Duties to the Distant: Aid, Assistance, and Intervention in the Developing World Author(s): Dale Jamieson Reviewed work(s):

Source: The Journal of Ethics, Vol. 9, No. 1/2, Current Debates in Global Justice (2005), pp. 151-170 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25115819 . Accessed: 31/01/2013 11:09
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DALE JAMIESON

DUTIES TO THE DISTANT:

AID, ASSISTANCE,

AND

INTERVENTIONIN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

(Received 14May 2004; accepted in revised form 4 June 2004)

In his classic article, "Famine, Affluence, and Morality {Philosophy ABSTRACT. and Public Affairs 1 (1972), pp. 229-243)," Peter Singer claimed that affluent people
in the developed people into argument in my mind to poor are morally world obligated in the developing For world. can While people question. it is much to transfer present reasonably large amounts I will not of call resources Singer's how purposes disagree

about

exactly

demanding morality
that

iswith respect to duties to the desperate, there is little question

sense morality or our more than common demanding someone with this might still find behavior Even who suggests. disagrees everyday some a demanding in seeing what residents interest would imply for well-off morality I survey of the rich countries of the world. I proceed in the following way. First, to protect human and intervention humanitarian aid, development assistance, rights as ways cautious that and to the desperate. of discharging duties about such policies than is often thought. our actions, based guide context social and political on an in which we I claim that we should two be more principles I go on to suggest of our roles, appreciation find ourselves.

should the

relationships,

KEY

WORDS:

development,

famine,

intervention,

poverty,

Peter

Singer

1. Introduction and Morality," Peter Singer Affluence, are morally in the developed claimed world to transfer large amounts to poor people in the of resources obligated two from He this derived conclusion world.1 developing principles, are backed he believed of common both of which by the authority article, "Famine, that affluent people sense. The first food, shelter, in our power principle and medical to prevent is "that and death suffering care are bad."2 The second something bad from from lack of without is that "if it is In his classic

happening,

Peter

Singer,

"Famine,

Affluence,

and Morality," 231.

Philosophy

and Public

Affairs

pp. 229-243. 1(1972), 2

Singer, "Famine,

Affluence

and Morality,"

p.

The Journal of Ethics (2005) 9: 151-170

Springer

2005

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152
thereby sacrificing anything to do it."3 morally Unger not has

DALE JAMIESON of moral we that

comparable

importance, he new thinks)

ought Peter $200

estimated far when

(conservatively, it comes to buying

donating S200 to UNICEF

does go very some

or OXFAM will save the life of a child.4

seats

and clothes, a at for opera tickets, couples spend that much Rolling or a fancy dinner in a trendy restaurant. Stones concert, Clearly, are not of comparable to saving moral these goods the importance one us to life of a child. Even a weaker that prevent principle, requires something bad from happening thing morally significant," and since new clothes, fancy dinners, It appears morally significant goods.5 sacrifice so long as we to have appears concerts do not similar do not sacrifice "any consequences, to be appear

to that we should be prepared a save to in lot order lives. of such by way luxury goods quite the urgency of our duty with the following Singer demonstrates am a that "I shallow pond and see a past walking analogy. Suppose ... to wade in and pull the child out. This will I ought child drowning mean this is insignificant, while but the clothes muddy, getting my death For meals, of the child would those donating or not of us who $200 presumably can afford be a very bad thing."6 concert tickets and restaurant to getting our clothes us of be the to

to OXFAM

is equivalent

muddy. The fact that the child who would be saved by our donation
is distant obligation to us does not relieve known personally to act. What matters is that lives can effectively saved

to organizations such as OXFAM. The duty simply by donating or a resources matter of charity these is not transfer supererogatory but of moral behavior, obligation. There are questions, aid is efficacious,

about the conditions under admits, Singer some reason if that for such aid and which he grants not save lives, or paradoxically would would suffering, produce more to engage in such transfers. However, he then we have no obligation regards do not these touch concerns as "more his conclusion than philosophical"; practical about what morality demands.7 they

Peter Unger, Living High and Letting Die (New York: Oxford University 1996), pp. 136-139.
5 I would would Singer, Singer, challenge emerge "Famine, "Famine, this view unscathed. Affluence, Affluence, and Morality," and Morality," p. p. 231. 239. in a fuller exposition but, even so, Singer's claim 6 7

Singer,

"Famine,

Affluence

and Morality,"

p.

231.

Press,
central

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT The for this present

153

losophy

Imake no apology paper is almost wholly "practical." is the point of relating phi since, as Singer writes, "[W]hat to public...affairs if we do not take our conclusions seri act in the world these "practical" and not (only) in some conceptual is part of taking our questions ether. conclu

ously?"8 We

Addressing sions seriously.

For present purposes I will not call Singer's into ques argument can about how tion. While reasonably disagree exactly people to to the is with duties there is respect demanding morality desperate, more in my mind little question that it is much than demanding common sense morality or our everyday Even behavior suggests. who disagrees a what seeing demanding of the rich countries of I proceed someone with this might would morality way. First, intervention still find imply some interest residents in for well-off

the world.

I survey humanitarian aid, to protect human rights as development I claim that we should be duties to the desperate. ways of discharging more I go on to cautious about such policies than is often thought. on an our two based that should actions, suggest guide principles of our appreciation context in which we roles, relationships, find ourselves. and the social and political

in the following and assistance,

2. Humanitarian

Aid

"Famine, immediate war, East

was written to an in response and Morality" Affluence, of humanitarian crisis. In November 1971, the confluence and natural disaster had created nine million in poverty, refugees

for immediate aid. and Singer was appealing Bengal, life-saving common the Such appeals became 1970s increasingly throughout to the Ethiopian and their peak in response 1980s, and reached famine of 1983-1985. On 7 October 1984, the British Broadcasting horrific Corporation (BBC) broadcast images from a refugee camp in women as far characterized century...the Bob Geldof,

and starving Korem, showing dying children Ethiopia, as the eye could see. The voiceover Buerk Michael by - now in the twentieth the scene as "a Biblical famine closest
8

thing

to hell on earth."9

The

Irish

rock musician,

and Morality," "Famine, Affluence, Singer, in Jenny Edkins, Whose As quoted Hunger? of Minnesota Press, University (Minneapolis: 9

p.

242. of Famine, 108. Practices of Aid

Concepts 2000), p.

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154

DALE JAMIESON an all star record to record 4 million

rushed into the studio with immediately "Do They Know It's Christmas." The

line-up

sold nearly

copies in the United Kingdom

"We States. Are the World," went on Geldof

alone, and was quickly followed by

by Quincy the LiveAid in the United Jones, concert the following London and Phila The around the world.

produced to organize

July, which was broadcast and viewed delphia, by for famine These number motivated these ceptions We relief in Africa.

simultaneously 1.5 billion people

from

records and concert ultimately raised between $100 and $500 million
media-centered celebrity-driven, projects reasons. awareness of of created They to act, and contributed raised large sums to creating some were valuable for a

people events also about can call

the causes,

consequences,

However, miscon important and context of the suffering

suffering of money.

in Africa,

which they highlighted.

the picture of humanitarian aid that emerged from the "LiveAid On this humanitarian view, Conception." to the immediate aid is a response needs of innocent people (primarily these events women and consequence as a drought). "there but Conception events. This toricizes whose children), of an anomalous This lives event are threatened (typically a strong in many recent by hunger a natural disaster sympathetic respects understandings and as a such

invites picture for fortune..." However, is at odds with most

response: the LiveAid of such dehis

decontextualizes, depoliticizes, conception as well as masking the victims' famine, agency. occur it is not simply a series of random Famine has a history: to strike unfortunate caused that rences, by nature, happen people. on almost the last century Over famine occurred but every continent, within that period there was a dramatic movement towards isolating to to Africa then in recent alone. While first Asia and Africa, famine, in North and food insecurity has Korea, years famine has occurred in parts of the Middle and perhaps increased East, Central Asia, India, Africa remains famine and
lot to say

famine's is seen war, involves

Increasingly, that almost always of human

10 There

epicenter. as a dramatic vulnerability, unequal

of these

moment

in a process violations systematic relationships.10

especially of vulner Lewis, Interme

rights,
is quite a

radically
about each is often the

power

vulnerability. For ability. Development

Ecological a convenient

degradation way into Places:

overlooked

phenomena, perhaps as a dimension see

literature Studies of

of vulnerability, Vulnerability

James

in Disaster-Prone

(London:

diate Technology,

1999).

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT Extreme natural events such

155

or cyclones as droughts be the may famine almost these other conditions causes, but without proximate never occurs. to taking a terrible In addition toll of its own, war is now seen as almost essential to famine and to complex humanitarian emergencies generally. two million From children died in wars, three times the 1990-2000, of American killed In total number soldiers throughout history. twentieth it was generally than a safer to be a soldier century wars

civilian. Since the Treaty of Westphalia

modern their own state system, about 150 million governments. external enemies,

in 1648 established
have been killed

the

against The Ethiopian famine Most scholars now not but

people by it is civil wars, than wars rather Indeed, in famine. that are most often implicated of the early 1980s should be seen in this light.

cause of the famine was agree that the main a the forcible of resettlement, government's drought, policy as a war As tactic in its secessionist rebels.11 part policy used against a diverse of a commemoration of the famine, of the tenth anniversary in Addis Ababa, and academics activists, group of officials, gathered and at the end of the meeting which issued a communique began: a was in characterized 1984-1985 famine fact crisis "[T]he political

appropriately by war than by drought."12 are misleading Other of the Live Aid aspects conception While of the victims of famine and other humanitarian many gencies lescents are women are more and children, at risk.13 Females suggest may be less vulnerable than males. also lead Famines statistics that men

more

as well. emer and ado they in

because to declines

body weight rates of maternal thus lowering mortality. fertility, saw a sea of women documentarians and children the men

store more

Perhaps at Korem

the BBC because

or had already to seek employment had migrated succumbed. to Most famine victims die of disease rather than literally starving death. Displacement and the breakdown in systems of water supply and waste promised they result other disposal nutritional to disease. A com exposure status leads to increased Together susceptibility. in epidemics of diarrhea, and gastro-enteritis, dysentery, lead to increased diseases.

infectious

1!
and

David Rieff, A Bed for theNight: Humanitarianism

39-40. p. 6. Hunger?, in the Twentieth University of

inCrisis (New York: Simon

Schuster, pp. 2002), 12 in Edkins, As quoted Whose 13 Famine Devereux, Stephen of Development Institute Studies,

Century, Sussex,

Working UK,

Brighton,

p.

Paper 11.

105,

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156
Nor are those who

DALE JAMIESON suffer in famines Those who of victims struck

always

passive

down by the fickle finger of fate. They are often agents in highly
political struggles. complex were famine of 1983-1985 government 1994 genocide or involved directed suffered most ethnic members in the Ethiopian to the hostile groups in of the Hutus dying of the Kosovar than com in

in the civil war. Many at the Tutsis. Elements

the refugee camps in Zaire from 1994-1996 were implicated in the munity,
volved

forcibly expelled from Serbia in 1998-1999, had been in

in attacks for more reaction succeeded. a decade that would lead to

on government officials a to provoke Serbian deliberate attempts - a tactic that international intervention Widespread acceptance The of the

consequences. important with intervention the Somalian in 1991 was Somali people and related were to the way starving when

can have LiveAid Conception of the US disillusionment quick public down" incident after the "Blackhawk the intervention had been framed: and The the caused

in a famine

by drought, soldiers were

US was there to help feed them. No wonder many

angry and their bodies bewildered dragged child of the drowning We have no idea of the situation that we their well-meaning the streets. through

in the US were
killed

Singer's analogy LiveAid Conception. politics

surrounding

in the pond mirrors the the history, and context, confront. Whose child is

this?How did the child get into the pond? What

is likely to happen to

to these questions the answers the child once she or he is saved? While are unlikely to save the child,14 they to alter the fact that we ought and significance of our action. affect the meaning can a be asked. further question Moreover,
What if, every day, as Singer walks past the pond, fifty children were close to

drowning? Every day, he takes his self-imposed obligation

day share drowning thousands being rescuing his them, ethical child abandoning orientation. and give up one his Now lectures. it Princeton is one

seriously, and spends the

of this and does to are save tens not a or to someone there to devote

gets wind

(or drowning a lifeguard instead

but lecture, or ill) everyday-to starving, 15 of a teacher.

to expect thing it is quite another-if expect him

himself

Since global 14
Charles

rich people population

in affluent that largely

countries lives

are only in poverty

a thin veneer (about

on a

one-sixth

If we were certain that the child would

Manson, that would be a different

grow up to be an Adolf Hitler or a

matter.

15 This question is raised by Andrew Kuper, "More Than Charity: Cosmopolitan Alternatives to the 'Singer Solution,'" Ethics and International Affairs 16 (2002),
p. 110.

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT to one-half), this latter scenario which compared requires acts of life-saving than Singer's is in fact a more apt analogy "one ofF' example.

157
repeated original

of global misery, the persistent humanitarian Reflecting ubiquity an a rather than has become assistance response temporary industry to isolated disasters in distant lands. $66 billion per year is spent on about 10% of the for assistance programs, including are the world where aid of the There sites around US. eign budget for decades, humanitarian assistance has been continuously delivered In such with no end in sight (e.g., some Palestinian refugee camps). cases, rather than providing aid, humanitarian temporary life-saving humanitarian assistance to take has become decisive action the defacto policy of a world to address the underlying that causes is unwilling of global

poverty. In the summer from nature, famine,

of 2003, millions York and The New

were again at risk of Ethiopians once Times was again blaming reason and Ethiopians the Institute go for

is the primary that "[D]rought asserting a the Children Yet Save from report hungry."16 claims that: Studies Development Almost 20 years on from the Ethiopian
of the world, of millions of highlands Ethiopia is now chronically dependent to meet assistance emergency for addressing

famine that captured the imagination and

people are worse on in off food the historically and more famine-prone vulnerable than volumes deficits of... cannot

generosity north-eastern ever...Ethiopia international be

a substitute

the underlying

appeals causes

aid...[I]ncreasing and annual food of chronic food

insecurity.17

Statistics increases recent decline

underline

this point.

In 1984

the average of

annual

income

in Ethiopia was $190; today it is $108. Each year the population

problems in people's of and lack livelihoods assets, collapse not simply drought, structure... for creating vulnerability tion."18 The report goes on to say that "food aid is not the to believe to the distant It is difficult that our duties the same by 2.7% while Christian Aid report blames percentage structural topsoil is lost. A such as "the of infra to starva answer."

are poor to exhausted that keep them alive programs simply by contributing from one crisis to another. Certainly the opera fans among us would our tickets would more that sacrificing produce hope far-reaching
16

http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/0/4b99bccl3144b864cl256d660057dee8? (accessed 4 October 2003). OpenDocument 18 (accessed http://www.christian-aid.org.uk/indepth/0302ethio/fallback.htm October 2003).

17

28 July

2003;

available

on

the web

at http://www.cindybeads.com/famine.htm.

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158
benefits. lecture Instead of

DALE JAMIESON saving a child our clothes, at the cost be far better we a of missing to prevent do to

and dampening aid

everyday it would

these children from falling into the pond in the first place. Providing
humanitarian address is at best of the poor. a small It is not the plight part of what the solution should to global poverty.

3. Development The words it might solution, an old of adage, be

Assistance In the is development assistance. a man a fish he will eat for a day,

thought, "if you give

but if you teach him how to fish he will never be hungry." Ethiopia is
a good example of has received more the world's relief aid to act on this insight. While it failure in the past 20 years than any other to little development aid, even compared and Morality," Singer assistance is one way development to the poor. He writes that such investment."19 long-term Affluence,

it has received very country, other poor countries. to "Famine, In the postscript that endorses the idea providing we might assistance

our duties discharge the better "is usually The distinction and humanitarian assistance between development can be to draw such a distinction aid is not sharp, and any attempt purposes in order as let us consider to relieve humanitarian aid to immediate suffering, to reduce in order and

For present challenged. be resources provided assistance development

resources literature been

provided

over the long-term. poverty In recent years a body of effectiveness of development ature is that much of it has

has developed is striking aid.20 What

challenging about this

the liter The ineffi that

by people produced care deeply reduction. who about poverty opment community, are are that the main funds spent typically provided charges in ways that benefit special interests rather ciently that development evidence there is little empirical
19 Peter Singer, "Famine Affluence and Morality,"

in the devel

than

the poor;

assistance
Aiken

actually
and H. La

in W.

Follette 20

(eds.) World Hunger andMoral Obligation, First Edition

1977), p. 35.

(Englewood Cliffs:

Prentice-Hall,

This literature includes the following: Thomas W. Dichter, Despite Good Intentions: Why Development Assistance to the Third World Has Failed (Amherst:
University An older of Massachusetts Press, 2003); M. Maren, The Road to Hell: The Rav

aging Effects of Foreign Aid and International Charity (New York: Free Press, 1997).
but very influential (Cambridge: work, is P. T. Bauer, Equality, Press, the Third 1981). World, and Economic Delusion Harvard University

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT contributes theoretical dimensional, significantly reasons for historical assistance. can be illustrated by some statistics. The US to development; that supposing process, which and that there are

159

good is a multi development cannot be jump-started by spent

development The first point

$30.4 billion on foreign aid between 1948 and themid-1950s, of which 77% went to suppliers in theUS.21 In the late 1990s theUnited States (USAID) reaffirmed that Agency for International Development
about U.S. the same percentage of US aid was still being used to purchase a 2002 report (that subsequently In and services. has been goods removed from its website), stated that USAID
[T]he principal beneficiary the United States. Close opment's assistance new jobs (USAID's) of America's has always been assistance programs foreign to 80 percent Devel of the U.S. for International Agency contracts to American and grants firms. go directly Foreign have helped create major markets created for agricultural goods, industrial exports and meant hundreds of thousands of

programs markets for American for Americans.22

This US

should

not be

surprising

since US

federal

law specifies

more

than forty distinct missions

for USAID,

ranging from disposing of

to strengthening and US land grant colleges surpluses agricultural While the US is extreme in using assistance universities.23 foreign to benefit domestic it is not alone. constituencies, programs political

In 2001 roughly 40% of all international aid flows were

providing such benefits to donors.24 the most

tied to

egregious Perhaps He is provided Monbiot. columnist, example by Guardian George writes that Britain's Department for International gives Development more money to the right-wing in consultancy Adam Smith Institute fees NGOs than it does to such countries of this as Liberia and Somalia.25 through 1973-1986 Even their the have become part self-serving on government funding. system From

increasing

dependency

USAID
21 22 Cited United

share of the budgets of US NGOs went from 5 to 20%.

in Dichter, States Good Intentions, p. 56. Despite for International "Direct Economic Agency Development, As of this writing Assistance Programs (By State)." (May, 2004),

Benefits

of US

fragment of the report including this quotation,

www.professionalserve.com/CovenantBK/usaid-my.htm. 23 United States Agency for International

can be found on the web at http://

p. 188.

24
25

Development,

http://www.cgdev.org/rankingtherich/home.html

(accessed 4 October 2003).

6 January 2004; avail 116884,

able

the Edge "On of Lunacy," Monbiot, George Tuesday, on the web at http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,5673,l

OO.html.

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160
Development not

DALE JAMIESON aid has many but to a great extent, it is

purposes,

intended to help donors rather than the recipients of aid. Thus it is

that such aid is not spent efficiently when viewed from surprising one the perspective of poverty reduction. reduction is of Poverty only it is the aim with the weakest its aims, and in some countries, political benefit the present both donors and system, to it. maintain strong Although develop to other capital flows (a tiny fraction is low compared from incentives

constituency. Those who recipients, ment assistance have

of 1 % of global GDP),
particular recipients. Faso 1990s, Burkino in development about Ethiopia government's For

these funds can be extremely important to

to figures from the mid example, according received 98% of its annual government budget Laos about about assistance, 80%, Nepal 50%,

Moreover, of need. Together, development tively well-off Africa development run incentives flows, even Once the understood, that it has report than $1.2 and 26 from

about and Kenya received twice its 15%). Haiti in assistance.26 budget development on the basis aid is not primarily distributed development 25%, annual Russia and Israel receive more than 20%) of US spent in rela the needs of of all The these

aid, and large sums are increasingly being and Iraq, while countries such as Bosnia to be aid goes developed strong and deep for various parties if the plight of the poor is not being substantially complex, it is not surprising mixed purposes that there of Taken ignored. to the 43 least together,

continue

19% only countries.27 to continue

substantially improved the Commonwealth Secretariat

development is little empirical the welfare of the poor. claims

improved. aid are evidence A recent

trillion was 2000,

1950 and

developing

spent on official development the incomes of people in developed the gap between The 2002 report from the has widened.28 countries

that although more between assistance

(accessed October 4, 2003). In http://www.cgdev.org/rankingtherich/home.html view of the latter statistic, it is not surprising that the suspension of aid by the US and the European Union in 2000 ultimately brought about the collapse of the
government

27

of

Jean-Bertrand

Aristide.

As

cited

in Thomas
2002),

Pogge, World Poverty

p. 8. For documentation

and Human
and more

Rights
data,

(London:
see Bob

Blackwell

Publishers,

recent

Bauleh, "Aid for the Poorest? The Distribution

Development Assistance," Working Paper 35,

and Maldistribution
Chronic Poverty

of International
Research Centre,

September 2003 (available on the web at http://www.chronicpoverty.org/pdfs/ Aid%20for%20the%20Poorest-%20WP35.pdf). 28 As reported at http://www.id21.org/society/s9bpmlgl.html (accessed 4 October 2003).

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT United Nations

161

shows that more than 60 Programme Development are poorer were a in the than decade ago. Indeed, today they 3 years since the United Nations its eight Millennium adopted extreme poverty the first of which is to eradicate Goals, Development countries and hunger, the number of people living on less than a dollar per day in sub-Saharan from 315 to 404 million.29 has increased Africa At best, such macroeconomic about the data are only suggestive true that at effects of development aid, and it is certainly aggregate It may also be least some development benefit poor people. projects even worse be the case that poor people off without would generally to be certain, aid than they are now. Still, it is difficult development since little has been done by way of meaningful Both evaluation.30 aid is often admit that development inef Singer and Thomas Pogge to in reducing poverty, and then go on to argue that we ought to make harder itmore this response fails effective.31 However, to address the fact that rather than failing, development aid seriously well be in the of both donors and may succeeding realizing goals assistance may not lift up the poor, but there recipients. Development is little reason to believe If this that this was ever its primary purpose. fective work to be optimistic is correct, then there is little reason about changing own so as to the present in which is its terms, system, succeeding more effective in make assistance poverty. reducing development at its best, to development. aid will largely be irrelevant While it is development to name a single country difficult for which aid has been development crucial for stimulating there are many countries that development, Moreover, there that, have 29
30

is some

reason

to believe

even

successfully id21News Number

Leif

developed 121,March
We Owe 283-304, subject

without

substantial

aid.32

The

most

2004.
to Distant a Politics, Others," Philosophy, lot of this point and recommends more extensive evaluation. I am and that not

Economics development and

"What Wenar, 2 (2003), pp. projects be

makes to much

enthusiastic about this proposal

at evaluation attempts see Lisa Bornstein, this point, carry

since such evaluation

their own costs and Standards

is intrinsically difficult to do,

can also distort incentives. Practice On in and Development

"Management

the South African Aid Chain," Public Administration and Development

393-^04.

23 (2003), pp.

Pogge, World Poverty and Human Rights; Peter Singer, One World: The Ethics Globalization of 32 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002). There is no question that the Marshall Plan was important in helping the
countries challenge the world of Western was which to restore Europe different from profoundly have no history of their that economies currently after World faced by War II, but countries this of the poor

31

economic

development.

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162
obvious

DALE JAM?ESON

are China, In 1950 these and the "Asian examples tigers." were some than African and Latin countries American poorer low levels of develop countries, yet they took off despite relatively reasons ment The assistance. for this are complex and not well an but there view that is is more understood, emerging development to culture and total investment than to aid. At most, in developing 30% aid of investment provides capital development and private the remainder. funds provide countries. Remittances While these private flows can be highly unstable, the "Asian tigers" strongly related benefited providing favorable Thus from overseas workers their earnings and greatly remitting as as a well from investment maintaining capital, generally investment climate. far I have treated development would claim and that poverty various reduction as non Sus all re to

interchangeable, factors economic

yet many are part

democracy, tainability, ceived a great deal of attention discuss these concerns in detail what human system count tutes system clearly extent can

cultural, the very notion of development. and women's rights have capabilities, of in recent here,

be taken up of they a there about what While is full disagreement rights. exactly in for example, of human all the whether, rights consists about what consti agreement or not implementing Whether such a rights.33 or to it is conducive is part of development development, in the humanitarian indeed. Some very groups important is substantial of M?decins themselves du Monde, as human have rights -

years. Although it is an interesting question in an expansive conception

I cannot

rights listed in the Universal Declaration

as rights there the core of human

of Human Rights

really

the US branch for example community, so as to far characterize gone explicitly groups.34 In his recent

the importance of work has emphasized Singer a ac human international through promoting global rights agenda so far as to say that "the last line of defense tion.35 He has gone be law enforcement...and and similar crimes must against genocide where will other methods be military of achieving intervention."36 that fail, the method of last resort

On this point, see James Nickel, Making of California Press, 1987). University 34 Rieff, A Bed for theNight, p. 219.
35 36 Singer, Singer, One One World. World, p. 12.

33

Sense of Human Rights

(Berkeley:

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT 4. Humanitarian Concern with human Intervention

163

World

since at least the end of rights has been growing was and Bosnia that this but it in the fires of Rwanda II, concern became welded to the idea of military At a news intervention. at the height of the 1994 Rwandan conference genocide, Philippe sans Fronti?res called for of M?decins France, Biberson, president cannot that "[0]ne halt a massacre intervention, military declaring War with medicines."37 NATO authorization. humanitarian rights has distant. However, intervention the in the humanitarian community Many praised even not it did have UN in Kosovo, though both on the right and the left, For many theorists, of human the promotion intervention towards directed to be are the fullest expression of our duties to the

seemed there

in supporting inter military dangers human for the purpose of promoting vention, rights. What and smash things; what armies do very well is to kill people they are interven not On is humanitarian occasion military organizations. can create space in which human tion may rights and development serious even be pursued, but such Even Michael values. these does not in itself promote a liberal of humanitarian supporter Ignatieff, than reinforcing rather written, "[Intervention, intervention their and legitimacy, because both they be are

has intervention, is consuming for human respect rights, cause our are unsuccessful interventions inconsistent."38 Second, military zations victims the when humanitarian this creates adventures, are to whose stated goals the causes. and whatever and with

organizations and conflicts relieve

become dilemmas

in complicit for organi the in

whomever suffering, with the wars Beginning in Afghanistan and

Iraq, continuing identified humanitarian has become increasingly community one side or another led to an with in military conflicts. This has on the ground acrimonious erosion and increasingly of credibility when debate within humanitarian Moreover, agencies agencies.39 to avoid and militaries, it is difficult join forces with governments 37 As quoted in Rieff, A Bed for theNight, p. 167. 38 Michael Ignatieff, Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry (Princeton: Princeton
University

the Balkans

the wars

39

Press, are covered

2001),

p.

39.

See Rieff, A Bed for

theNight; and Maren,

The Road

toHell. Many

of these

debates

on www.alertnet.org.

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164
their having tutions.40 A recent and Red priorities

DALE JAMIESON these more insti

shaped

by

vastly

powerful

Federation of the Red Cross report by the International on ethics in aid, and raises many focuses Crescent Societies The authors worry that when pow concerns.41 important especially war to to in erful nations with vulnerable countries decide go pop this leads to a massive mobilization of humanitarian to mitigate in an attempt to the neglect of far more serious They point out that $1.7 billion pledging to avert the possible often consequences, and long-standing humanitarian in April, in relief 2003, at the same and reconstruction time that aid for

ulations, resources

emergencies. donors were Food

World Iraq, there was a billion dollar shortfall in funds pledged to the
Program countries. Such 40 million Africans in 22 starvation among to the code of conduct responses appear contrary to by the International of subscribed Federation, along with many as the largest NGOs, that rejects acting instruments of government on and than need. other basis any foreign policy setting priorities Indeed, some humanitarian in denying of punishing aid have at various times been organizations to Afghans, and Hutus Serbs, (for example) the political of their communities. leaderships climate it is difficult for the to sup

complicit as a way Even more port

humanitarian

in the current important, intervention without

project emanating clear its intention in an values.

ment.

image Two

that recent

signing up imperial The US government from Washington. has made to remake the Middle the world, East, and perhaps consonant to be US is more with what take they news stories one of indicate the the depth of this commit

Thomas humanitarian We are

Friedman,

Baker,
First we

writes intervention, 'building' a new Iraq." He two Baghdad who oversees

taught them how to run a meeting.

of liberal supporters leading are not "we that 'rebuilding' Iraq. Colonel quotes approvingly Ralph districts.
We had to teach them how to have an

agenda. So instead of having this sort of group dialogue with no form, which iswhat
they were used to, you now see them in council meetings raising their hands to speak.

40 cations

For of

discussion Iraq and

of

these

issues,

see The Crises

Future

Other

Recent

(Feinstein

of Humanitarian International

Action: Famine

Impli Center,

Friedman School of Nutrition

web

Science and Policy, Tufts University),

available on the

41

at http://hwproject.tufts.edu/pdf/Humanitarian.mapping.final.report.janl4.pdf

Jonathan Walter
2003).

(ed.), World Disaster

Report 2003 (Bloomfield: Kumarian

Press,

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT

They motion get five minutes ideas and It's basic per member. to vote on them.42 PTA stuff. We've taught them how

165
to

can be comes of how totalizing the US project example to a great extent, the military intervention from Bosnia where, simply in place rather than resolving the funda froze an ethnic civil war that mental conflicts. The status of the town of Brcko was so disputed Another

in the Dayton
administered proportionate income capita Bosnian

Accords
directly amount

of 1995 it was decided

now

that it would
from has

be

by a US supervisor. of US aid, and Brcko

It benefited

a dis

in Bosnia. It is considered the shining It is the only town in which Muslim, reconstruction. Serb, are mandated to go to school The his and Croat children together. ends with World War II, and the schools tory curriculum emphasize and

the highest per success story of

mathematics

the school The US computers. imposed supervisor as as annulled well local and has other law, laws, sacking integration or troublesome. are seen as divisive and businessmen who officials elections that have has not taken place, (though raises two so as they to not been made are now endanger scheduled the for is it

Local progress October, This

2004). new imperial

project

related

questions:

First,

just? And second, is it likely to succeed?

With respect new imperialism new imperialism imperialism too benign the old. abolition slave of was to contrast to justice, many this people would want with The the old imperialism of the British Empire. the old is undertaken for humanitarian purposes; about enriching the motherland. But this view paints of the new imperialism, and is too cynical about

a picture

The great public justifications for British

the slave trade and the spread

imperialism were
which

the
was

of civilization, the West coast

closely identified with Christianity.

In 1807 the British abolished the

of Africa

trade and by 1816 they were patrolling the right to board slave ships, claiming thought them guilty of arrogance

some might have though was not and hypocrisy since slavery

abolished

in the British Empire itself until 1833. The abolition of

the ostensible in 1884 of Berlin focus of the Congress slavery was Africa the which divided among 1885, up effectively European in 1896 the British forces were moving up the Niger powers. When a popular areas of Northern River and occupying weekly Nigeria, a ("The Globe") magazine printed picture of Islamic princes swearing
42 "Starting from Scratch," New York Times, 27 August 2003, p. A21.

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166
on the Koran we less These the old "Here the British

DALE JAMIESON renounce that they would said, slavery. The caption see our civilizing mission to in action bringing civilization a to continued be for fortunate."43 Slavery justification into the Muslim a difficult were days we have world up to the 1920s. time believing that the promoters in their beliefs. But even sincere of the

incursions

imperial project John Stuart Mill, said that British rule great utilitarian philosopher, in intention in India was "not only the purest but one of the most to mankind."44 in act ever known The more beneficent businesslike as "philanthropy defined colonialism Cecil Rhodes plus five per cent."45 From alism whose If this were really the case it would be a pretty good deal all concerned. of the perspective to be a moral appears the twenty-first the old imperi century, not an unmixed disaster one), (though to haunt the world. In a masterful continue in central region has shown how the French histo Africa, the roots of the Rwandan

for

consequences Lakes study of the Great rian Jean Pierre Chretien lie not from

genocide stemming

in ancient the recent

but in destructive animosities hatreds, a While there in is colonial tendency past.46

the US
experience to believe more

today to dismiss
of old Europe, that our imperial of success.

lessons that might

we would project have is necessarily

be learned from the

to be very arrogant indeed or better intentioned

assured

5. Taking I am not

Stock

or intervention in the devel that aid, assistance, arguing never or are never should be do world any good, justified, oping we a am is that have I should What abolished. great deal claiming are called more humility such actions than we do about saying when for and what are
43 Quoted by

questions

is not only because take. This shape they should of aid, but also because the efficiency about
Lawrence James in an interview accessed at http://www.pbs.org/ in Denial," The

there the

empires/victoria/text/empirejames.html. 44 in Niall As quoted Ferguston,

"America:

An

Empire

Chroni

28 March cle Review, 2003, available at http://chronicle.com/free/v49/i29/ 29b00701.htm. 45 As quoted in Rieff, A Bed for theNight, p. 60.
46 Jean trans. Pierre Scott Chretien, Strauss The Great Lakes Zone of Africa: Books, Two 2003). Thousand Years of His tory, (Cambridge:

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT

167

that can and losers within societies of aid creates winners provision one concerns lead to worse overall. For of the consequences example, of the International of Red Cross Federation and Red Crescent Societies is that the arrival of over 350 international has driven since the fall of the Taliban Afghanistan inflated salaries, and sucked away skilled, the government and vital public services. Embassy government that creates in Kabul clinic can receives now earn $500 about aid agencies in up local rents, from Afghans at the US in a that aid a doctor

experienced a driver While

$45. can in the long run really benefit such perverse incentives Even more that is the claim by one aid worker shocking people.47 in the elements Hutu that aid development strengthened society at the Hutus the of moderate and expense instigated genocide, Tutsis.48 we should Moreover, is not the sole property missions. Benito for Mussolini the invasion justification invading Manchuria Hitler invaded country claimed the be reminded of liberal democracies of beneficence that the language bent on humanitarian the abolition of slavery as a that it was Even Adolf he

per month, to believe It is difficult

too claimed

of Ethiopia. Japan claimed to rescue it from Chinese bandits. putting Once the an end to ethnic

that he was Sudetenland.

strife when

with to the distant? that we have demanding and rigorous duties Singer First, seek to make things better by trying to do no harm.50 Rather than advocating to remake the world, we should ambitious agendas 47 World Disaster Report 2003. 48 Tony Vaux, "Aid Workers Still Grappling With Rwanda Demons," available at http://www.alertnet.org/thefacts/reliefresources/108195149548.htm. Amy Chua,
World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and

be invaded may are open, gates especially sions be sanctioned by a legitimating What then, should be the policy

is accepted that a principle the flood for the good of its own people, if there is no requirement that such inva international of those authority.49 of us who believe

Global Instability (New York: Doubleday,

free markets

2003) has challenged

the very idea that

instead that

are necessarily and democracy forces, progressive arguing in many of the world ethnic conflict. parts they exacerbate 49 it can be questioned whether there is any such legitimating Indeed, the current international The Nations Council United system. Security but of what but it is quite unrepresentative and I say in this paper is meant the idea that our duty is to bring that I call "Progressive undemocratic. to be neutral about a better

in authority claims such

authority, 50 Much theories, one best

among competing world rather and explore

moral than the

is a view

Consequentialism"

in an

unpublished paper of the same title (co-authored with Robert Elliot).

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168
focus about commons first and

DALE JAMIESON on primarily and maintain global the those These structures include that bring trade barriers

challenging poverty.

imposed by the US

and the EU,

the appropriation

of the global

rich nations, and various of such interna by policies as tional the World Bank and the International organizations I will discuss these in turn. Fund. Monetary Trade different forms barriers take subsidies for including domestic Bank, more industries, tariffs, and trade country developed in foreign aid. There than twice what they receive one: such barriers. Here of is Government striking examples quotas. barriers to According cost developing the World countries are many subsidies economic people

to the 25,000 US cotton than farmers is greater a in which of Burkina Faso, country output on cotton for their livelihoods.51 depend of the global commons appropriation illustrated of climate by the problem change. The the generous opment with have used the atmosphere They while mate have

the entire two million

the consequences of the cli cope with as a even worse it is is result. Indeed, occurring change a cata is at risk from the possibility of than that. While everyone current in it of the climate is poor people collapse regime, strophic even on most most the who will suffer countries poor optimistic that on climate and they are most directly dependent to the impacts of climatic events. They also therefore most vulnerable to climate for adapting have fewer resources For example, change. scenarios. For rising sea levels will The benefit bear not damage Dutch farmers with of behind their system

gathered most the entire world must

use of cheap fossil as a sink for disposing of carbon dioxide. of this intensive of the benefits energy use,

is by the rich countries In fueling their devel fuels, the rich countries

of protective dikes, but farmers in Bangladesh

devastated. can be current from characterized global policy as an instance their pollution,

and Egypt will be

polluters pollution
51 For

to climate respect change the polluted pay principle: while those who suffer from the

the costs.52

more =

on

trade =

barriers 0, and

visit follow

cms.php?story_id I wrote after Days subsidies 52 This P. Edwards Global further

24&page these words yet

http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/ to the background the links be

papers.

the World clear what

Trade will

It is not illegal. idea is presented and C. Miller

cotton U.S. declared Organization of this case. the final outcome Environmental Expert 2001), Mitigation, Knowledge pp. 287-307, and Justice, and and

in ''Climate

Environmental developed

(eds.), Governance forthcoming

and Global Change the Atmosphere: Changing MIT Press, (Cambridge: paper, "Adaptation,

in my

Justice."

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DUTIES TO THE DISTANT The World tions often worse effectively Bank and the International Monetary the rich countries of

169
institu Fund, the North, have left them that have

controlled

many Again, a country that became Malawi, dic the thirty year rule of the pro-Western indebted heavily during under the debt reduction Banda. tator, Hasting receiving Despite examples can be given. Consider

imposed policies than off they

by on developing countries have otherwise would

been.

to spend 29% of its national the debt servicing budget required more and agriculture combined than is spent on health, education, the lives below this in a country in which 60% of the population are HIV In im line and 20% 2001, conditionality poverty positive. the system of subsidies, initiative swept away posed by the HIPC state grain stores that had kept famine at bay in a result, in 6 months, As this chronically food insecure country. increased in the maize of 2001, October, by 400%), beginning price and hoarding and corruption became endemic. March, 2002, By was to service its Malawi into famine, had plunged yet continuing controlled prices, and external There attempts debt.53 are many to refrain different from kinds of actions that can be taken in

Heavily

Indebted Poor Countries

(HIPC) initiative, Malawi

is still

from the very per harm, causing ranging to the political, such as "fair trade" products, sonal, such as buying such candidates. actions, However, supporting particular taking trans while does not exempt us from directly extremely important, ferring resources will with this obligation that a quences comes into play: "follow the money." We need to act second principle to allow and channels that are transparent enough through networks us to assess even the indirect and remote consequences of our actions. at multiple This may involve levels of social organization acting friends, organizations, including professional through colleagues, faith communities, sister city programs, and so on. these two principles Together bring out an important point. Good are not enough. intentions The goal of our actions should be to us to not make Susan the feel about ourselves. world, improve good that sympa goes so far as to claim, perhaps Sontag paradoxically, thizing
53 for

to the poor when we It is in connection be good.

can

be

sure

that

the conse

with

the poor
and

can
Francis

actually
Ng'ambi, available

inhibit
"Nature at

us from
or the North:

the hard
Who

work

of

Kwesi Famine

Owusu in

Is to Blame

exe?a = O&i= s5cko 1 &u = 40899253. See also http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/ g1 Owdm.htm. develop/africa/2002/1

Malawi,"

http://www.id21.org/zinter/id21zinter.

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170
understanding writes:
So far as we Our feel

DALE JAMIESON our role in the production of distant horrors. She

sympathy,

we

feel we our

are

not

we extend set aside to others the sympathy beset and mur by war a our are on on same as for how located the reflection map politics privileges to their in ways we might be linked their suffering and may prefer not to imagine as the wealth the destitution of some may of others, is a task for suffering, imply an which initial the painful, only images supply stirring spark.54 response. To derous

- if not an extent, it can be (for all our good intentions) an impertinent inappropriate

suffering.

sympathy

proclaims

innocence

to what caused accomplices as well as our To impotence.

the that

6. Concluding In this

Remarks

a I have claim that we have paper accepted Singer's and rigorous duty to aid the distant poor, but I have gone demanding on to suggest that we should be modest and self-critical about our ability making us to recognize It is not enough good; And this,
ment.55

to discharge us complacent

rather than However, duty successfully. our these claims about should provoke duties, on our knowledge and attention. additional demands this to write checks sure turns out that in the hope in doing to be that they will do some so we will do no harm. demanding require

we must

at least be

surprisingly,

a very

Environmental New York 246 Greene

Studies University Street

and Philosophy

Suite 300 New York NY 10003-6677 USA

E-mail: dwj3@nyu.edu

54 Giroux, also

Susan

Sontag, pp.

Regarding 102-103.

the Pain

of Others

(New

York:

Farrar,

Straus

and

55

2003),

This paper is greatly indebted, obviously,

influenced by conversations with

to the work of Peter Singer. I have

Discussions with audiences

been

Leif Wenar.

at the University
Association, helped to shape

of Girona
the final

in Catalonia,
on Global

Spain, and at the American Philosophical

Justice, in Pasadena, California, have

Mini-Conference version.

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