Professional Documents
Culture Documents
What is it?
O A jet engine is defined as a machine
designed for the purpose of creating large volumes of exhaust gases at high velocity O Thus is required for creating thrust needed to overcome the drag of an airplane
starting the main engine of an aircraft O Smaller engines can be started from electric motors alone O APU itself is first started by batter or a hydraulic accumulator O They are used for running other electric loads during shutdown of engine
APU
Operation Cycle
O Operation cycle of jet engine is similar to the
Structure
O Original design by Sir Frank Whittle in
1930s.
Single-spool Turbojet
O The term single-spool means that there is
only one shaft that connects the turbine section to the compressor section
axial axis of the engine O Primitive designs were based on centrifugal compression of mixture O All new jet engines are based on axial design
Thermodynamic Cycle
O It is based on the 4-stroke engine as shown
schematically
shaft to create two stages O Each stage consists of a compressor-turbine pair O The two stages may run at independent speeds O Benefit of accurate matching of turbine and compressor with airflow characteristics
N1 and N2 Rotors
O First stage of compressor consists low
speed rotor that rotates with second stage turbine rotor (N1 rotor) O Second stage of compressor consists of high speed rotor that rotates with first stage turbine rotor (N2 rotor)
Turbofan
O A portion of thrust is developed by a fan,
which is multi-bladed propeller attached to N1 turbine O Much of the air accelerated by the fan does not pass through the engine O The fan accelerates a large amount of air at small acceleration (rather than a small amount of air at large acceleration
Bypass Ratio
O The bypass ratio is defined as the ratio of air
which exits the engine (without going though the core) to the amount of air which goes through the engine core. O Both components contribute to thrust O Engines are also classified on the basis of high and low bypass ratios
Quantitative discussion
O Early turbofan engines had low bypass ratio
(approximately ) i.e half of the thrust was produced by fan stage and half by primary flow O Most commercial aircrafts have high bypass ratio O Current bypass ratios are 5:1. for these engines, the fan stage produces 75-80% thrust
independent rotors O These are designed to achieve better fuel economy since the triple spool can better match the compressor and turbines with actual airflow characteristics
Propulsive Efficiency
O This is expressed in terms of inlet velocity of
(Contd.)
O 100% efficiency would be achieved if inlet
velocity equals outlet velocity, but the required mass flow through the engine would be infinite O This does not exist in the real world, but this indicates that large amount of air gives greater efficiency (at smaller accelerations) than small amount of air (at greater accelerations) O Thus large bypass ratio are required to handle the accelerations of large amounts of air
Thrust Equation
O According to newtons 3rd law of motion, the
action of jet engine is the acceleration of gas and sending it through the tailpipe. O The reaction is called thrust
Mathematics
=
O Here (ma) is not used since it is only valid for constant mass O Can be re=written as:
= (2 1)/ Here F is force in pounds w is mass flow rate in pounds per second g is gravitational constant v1 is initial velocity of gas in ft/s v2 is final velocity of gas is ft/s
(Contd.)
O The equation is transformed into mass flow
rate into velocity change O This for of thrust equation is easier to understand and apply since mass flow rate of gas can be measured
(Contd.)
O In context of jet engines, this form of the
equation is popular:
exhaust of the engine O This is reduced by the second term called ram drag O Ram drag is produced due to slowing down of free stream velocity as it enters the jet engine O Net force is thus a function of mass flow rates of air and fuel and the exhaust velocity minus intake velocity
Internal Pressure
O One component of thrust missing from the
equation is due to internal pressure O Internal pressure is converted to exhaust velocity of gas O This component may be small to thrust due to exhaust velocity but it cannot be ignored O It is the difference between total pressure of gases at exhaust and total pressure of gases at intake (ambient pressure)
momentum and pressure of air entering at the intake O Effect 1: By increasing airspeed, momentum of incoming air is increased and thrust is lowered (because of smaller velocity difference). O Effect 2: By increasing airspeed, the air is compressed easily by ram effect which increases density and thus increases thrust
(Contd.)
O Combining the given effects produces the
following result
pumps, electric generators, fuel pumps etc. O Humidity has a negligible effect on thrust so its not a problem!
Installed thrust
O The installed thrust is always smaller than
having different airflow characteristics than actual airflow O Test stand engine does not have to supply secondary power for electric, hydraulic and pneumatic systems like an installed engine
produced is not the same for every engine at a given power setting O At critical conditions (such as take-off and landing), the lowest level of thrust is used for performance calculation. This is minimum thrust O At normal conditions (such as cruise), average engine thrust can be used for performance calculations.
Example
Example 2
to total pressure at the front of the fan O It is the basic measure of engine thrust O Used as primary thrust setting in most commercial engines
N1 and %N1
O This is the rotation rate (rpm) of low speed
rotor of a two or three spool engine O This is expressed as a fraction against some nominal value in the form of percentage %N1 O General electric and CFMI engines use %N1 as the primary thrust setting
Corrected %N1
O Temperature ratio is defined as the ratio of
O The value of x is dependent on engine type O For three spool engine, N2 and N3 represents
the medium and high rotor speeds. O For a two spool engine, N2 simply represents high rotor speed
Engine Stall
O This is a condition which is characterized by
stalled airflow over the compressor blades O Compressor stall results in loss of performance of the compressor O New engines use hydro-mechanical or electronic control systems for preventing stall
Rotational Stall
O This is caused by local disruption in the
airflow thus reduces efficiency of compressor O Pockets of stagnant air (called stall cells) rotate along the circumference of the blade at full radius (50-70% speed of compressor) O Increases structural load on the airfoil O When radius of stall cell decreases to cover the full frontal area, it is called compressor stall
Compressor Surge
O Total breakdown of compressor is
compressor surge O A reciprocating compressor stall may correct itself to normal airflow O Surge is a self-locking or self reproducing phenomena in which the pressure differences increases beyond recovery and results in destruction of engine
Flameout
O This is a condition in which the combustion
chamber of the engine lose their ignition O Caused by fuel exhaustion, oxygen exhaustion, compressor stall, foreign object or mechanical failure O Engine recovery is performed by following a restart procedure such as a windmill restart O This is prevented by fine tuning the engine performance using feedback and avionics
Example
Bleed
O This is the process of extracting
compressed, high temp. air from the compression engine for miscellaneous uses O The compressed air can be used for air conditioning, cabin pressurization, de-icing and for pneumatic actuation O The bleed may also be used for rectifying surge O Bleed valves are closed in spooled engines and opened in unspooled engines
(Contd.)
O Bleed air is hot and must be cooled before
use O Used extensively in Environmental Control System O This is a dangerous system since contaminated air from engine is being used in other systems, so separated electric driven compressors are preferred
(Contd.)
O Prevention of over pressurization in
O
O
O
O
and is connected with EPR At full power EPR there will be maximum EGT Engine requires maintenance at EGT limit EGT below EGT limit is called EGT margin EGT margin is greatest when the engine is new and decreases with usage of engine