Syncrite® Filter Module. A
Diode Wheel Tester is used to test the diodes and SCRs mounted on the rotating assembly (see following page).
The only adjustment that is necessary is the synchronizing speed adjustment on the Syncrite® Field Application
Module (shown below). Module tests include: Zener Voltage Test, Zero Slip Test, Slip Trigger Test - Low Slip
(99% of speed or 1% slip), Slip Trigger Test - High Slip (95% of speed or 5% slip), Out-of-Step Inhibit Test, and
Positive Hold Test. The Syncrite Filter Module is tested for proper Zener operation.
Syncrite® Module Tester

Tests Field Application and Filter Modules.
Syncrite® Field Application Module

to be tested is plugged into mating
connector on top of tester. If desired,
unit can be tested without removal
from diode wheel by using the
appropriate interconnecting cable.
Syncrite® Filter Modules

are tested by connecting the
permanently-attached module
leads to the tester banana posts.
Patch cords are also available to
permit in-place filter tests.
Syncrite® Field Application Module

Size: 4-1/2” x 2” x 1-3/4”
Rear View Front View
Module Status Indicating Lights
2 Red - FDR in Circuit
2 Green - Field Off
9-pin Cable Connector Kilowatt Classroom Photos

Synchronizing Speed Adjustment
Potentiometer sets rotor slip rate at
Sheet 12
1/4 - 28 Mounting Studs

Attach unit to diode wheel. which the DC voltage is applied to the
motor rotating field.
EM Synchro-Pac®
Exciter Diode Wheel Tester

A companion test set in the same style case as the Syncrite® Module Tester shown on the preceding page is
available for testing the diodes and SCRs used in the Synchro-Pac® System. The semiconductors do not need to
be removed from the diode wheel for testing. A drawing to the test set control panel is shown below.
The Exciter Diode Wheel Test Set will indicate shorted or open power diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers
Sync Motors
(SCRs), and an open field discharge resistor (FDR). It also checks for proper SCR firing and checks for
grounded components (inadvertent connection to the motor shaft).
The tester is easy-to-operate with the connection steps and appropriate light sequences shown on the nameplate.
Multimeter Tests
The primary advantages of the Diode Wheel Tester are its ease-of-operation and the fact that it tests the compo-
nents at their rated voltage. If this tester in not available, the semiconductor components, field discharge resistors,
and wiring harnesses can also be checked with a conventional multimeter. The SCRs and diodes need to be
checked using the meters DIODE CHECK function. A multimeter does not draw enough current through large
SCRs to provide a “seal-in” of the device, but they can be checked for shorts and opens. See the Electrician’s
Notebook articles Semiconductor Diodes and Rectifier Circuits and The Silicon Controlled Rectifier for further
details on semiconductor testing.
Ohmmeter Testing of Field Discharge Resistors
The photo at the left shows ohmmeter checks being made

on the FDRs of a Synchro-Pac® system. The wattage and
ohmic value of the resistors will vary depending on the size
of the rotating field of the machine. Various series/parallel
combinations are utilized and the instruction manual for the
Sheet 13
exact piece of equipment needs to be consulted for the

value employed in a particular system.

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THIS NOTEBOOK BELONGS TO

“Interfacing Technology and Craftsmanship”

Three- and Four-Point Method

Four-Point Resistance Measurements

Four-Point Measurement Diagram

Leads may be any length.

Three-Point Resistance Measurements

Purpose / TPI Instrument Features

TPI Ground Test Instrument Characteristics

Test Products International

Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Test Procedure

Ground Test Procedure

Short Cut Method

Three-Point Fall-of-Potential Method

Sample Ground Resistance Plot

Insufficient electrode spacing has no plateau.

The Existence of Equal-Potential Planes

Station Ground Mat Remote Current Electrode

Representation of Equal-Potential Planes

Ground Mat Remote Current Electrode

Representation of Equal-Potential Planes

Actual Field Test

Setting-Up the Ground Tester TPI MFT5010 Instrument

Ground Test Data Test Procedure

90 7.3 The measured ground resistance at 62 feet (62% of the dis-

Safety Note - Possible Existence of Hazardous Step and Touch Potentials

Surplus Plastic Wire Reels 5/16” bolt inserted in tee-nut

conductor out from each reel for

The TPI A254 Adapter

WARNING! - Current Transformer Safety

Typical CT Current Loop

High Voltage Cubicle Low Voltage Control / Instrument Cubicle

Typical CT Secondary Loop

TPI Digital Multimeter

Typical Measurement Calculation

The CT secondary current would be 246 / 100 = 2.46 amps.

Determining the CT Ratio

WARNING! - Current Transformer Safety

4500 H.P. Medium Voltage Synchronous Motor

Field Current Ammeter

Ammeter Switch High Voltage Breaker Compartment

Schematic Diagram of Measurement Set-up

Low Voltage Cubicle 4160 Main Bus

A254 Adapter Motor

Current Transformers (CT’s)

Measurement Notes secondary, and reduce the

PF - Power Factor Meter

TPI 183 Digital Multimeter PNP Test Procedure

• Connect the meter leads with the

• Reverse the meter connections to

TPI 183 Digital Multimeter NPN Test Procedure

• Connect the meter leads with the

• Reverse the meter connections to

Select PN junctions do not conduct.

the individual PN junctions test

TPI 183 Multimeter

MCP or Circuit Breaker

Typical Across-the-Line Three-Phase Starter

TPI A256 AC/DC Adapter OL

Adapter Dual Banana Plug

Measuring AC Amps with Clamp Adapter

Example: Determining Motor Amperage