Fiber Diameter Optimization For Composite

Fiber Diameter Optimization for FMLs
Bereket Berhane Tadese

Date 00-00-2013
Techni cal Uni versi ty of Del ft
Facul ty of Aerospace Engi neeri ng

i

Table of Contents
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Fiber diameter optimization for Fiber Metal Laminates

Chapter 1
Introduction to thesis work
- 1.1introducton
- 1.2 background
- 1.3 objectves
- 1.4 thesis outline
1.1 Introducton
This chapter provides an introduction regarding to a thesis research on fiber diameter
optimization for Fiber Metal Laminates. It begins with a brief introduction to Fiber Metal Laminates
(FMLs) history and background and the type of FML used in this thesis in section 1.2. Followed by the
objective and questions of the thesis discussed in section 1.3. Finally, Section 1.4 contains information
about the structure of the thesis report.
1.2 Background
Since the first flight of the wright brothers in 1903 the aerospace industry has grown at very
fast pace, around 1960s it became major economy in the world. To achieve this milestone the aircraft
industry has gone through many obstacle and challenges in the span of the period between 1920 until
1960s.
After the Second World War, research and development on aircraft structures started. The aim
of the R&D was to advance the knowhow about the aircraft materials and structures; behavior under
different loading and environmental conditions as well as, the manufacturing processes and cost, how
to reduce structural weight and how to reduce the maintenance time and cost.
But, prior to the application of advanced materials such as aluminum alloys and hybrid
materials, steel and wood were mainly used as construction materials in the aircraft industry [1]. Hybrid
materials are made from two or more materials bonded or consolidated in oven or autoclave having
different mechanical and physical properties. Fiber reinforced plastic (composites) and FMLs are
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examples of hybrid materials. However, initially aluminum alloys replaced steel and wood because
aluminum alloys have lower specific weight compared to steel, simpler production process and good -
resistance against environmental effects [1]. The hybrid materials took few years to be used as aircraft
construction materials.
Fiber reinforced plastics were also promising advanced materials with high strength, stiffness
and low specific weight. Composite materials were mainly used as secondary aircraft structures but
composite materials could not be used as primary structures until recent times. Because, composite
materials have high production cost, limited stress ranges of application due to lack of plasticity and
financial penalties incurred due to equipment downtime [2].
The need to develop advanced materials has it owns drive from different aspects of a design
criteria for aircraft. The design criteria are; reduction of fuel consumption, fail-safe construction,
damage tolerant design, cheap manufacturing process and easy to maintain and repair.
Even though a fuel cost expense and manufacture cost of aircraft are vital concerns, the airframe
materials used to build the aircraft structures posed the biggest challenge to the industry. A tragic
happening that took place in 1954 with the comet jet has revealed that metal fatigue was critical. Fatigue
is an important factor in the design of aircraft [3]. Fatigue is a cyclic loading of structures for long period
of time below it failure stress and small cracks initiate and grow to a critical size. Then the material can
no longer bear the applied load with the reduced cross sectional area and the material starts to fracture
drastically leading to material failure. The failure happens without any warning. For these reasons,
Fatigue property of materials is an important design factor and needs a considerable amount of
attention when designing aircraft, automotive or machine components [4].
For which reason one can not only think the reduction of production process and fuel cost,
without considering the major important factors such as the safety issues and maintenance. It is
practically impossible to design an aircraft component that will last for the given life cycle without any
damage. Since damages are inevitable on the structural component the so called Damage tolerance
design concept was introduced in the aircraft industry [4].The concept is basically, cracks should not
grow to fast in order to detect the damage during regular inspection of the aircraft, the designer can
introduce structural element to obtain crack growth retardation or crack arrest.
A durability issue is also critical factor, in particular with damages like Fatigue, corrosion and
environmental effect on any structural component of an airframe. Especially with the so called aging
aircraft durability is a major issue [3]. As a result a regular maintenance is an obligation to guarantee
the safety of the fleets. It brings extra maintenance cost to the airliners. Even with strict maintenance
routine things can go wrong. One sad accident was the Aloha Airlines Boeing 737 in 1988, which has
lost its upper fuselage cover due to accumulated fatigue cracks at the fuselage lap joint. Yet the cracks
didnt not reach the critical stage but interaction between the cracks may lead to total failure. It is
sometimes referred as multiple site damage [3].Again regular maintenance was not an answer to
fatigue issues related to the multiple site damage. Another critical damage was corrosion damage.
Corrosion damage that occurs in aircraft structures particularly at rivet holes a region where it is fatigue
sensitive, is due to moisture ingress and fretting (sheet of materials sliding over each other). These
corrosion damages result in the initiate of fatigue crack. To inspect the damages it cost the airliners a
huge amount of money moreover it is hard to detect these corrosion damages. Undoubtedly to cut the
cost, structural weight and to design safe durable structures, a damage tolerant material is required.
Broadly speaking the concept the damage tolerance design allows a designer to introduce
structural elements to slowdown the damage growth (as in fatigue crack growth) to be detected during
the regular interval inspection before reaching to critical stage that would cause failure to the
components of the airframes structures. A different philosophy is to develop a material which has a high
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crack growth resistance as an inherent material property and light weight without extra structural
element. This philosophy was the fundamental for the development of (FML) Fiber Metal Laminates [4].
However before the development of the Fiber Metal Laminates, almost two decades before in the 1950s
a Delft university graduate (rob schliekekelmann) did some practical work at English aircraft
manufacture De Havilland a company that started to bond metal parts together. He brought the idea to
Fokker where he improved the process by treating the aluminum layer and by introducing the autoclave
[5]. Later on, it was discovered at NLR by a team of professor Schijve who carried out a fatigue test on
F-27 center wing, bonded metals appeared to have good fatigue properties.
The Delft University of Technology was involved in the development and research of bonded
metals almost from the start. In 1978 researchers by team of Prof L.B Vogelsang in Delft University of
Technology at materials lab were experimenting by introducing fiber to the bonded metals [5]. The fiber
introduced at that time was Carbon fiber unidirectional and Aramids in a weave form (Arall). This gave
rise to a new material class as a combination of: fiber, adhesive resin (polymer) and metallic alloys in
short Fiber Metal Laminates (FML). This new hybrid material showed even better fatigue property,
impact properties and corrosion resistance than bonded metals. With its unique features fiber bridging
and delamination mechanism [5]. More explanation on these mechanisms chapter 2.Understanding
fiber bridging and the delamination phenomena was necessary, Marissen [5] did research on fiber
bridging and the delamination mechanism which has led to the optimization of FMLs. As a result the
invention of the FMLs was solution for the damage tolerant design requirement and light weight
structural materials.
In the coming years after 1980 important milestones were achieved at Delft University of
technology with patenting and application of FMLs.In1982/83 Arall (Aramid Reinforced Aluminum
Laminates) was commercialized with different variance depending on the production process and
application [6]. In 1987 Glare (GLAss REinforced) was patented and in 1991 commercialized.
In this research assignment Glare is taken as the material to study.
Constituents of Glare:-
- The Metallic layer sheet is Aluminum 2024-T3 thickness 0.4 mm
- The fiber reinforced plastic made up of :Unidirectional S2-glass fiber embedded in Cytec FM
94(matrix) epoxy resin, delivered as pre-impregnated (prepreg),
Figure 1.1 typical Glare layup [3]
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Figure 1.2 Cross section of Glare [3]
The Department of Structural Integrity & Composites at the Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering is involved in research and innovation project. The research works
being conducted at the Department of Structural Integrity & Composites are on FMLs, metals and
polymer composite. A vast number of research work has been done on FMLs to study the mechanical
properties, physical properties and production process. Hence this thesis assignment is considered as a
contribution to the ongoing research work.
The thesis assignment is about fiber diameter optimization for Fiber Metal Laminates. The
project assignment is commissioned by the Department of Structural Integrity & Composites in a joint
collaboration with GTM-Advanced Structures. The project is carried out at TU Delft the Faculty of
Aerospace Engineering. The stakeholders GTM-Advanced Structures, glass fiber manufactures and the
TU Delft Department of Structural Integrity & Composites are interested in final outcome of the thesis
findings and report that could optimize the FMLs properties necessary for certain applications.
To apply FMLs on aircraft structures the material has to be qualified and tested to be safe
according to the aviation regulation. To ensure FMLs applicability a profound property characterization
method is necessary. In This thesis the main concern is the characterization mechanical and fatigue
properties of FMLs in relation with the fiber diameter. The characterization can be in the terms of
theoretical predictions, numerical analysis and experimental analysis. But in this thesis work theoretical
prediction and experimental analysis are only considered.
1.3 Objectve
The main objective of this thesis is to study the effect of fiber diameter and its volume content
on the mechanical and fatigue properties of FMLs Glare (GLAss Reinforced aluminum). The objective is
to study the effect of fiber diameter and the fiber volume fraction (FVF) of the pre-impregnated fiber
layers on the mechanical and fatigue properties of the Glare. The research work is divided in to two
parts. The theoretical prediction of Glare properties by taking the FVF and fiber diameter of prepreg
parameters as input. Secondly, the validation of the theoretical analysis with an experimentation.
For the proposed thesis assignment some critical questions could be asked. These thesis would
provide an understanding to the following questions:-
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- What is the effect of changing fiber diameter of a Glare on its mechanical property?
- What is the effect of changing the fiber diameter on Glare fatigue property?
- Deriving a theoretical equation between prepreg parameters; FVF, fiber diameter, fiber wetted
area, fiber spacing and thickness of the prepreg?
- How to obtain the GLARE mechanical properties and fatigue behaviors using the theoretical
equation between prepreg parameters; FVF, fiber diameter, fiber wetted area and thickness of
the prepreg?
- How to improve the mechanical and Fatigue properties of Glare?
- How to correlate the theoretical results to the Experiment data work for FMLs?
The thesis assignment is limited to the optimization of the fiber diameter of the Glare. Due to the
complex nature of Glare not all the properties and other parameters will be covered in this thesis report,
but some important characteristics shall be considered.

The selected characterizing properties for the Glare material are shown below.
The selected mechanical properties are:-
- Tensile yield strength and tensile ultimate strength
- Compressive strength
- Blunt notch strength
- Tensile and shear elastic modulus
The fatigue case:-
- Through the thickness cracks with Constant amplitude to measure crack growth rate
1.4 Thesis outline
The thesis is structured as follows
Part 1 literature review
Chapter1: A general introduction of the topic and thesis work in detail.
Chapter 2: Literature review will be given on FMLs Glare, Composite (Fiber layer) and aluminum. The
review contains the general information about FMLs (Glare) - production method, static and fatigue
properties-application of Glare material in aerospace industry and the method of Analysis to predict
properties of Glare.
Chapter 3: The method to determine Fiber Volume Fraction (FVF) in composite structures as function
of fiber diameter which includes Theoretical derivation and analysis. Current research findings by
others concerning the effect of fiber diameter and fiber volume fraction on composite materials
properties.

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Part 2 analysis and properties prediction using FVF
Chapter 4: It comprises the derivation of FVF of the Glass fiber prepreg using the equation and
information formulated in the literature review. The variable for the equation cloud be fiber diameter,
nominal thickness, and the number of fibers in given cross section.
Chapter 5: With the data and equations obtained from Chapter 4, the Glare static and fatigue properties
are predicted for a selected number of fiber radius, FVF and wetted fibers in a given thickness.
Part 3 experimentation and data analysis
Chapter 6: The methods and techniques of specimen preparation; for image analysis, static properties
test and fatigue property test are explained and the setup of the experiment is outlined properly. A
correlation is established between the fiber diameter and the specimen FVF using image analysis results
and FVF equations.
Chapter 7: It includes experimental Results and data analysis. Calculating the averages, the standard
deviation within the same family samples etc.
Part 4 conclusion and discussion
Chapter 8: discussion of experimental work and analytical work results and comparisons.
Chapter 9: conclusion.

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Chapter 2
Fiber Metal Laminates
- 2.1 Introducton
- 2.2 Glare orientaton and its consttuent
- 2.3 The propertes of Glare consttuents
- 2.3.1 Aluminum alloy 2024-T3
- 2.3.2 S2-Glass Fiber
- 2.3.3 FM 94 Resin
- 2.4 Statc and Fatgue propertes of Glare
- 2.4.1 Composite Materials
- 2.4.2 The Metal Volume Fracton method to predict Glare propertes
- 2.4.3 The Fatgue propertes of FMLs
2.1 Introducton
Fiber metal Laminates (FMLs) are a hybrid materials, made from thin metal sheets bonded
together by an adhesive reinforced with fibers. FMLs are used as an aircraft structural material.
FML is laminated material of thin layer of metal sheet and unidirectional or weave fiber layers
embedded in polymeric adhesive system cured in autoclave.
The basic constituents of the FML are as follows: - [7]
- Metal alloys: Aluminum 7075-T6, Aluminum 2024-T3, Aluminum 7475-T761, Titanium Ti-15-
3 and AISI301 Stainless steel
- Fiber: Aramid, S2-Glass, T300-Carbon, IM7-Carbon and Strafil C-EP I-150
- Adhesive polymers: BSL-312-UL, AF163-2, FM94, FM906, epoxy and polyimide
The combination of these constituent yields a typical FML with trademark or commercial names.
To mention some well-known FMLs with the Basic Constituents
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- Arall is made from Aluminum 7075-T6, Aramid fibers with Adhesive BSL-312-UL or AF163-2.
- Carall Aluminum 2024-T3 and T300-carbon fiber with epoxy resin.
- Glare Aluminum 2024-T3 and S2-Glass fiber embedded in FM94 Adhesive polymer.
- TiGr a metal sheet made from Titanium Ti-15-3 with IM7-Carbon fiber embedded in polyimide
resin.
The application of these FMLs are versatile and Depending on the constituent behaviors. As an
example, Glare was optimized for aircraft fuselage skin, because the first class of FML (Arall) could not
be applied on aircraft fuselage due to its low strength in cross-ply orientation [5].
This chapter is divided in to three section. The Glare orientation and layup is discussed in section
2.2. General information is provided about Glare constituents in section 2.3. The static and fatigue
properties and method of prediction of Glare is explained in section 2.4.
2.2 Glare orientaton and its consttuent
Glare has six different standard grades. The fibers are unidirectional S2-glass fibers embedded
with FM94 adhesive (lamina), with a thickness of 0.127 mm prepreg and a fiber volume fraction of 59%.
The term lamina will be used in this thesis as a reference to the (composite material prepreg) or fiber
layer. The metal alloy is aluminum alloy 2024-T3 .The fiber layer is laid-up in different orientation
between the aluminum alloy sheets resulting in the different standard Glare grades [5]. When defining
the orientation of the fiber layer prepregs in the Glare, as a rule the 0

(L) or the rolling direction of the
aluminum alloy is used as reference direction. Therefore the fiber layer 0 direction, must be laid parallel
or perpendicular to the L or 0 direction of the aluminum alloy. Additionally, the 0

(L) or the rolling
direction of the aluminum alloy the main loading axis when conducting on-axis mechanical and fatigue
properties tests or as a reference angle for off-axis situation.
Figure 2.1 orientations of Aluminum and fiber [8]
The LT transverse direction of the aluminum alloy is 90, as seen on Figure 2.1 the orientations
of the fiber layer and aluminum alloy in Cartesian co-ordinate system.
The Glare grades have laminate coding system to comprehensively define the laminate
formation.
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For example:-
Glare 4B-4/3-0.4
Defined as
A Glare laminate with fiber orientation according to the Glare 4B as defined in Table 2-1
- 4 layers of aluminum
- 3 [90/0/90]; 9 single layers of fiber prepreg
- Each aluminum layer is 0.4 mm thick
For Glare 1, Glare 2 Glare 4, and Glare5 the prepregs in each fiber layers are stacked
symmetrically. In the case of Glare 3 and Glare 6 the prepregs are laid in cross-ply manner. Therefore it
needs further explanation. For Glare 3 with even number of cross-ply prepreg the fiber layer nearest to
the outer aluminum layer in the laminate the 0 direction of the fiber layer is laid in the rolling direction
of the aluminum alloy (0). Whereas for uneven number of cross-ply prepreg the first prepreg in the
center the fiber layer 0 is laid-up during the production in the 0 direction of the aluminum alloy. For
the Glare6 the conditions are comparable to the definition of Glare3.In Table 2-1 the different grades
are shown with the orientations associated to the application benefits [5].
Table 2-1 Glare Grades with the naming [5]
Glare grade sub Metal sheet thickness
[mm] and alloys
Prepreg orientation
*
in
each fiber layers
**
Main beneficial
characteristics
Glare 1 - [0.3-0.4] 7475-T761 0/0 Fatigue, strength,
yield stress
Glare 2
Glare 2A [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 0/0 Fatigue, strength
Glare 2B [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 90/90 Fatigue, strength
Glare3 - [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 0/90 Fatigue, strength
Glare 4
Glare 4A [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 0/90/0 Fatigue, strength in
0
0
direction
Glare 4B [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 90/0/90 Fatigue, strength in
90
0
direction
Glare 5 - [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 0/90/90/0 impact
Glare 6
Glare 6A [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 +45/-45 Shear, off-axis
properties
Glare 6B [0.2-0.5] 2024-T3 -45/+45 Shear, off-axis
properties
*

All aluminum rolling directions in standard laminates are in the same orientation; the rolling direction is defined as 0
0
the transverse rolling
direction is 90.
0

** The number of orientations in this column is equal to the number of prepregs (each nominally 0.127mm thick) in each fiber layer.
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The Glare grade used in this thesis is Glare 3-3/2-0.4 with 3 Aluminum layer sheets and 4 S2-
Glass fiber prepregs (lamina). See Figure 2.2 the graphical illustration of lay-up and orientation.in Figure
2.2. The 90 direction indicated with S2-Glass fiber prepreg refers to the orthogonal position of the 0 of
the fiber prepreg with respect to the rolling direction of aluminum alloy.
Figure 2.2 Glare 3-3/2-0.4 [8]
2.3 The propertes of Glare consttuents
FML Glare is made of three main constituents. The constituents are aluminum alloy 2024-T3, S-
glass fiber and FM94 adhesive. A general information of these constituents is important for the input in
the theoretical prediction of the mechanical properties of Glare.in this section a mechanical and physical
properties of the constituents is given.
2.3.1 Aluminum alloy 2024-T3
The aluminum alloy used to make Glare, as it was mention in the previous sections is 2024-T3
alloy. It is proven by test that 2024-T3 alloy has a good fatigue property and moderate corrosion
resistances compared to other aluminum alloys like 7075, 2024-T8 [4]. Aluminum alloys have isotropic
property in general. It is beyond the scope of this thesis work to mention the processes involved and the
applications of these aluminum alloys to a Glare. Therefore the focus is on the 2024-T3 aluminum alloy
by mentioning its: composition, physical properties and mechanical properties which are going to be
used as material property input data for the calculation of Glare mechanical behavior. Brief explanation
is also given concerning the surface pretreatment for bonding. The composition, physical and
mechanical properties of 2024-T3 is given on Table 2-2.
In order to obtain a good bonding strength between the composite and adhesive film to the
aluminum layer, the aluminum surface should be treated before bonding it to the composite or adhesive
film. Experience has revealed surface treatment prior to the bonding is critical for the long term service
durability and enhancing the bonding process. A selected surface treatment tends to modify the
substrate surface of aluminum layer by promoting wettability with primer and adhesive. The surface
treatment for metals can be achieved with different techniques. The techniques used to treat the
aluminum alloy are: chemical etching and later on electrochemical anodizing to improve the corrosion
character. The solution used to etch during the chemical treatment are chromic- sulfuric (CAE) acid and
sulfo-ferric acid (P2) [9].

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Table 2-2 composition, mechanical and physical properties of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 [10]
Composition units
Al (Aluminum) 94 %
Cu (Copper) 4.4 %
Mg (Magnesium) 1.5 %
Mn (Manganese) 0.6 %
Mechanical properties Min Max
Bulk Modulus 71 74.64 GPa
Compressive Strength 234 352 MPa
Elongation 8 15 %
Elastic Limit 248 372 MPa
Endurance Limit 118 168 MPa
Fracture Toughness 37 41 MPa.m^1/2
Hardness - Vickers 108 148 HV
Modulus of Rupture 248 372 MPa
Poisson's Ratio 0.33 0.3435
Shear Modulus 28 29.44 GPa
Tensile Strength 359 510 MPa
Young's Modulus 72 75.69 GPa
Physical properties
Density 2754 2782 kg/m^3
Maximum Service Temperature 110 170 C
Minimum Service Temperature -273 C
Specific Heat 942 980.4 J/kg.K
Thermal Expansion 23.22 24.41 strain/C
2.3.2 S2-Glass Fiber
The S2-Glass fiber reinforcement system in Glare is responsible for the strength, stiffness and
fatigue properties. The glass fiber is continuous long fibrous material with superior strength and
stiffness in the axial direction (longitudinal axis). Glass fiber is solid bar with cylindrical shape having a
circular cross section form. The smaller the diameter the greater the strength of the fiber [2]. The
current Glass fiber used in Glare has almost 10 micron meters in diameter [5]. The composition of the
S2-galss fiber is 64%SiO2-24%Al2O3 -10%MgO. [11]. The mechanical and physical properties of S-glass
fiber is given on Table 2-3
2.3.3 FM 94 Resin
FM 94 matrix belongs to a thermosets polymer. It is a family of epoxy with outstanding
properties. FM 94 purpose is to bind the fiber glass, keeps the fiber in the proper orientation and to
bond with the aluminum sheets. FM 94 is also responsible for the transfer of load to and between fibers,
provides all the interlaminar shear strength of Glare and resistant to crack propagation and damage.
However, FM94 has a service temperature up to 200C, which limits its use in high temperature
environment [2, 5]. The mechanical and physical properties of FM-94 is given below in Table 2-4
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Table 2-3 S2-Glass fiber properties [11]
Mechanical Property Min Max Units
Density 2485 2495 Kg/m
3

Bulk Modulus 51 55 GPa
Endurance Limit 4050 4410 MPa
Fracture Toughness 0.5 1 MPa.m
1/2

Modulus of Rupture 4500 4900 MPa
Shear Modulus 35 39 GPa
Strain to failure 5 10 %
Young's Modulus 88 93 GPa
Glass Temperature 920 950 K
Table 2-4 mechanical and physical properties of FM-94 [10]
Mechanical properties Min Max Units
Bulk Modulus 4.5 4.8 GPa
Elongation 3 10 %
Endurance Limit 24.8 27 MPa
Fracture Toughness 0.4 0.7 MPa.m^1/2
Shear tensile 23 55 MPa
Shear Modulus 0.9 1.1 GPa
Young's Modulus 1.7 2.9 GPa
Density 1180 1240 kg/m^3
Maximum Service Temperature 160 200 C
Minimum Service Temperature -43 7 C
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2.4 Statc and Fatgue propertes of Glare
Knowledge about the mechanical and physical properties of Glare is vital in the design process
of aircraft airframes and structures and during material qualification process. The information are
obtained through experiments and analytical predictions. The analytical methods used to define the
properties of Glare are the Metal Volume Fraction (MVF) and FMLGROW a computer program
computing tool for fatigue crack growth rate and delamination growth rate. The MVF method is used to
predict the static mechanical properties of Glare and FMLGROW is used to predict the fatigue growth
rate, crack length and delamination growth of a given Glare.
Glare possess both characteristics of the metallic part and the composite material (fibers
embedded in adhesive).it is a mixture of both materials characteristics. The characteristic of the
constituents will certainly determine the overall Glare property. Glare has both the advantageous and
disadvantageous properties of its constituent. The advantages and disadvantages inherited by Glare
from its constituents are: - [5]
- It has the fatigue property of aluminum alloy, although the fiber layers of the Glare significantly
improve this behavior.
- Glare is affected by hot-wet ageing under accelerated conditions as in composites. But moisture
absorption and property reduction are less when compared to glass composites due to the large
amount of unaffected aluminum in the Glare.
Moreover, Glare properties depend on the orientation of the lamina fiber direction with respect
to the loading direction. Depending on the type of Glare grade, it can have different property on the L
and LT direction. In this section a brief explanation is given concerning the properties and the methods
to calculate the properties of lamina the composites material.
Glare has unique features when compared to monolithic aluminum. The impact properties of
Glare is better than aluminum and has dent after impact like aluminum which makes it easy to detect
visually. The damage tolerance of Glare is better than aluminum and composites considering wide range
of possible damages. Also, Glare has good fire resistance behavior [5].
Glare material design allowables are necessary in the sizing procedure of materials during
airframe stress analysis phase. Material design allowable is a material property. In this section the
material design allowables to be investigated for the effect of fiber diameter and FVF changes are:-
- Tensile ultimate strength
- Compressive yield strength
- Blunt notch strength
- Compressive and Tensile elastic modulus
Glare fatigue properties to be investigated on the effect of the fiber diameter and FVF changes are:-
- The crack growth rate for through the thickness cracks with Constant amplitude
Each of the above mention Glare properties and the method to predict these properties will be disused
in this section of the chapter.
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2.4.1 Composite Materials
The composite material used in Glare is S2-glass fiber embedded in FM94 epoxy. It is in the form
of prepreg as a single layer which is called lamina. The fibers in composite materials can be woven,
unidirectional, bidirectional or randomly dispersed. The composite material used in Glare is
unidirectional lamina. A unidirectional lamina is where all the fibers are aligned in a single direction.
The fibers in the unidirectional lamina are orientated along the longitudinal axis of the fibers, which is
0 with respect to the axis 2(x-axis) as depicted in Figure 2.3 .
Figure 2.3 unidirectional lamina orientation [12]
The strength and stiffness of unidirectional lamina composite is due to the stiff and strong
properties fiber. However in a practical sense the strength and stiffness of the lamina depends on the
orientation of the loading direction with respect to the fiber direction and the amount of fiber content
in the direction of the fiber. The lamina properties are basically a function of the fiber content (FVF) in
the direction of the fiber. Furthermore, lamina properties change as the loading angle deviate from the
longitudinal axis of fiber direction. Due to this directional sensitivity of unidirectional lamina has an
orthotropic property. Orthotropic materials have different material properties with a different
directions, in which the directions are orthogonal with each other [2, 13].
To obtain the orthotropic material properties of a unidirectional lamina a homogenization
technique shall be used. A homogenization techniques are methods to predict the elastic properties of
composite in terms of the elastic properties of constituents. Homogenization models are based on
modeling of the microstructure. These models are called micromechanics models, and the methods used
to acquire values of the laminas material properties are called micromechanics techniques. The
microstructure model is used to modeling the heterogeneous composite constituent, in to homogenized
composite lamina model in a computational analysis of micromechanics [14].
As it was mentioned in the previous paragraph, micromechanics techniques are used to
predicted the mechanical properties of lamina. The micromechanics techniques can be classified into
empirical, semi empirical, analytical and numerical methods. But in this thesis work the analytical
approach is used. There are several analytical homogenization micromechanics techniques. These are
Reuss model, Voigt Model, periodic Microstructure Model and Transversely isotropic Averaging. To
discuss all these method is complex and beyond the scope of this thesis work. Hence, the most widely
used techniques such as Reuss model and Voigt model shall be discussed [14].

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Reuss Model
The Reuss model also known as Rule of Mixture (ROM) assumes there is equal strain in the fiber,
matrix and composite. In other words the fiber, matrix and the composite deform or elongate together
equally. This method is used to calculate the lamina materials property along the longitudinal fiber axis
direction (0) of the lamina. The equation for ROM to find the laminate property is given in equation
(2.1) [14].

( )
(1 )
MP MP MP
L F FVF M FVF = +
(2.1)
Where
- LMP is lamina mechanical property
- FMP is Fiber mechanical property
- MMP is matrix mechanical property
- FVF Fiber Volume Fraction
Voigt Model
The Voigt model assumes that the stress in the fiber, matrix and composite are all equal. It is
sometimes referred as the inverse of ROM. This method is used to compute the lamina property in the
transversal direction (90) to the longitudinal fiber axis direction (0) of the lamina. The equation for
the inverse of ROM to find the laminate property is shown with equation (2.2) [14].
1
1
( ) ( )
MP
MP MP
L
FVF FVF
F M
=
+
(2.2)
Where
- LMP is lamina mechanical property
- FMP is Fiber mechanical property
- MMP is matrix mechanical property
- FVF Fiber Volume Fraction
The output of homogenized model (micromechanics model analysis) prediction lie between
lower and upper bounds. These bounds are function of the FVF and physical properties of the
constituents. Equation (2.1)(2.2) demonstrate the influence of FVF on the mechanical properties of
lamina. Equation (2.1) (2.2) are used to predict basic engineering constants.
In order to use this equation in the analysis lamina property some important assumption are
considered these are: - [13]
- Perfect bonding exist between fiber and matrix
- Fibers are parallel, and uniformly distributed
- Both fiber and matrix are isotropic and obey Hookes law
- The applied loads are parallel of orthogonal to the fiber direction
17 | P a g e
2.4.2 The Metal Volume Fraction method to predict Glare properties
The glare type consider in this thesis work is Glare3 3/2-0.4. It shows both the constituents
properties. It exhibits the elastic plastic behaviors of aluminum and elastic (orthotropic property) of
the fiber laminate. The mechanical property of Glare combines both fiber and metal parts in which it
becomes a function of; fiber orientation, loading direction, aluminum plasticity and residual stress after
curing and a difference in thermal expansion of the constituents. Due to these factors on which
mechanical property depends, it is complex to explain the mechanical property of Glare using analytical
tools [15].
However, a simple powerful analytical tool was developed to predict the Glare material
properties. The method is very similar to the ROM approach for the fiber lamina. The method is called
Metal Volume Fraction (MVF). Before presenting the analytical formula of MVF method for determining
the Glare property, at first it will be shown how to determine the MVF values of any FMLs.
The MVF is expressed as a ratio between the sums of the individual aluminum sheet thickness to the
total thickness of the FML see equation (2.3) [5]
1
P
al
lam
t
MVF
t
=
(2.3)
Where:
- t al is thickness of each separate aluminum layer
- t lam is thickness of the total laminate(FML)
- p the number of aluminum layers
When the MVF ratio is 1 then it represents pure monolithic aluminum layer property and when
it is 0 it represents the pure prepreg lamina property. The MVF method assumes that there is a linear
relationship between the material properties at MVF is 1 metal layer contribution and the average of
tested FML data. Then the line is extrapolated to MVF is 0 to a fiber layer contribution. The analytical
equation to calculate Glare properties having any MVF values and the mechanical properties of
aluminum and fiber layer laminate is given with equation(2.4) [5].
(MVF) (1 MVF)
MP MP MP
FML MTL LAM = +
(2.4)
Where
- FMLMP is FML mechanical property
- LAMMP is Fiber layer laminate mechanical property
- MTLMP is metal layer mechanical property
- MVF Fiber Volume Fraction
The MVF method will be used to predict the material properties of Glare in this thesis
assignment. The static mechanical properties of Glare that are going to be used to evaluate the fiber
diameter effect are; tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength, blunt notch strength, and
elastic and shear modulus. The MVF method equations for each material property will be shown with
unique symbols and term to distinguish from each property.
18 | P a g e
The tensile strength
The tensile strength of Glare can be divided in to two parts in the strain- stress curve. The two
parts are the ultimate strength and the yield strength. The ultimate strength of Glare depends on both
constitutes behaviors, and failure limit stress and failure strain. On the other hand, the yield property of
Glare is related to the metal layer yield behavior, since the fiber laminate does not yield. As a result the
predictions made by MVF method for yield property of Glare is quite accurate. Conversely, the
prediction for the ultimate strength are rough estimations, since it assumes simultaneous failure of the
constituents, which in actual case is not correct [16]. The MVF equations for predicting tensile strength
ultimate and yield of Glare are given respectively with equation(2.5) (2.6) [5].
, , ,
( ) (1 )
GLR ult AL ult LAM ult
MVF MVF o o o = +
(2.5)
Where
- GLR ,ult is the ultimate tensile strength of Glare
- AL ,ult is the ultimate tensile strength of aluminum
- LAM ,ult is the ultimate tensile strength of the glass-fiber laminate
- MVF is the Metal Volume Fraction
, , ,
( ) (1 )
GLR yld AL yld LAM yld
MVF MVF o o o = +
(2.6)
Where
- GLR ,yld is the yield tensile strength of Glare
- AL ,yld is the yield tensile strength of aluminum
- LAM ,yld is the yield tensile strength of the glass-fiber laminate
A stress quantity is used to measure the tensile strength. The unit for the stress is in mega Pascal
(MPa). The tensile strength is assumed to be on-axis loading parallel to the fiber 0 direction (x-axis) as
shown in Figure 2.4 .
Figure 2.4 Glare model under axial tension load parallel to the x-axis [12]
19 | P a g e
Compressive strength
Using the MVF method, it is possible to predict the compressive strength of Glare. The yield
compressive strength will be considered to evaluate the effect of the fiber diameter change on a Glare
compressive strength. The MVF method to predict the compressive strength of Glare is shown in
equation(2.7) [5].
,yld ,yld ,yld
( ) (1 )
CGLR CAL CLAM
MVF MVF o o o = +
(2.7)
Where
- CGLR ,yld is the ultimate tensile strength of Glare
- CAL ,yld is the ultimate tensile strength of aluminum
- CLAM ,yld is the ultimate tensile strength of the glass-fiber laminate
The unit of measure is in mega Pascal (MPa). The compressive strength is assumed to be on-axis
loading parallel to the fiber 0 direction (x-axis) opposite to the tension load direction as shown in
Figure 2.5 .
Figure 2.5 Glare model under axial compression load parallel to the x-axis [12]
Elastic modulus
The strain-stress curve of Glare under tension and compression is a combination of the fiber-
layer and metal sheet chart, which depends on the fiber orientation and loading direction, and the curve
have semi bilinear shape [15] [5].
The elastic modulus of Glare is related to the elastic modulus of its constituents. The loading
direction is very important, since it affects the fiber layer stiffness. Elastic modulus is calculated along
the fiber direction (longitudinal axis). The elastic modulus of Glare could be used to investigate the fiber
diameter effect on Glare mechanical property. The method of MVF will be used to predict the elastic
modulus of Glare as shown with equation(2.8) [5].
( ) (1 ) E
GLR AL LAM
E E MVF MVF = + (2.8)

20 | P a g e
Where
- EGLR is the elastic modulus Glare
- E AL, is the elastic modulus of aluminum
- E LAM is the elastic modulus of the glass-fiber laminate
The blunt notch strength
The blunt notch strength is defined as the strength of a structure having a hole and it is important
design parameter because aircraft structures contain many holes at joints. Moreover, a notch causes a
stress concentration which in general results in a strength reduction of the structure under tension
loading case. The blunt notch strength can be used to demonstrate the effect of fiber diameter effect on
Glare mechanical property. The equation for blunt notch strength of Glare is shown with equation (2.9)
[16] [5]. The unit of measure is in mega Pascal (MPa).

( ) (1 ) B
GLR AL LAM
B B MVF MVF = + (2.9)
Where
- B GLR is the blunt notch strength of Glare
- B AL is the blunt notch strength of aluminum
- B LAM is the blunt notch strength of the glass-fiber laminate
The term B LAM the blunt notch strength of lamina is computed using the Whitney and Nuismer
(W-N) method. Whitney and Nuismer developed two criteria to account for the effect of hole on the
tensile strength of composite laminates. The two criteria are called Average Stress Criterion (ASC) and
the Point Stress Criterion (PSC) respectively. In this thesis for the analysis of the fiber diameter effect
on the blunt notch strength of Glare the method of ASC will be used to predict the notch effect on the
lamina.
The ASC require an expression for the stress distribution around the hole. For an infinite
orthotropic fiber layer laminate having a circular hole with uniform far field stress
applied parallel
to the x-axis then the normal stress x along the y-axis in the remaining ligament as depicted in Figure
2.6 and can be estimated by equation(2.10) [17].
21 | P a g e

Figure 2.6 infinitely wide orthotropic plate with circular hole with Radius R loaded axial in y direction [12]

( )
2 4 6 8
0, y 2 3 (K 3) 5 7
2
x T
R R R R
y y y y
o
o
(
| | | | | | | |
= + + (
`
| | | |
( \ . \ . \ . \ .

)
(2.10)
Where:
- R is the radius of the hole
- Y is the distance from edge of hole
- KT
is orthotropic stress concentration factor for a plate

The stress concentration factor for orthotropic laminate plate is shown with equation(2.11) [17]
in terms of laminate properties.
2 2
21
1 12
1 2
T
E E
K
E G
v
| |
= + +
|
|
\ .
(2.11)
Where:
- E1 is the longitudinal (x-axis) elastic modulus
- E2 is the transverse(y-axis) elastic modulus
- V21 is in-plane Poisson ratio
- G12 is in-plane shear modulus
22 | P a g e
The ASC assumes that failure occurs in a notched laminate when the average normal stress, at a
characteristic distance (a0) ahead of the hole, reaches the unnotched strength (0). This phenomena
criterion is shown with diagram in Figure 2.7 and mathematically with equation(2.12) [17].
Figure 2.7 The ASC area with the material parameter unnotched strength (0) & characteristic distance (a0) [12]
0
0
0
1
(0, )
y R a
x
y R
x
a
y d o o
= +
=
=
}
(2.12)
Where:
-
0
a is the ASC characteristic distance
- 0 is the unnotched strength
- x(0,y) is the normal stress along the line through the center of the hole and perpendicular to
the loading direction (y-axis as shown in Figure 2.7)
The characteristic distance (a0) is determined by curve fitting with strength Data from test of
two or more hole sizes. The typical value for the a0 is 3.8 mm for a wide range of hole sizes and cross ply
and quasi-isotropic glass-epoxy and graphite epoxy [18]. The unnotched strength of the laminate (0)
is determined using the ROM method for composite lamina CLT.
A mathematical equation is obtained for predicting the notched strength of laminate plate by
substituting equation (2.10) in to equation (2.12) and performing the integration. The outcome of the
integration is a ratio of notched strength to the unnotched strength representing the effect of the blunt
notch size on the strength as illustrated by equation(2.13).

(2.13)

Where:
=R(R+
0
a )

2 4 6 8
0
2(1 )
2 ( 3)( )
N
T
K
o
o
=
+
23 | P a g e
2.4.3 The Fatigue properties of FMLs
In general, metallic Structures subjected to cyclic load, a fatigue crack can be initiated on a
microscopically scale, followed by crack grows to a macroscopic size and finally fail in the last cycle of
the fatigue life. Essentially, fatigue life can be split in to two categories crack initiation period and crack
growth period. Fatigue in the crack initiation period is a surface phenomenon, which is characterized
by several surface conditions. On the other hand, the crack growth period is characterized by the
resistance of material bulk property. The fatigue property prediction method for the crack initiation
period and crack growth period are fundamental different. For crack initiation the important parameter
is the stress concentration factor (KT). Whereas, the stress intensity factor is used for prediction during
crack growth period. A summary of fatigue life phases of material illustrated with Figure 2.8 [4].
Figure 2.8 The fatigue life phases and the related factor [4]
In linear elastic fracture mechanics there are three different crack opening modes see Figure 2.9
[4]. In many cases a crack grows perpendicular to the tensile stress that tries to open the crack which is
called mode I and that is going to be consider in this thesis as a crack opening mode to evaluate the
crack growth rate [4].
Figure 2.9 The three modes of crack opening [4]
A fatigue crack growth through the entire thickness of the material is referred as through the
thickness crack or simply through crack for most thin walled materials. On the other if the material
considered is thick crack grows not full though the entire thickness instead it grows partially through
the thickness and it is labeled as part through crack. However in this thesis work only through crack is
considered [4]. The factor that affect the crack growth are many. Among all factors some important and
relevant factors to this thesis will be mentioned briefly.one of the factors is the stress intensity factor
which depends on the geometry of the structure and loading condition and it is shown with
equation(2.14) [4]
K a |o t
= (2.14)
24 | P a g e
Where:
- is geometry correction factor
- is far field stress away from the crack
- a is the crack length
The second factor is the application of the fatigue load on the structure. There are two types of
loading condition related to fatigue these are:
- Constant amplitude loading(CA-loading)
- Variable Amplitude loading(VA-loading)
The constant amplitude loading condition is considered in this thesis work. The parameters
related to the loading condition are; amplitude of loading, stress ratio and mean stress. Since the loading
condition is in a cyclic manner it had maximum and minimum load limits. These maximum and
minimum limits are used to calculate the amplitude of the loading, stress ratio and mean stress.
Amplitude loading, stress ratio and mean stress are represented respectively with equations(2.15),
(2.16) and (2.17) [4].
max min
2
A
o o
o
= (2.15)
max min
2
M
o o
o
+
= (2.16)
min
max
R
o
o
= (2.17)
Where:
- A is a stress amplitude
- M is a mean stress
- R is a stress ratio
- max is the maximum stress limit
- min is the minimum stress limit
The concepts mention above about fatigue of structures apply to both monolithic metallic
materials and Glare material. But, Glares exhibit excellent fatigue and damage properties due to the
presence of fatigue insensitive fiber Glass. The fatigue crack growth rate in Glare is considerably lower
than that monolithic aluminum in equal loading case and thickness. Moreover the crack growth rate for
Glare is constant for the majority of fatigue life. A characteristic difference between monolithic
aluminum and Glare is the fatigue life phase. For a monolithic aluminum the majority of fatigue life is
mainly crack initiation phase followed by fast crack propagating phase causing short life in the crack
growth phase. On the other hand Glare has a shorter crack initiation phase but a longer life during the
crack growth phase [19]. The mechanism that contribute to the longer life during the crack growth
phase and slower and constant crack propagation rate in Glare are Fiber bridging and delamination of
layers.
25 | P a g e
Fiber bridging and Delamination of layers of Glare
The fibers in Glare transfer a significant amount of load over the cracked aluminum layer and
restrain the crack openings and this phenomenon is called fiber bridging and the illustration is shown
with Figure 2.10 [4]. The amount of load transferred through the aluminum layer is small. As a result
the stress intensity factor at the crack tip of the aluminum layer of the Glare is smaller when compared
to the monolithic aluminum with equal crack length. Due to the load transfer between the aluminum
layer and fiber layer the adhesive is subjected to a cyclic shear stress causing a delamination growth
between aluminum layers and fiber layer (lamina).
Some research work has revealed the amount of the bridging stress in the fibers is related to the
crack opening displacement and the length over which the fibers are elongated (delamination length).
Large delamination length results in small bridging stress with small cyclic shear stress at interface
inducing small delamination growth rate. In fact delamination growth rate and bridging stress are in
balance continuously influencing each other. Since bridging stress affect stress intensity factor at the
crack tip of the aluminum layer, in turn that determines the crack growth rate. High bridging stresses
result in low stress intensities at the crack tip and thus small crack propagation rate. Therefore fatigue
crack growth in Glare is characterized by the process of crack growth in the aluminum layer and the
delamination growth at the interfaces, which continuously influence each other [19].
Figure 2.10 load transfer through a crack, restraining crack opening and delamination [19]
The crack growth rate of Glare will be used as a one of fatigue property to investigate the fiber
diameter effect and the volume content of the fiber in Glare. The model is refereed as Central Crack
Tension (CCT) loaded in tension. The model is provided with a central hole and with two saw cuts as a
starter notch. See chapter 4
The analytical equations and model that is going to be used to calculate the crack growth rate of
the Glare is a computer software package written in MATLAB code by Dr. Ren Alderliesten. The
software plots the crack growth rate against the crack length. The software is called FML GROW V2.0.
The main part of the code and a file containing the parameter related to the thesis work are shown in
Appendix A
. Figure 2.11 A CCT configuration

26 | P a g e

27 | P a g e

Chapter 3
.The Fiber Volume Fraction Analysis
- 3.1 Introducton
- 3.2 Fiber volume basic defniton
- 3.2.1 FVF Based on the density and mass of the consttuents
- 3.2.2 Determinaton of FVF using Image analysis and simulaton
- 3.2.3 Analytcal model of FVF based on the geometry of the microstructure
- 3.3 FVF Model development analysis
- 3.3.1 Analysis of FVF of a Glare
- 3.4 The Shear lag method in relaton with the mechanical propertes of the lamina.
- 3.5 Summary
3.1 Introducton
The main objective of the thesis research is to investigate the effect of the fiber diameter in
relation with a fiber volume fraction of a composite lamina on the mechanical behavior of the Glare
laminate as a whole. In order to achieve the goals of the objective it is necessary to understand the micro-
structure geometry of composite lamina and, a theoretical model of fibers configuration in the matrix.
Secondly, investigate and research, a micro-mechanics approach or homogenization techniques
methods that relate the fiber diameter and FVF to the mechanical property of lamina thus the Glare. The
main topics of this chapter are to research the existing theoretical microstructure geometry of lamina
and a methodologies that relate the fiber radius, and other lamina micro structure to the mechanical
property of Glare. Moreover, the works done by other researchers concerning the effect of fiber radius,
FVF and other parameters are also explored.
3.2 Fiber volume fracton basic defniton
A composite lamina consisting of fiber and matrix should have physical measuring quantity to
describe the content of the constituents. Particularly FVF is a quantity for measuring the content of the
28 | P a g e
constituent fibers inside a lamina. Here in this section it is presented a basic methodologies for
determining the FVF of Lamina. These are:
- FVF based on the density and mass of constituents
- Determination of FVF using Image analysis and computer simulation
- Analytical model of FVF based on the geometry of the microstructure
3.2.1 FVF Based on the density and mass of the constituents
Composite lamina basically consist of fiber and matrix (resin). Therefore a simple explanation
for the FVF is, defined as the amount of fibers in a given composite (lamina) divide by the total amount
of the composite content. (Fiber +Matrix).This method is based on the weight of the composite, fibers
and the resin. It is also an experimental approach which directly involves physical measuring of the
specimen. By using the density of the materials and from the measured weight it is possible to calculate
the volume [20].
At first the mass fraction of the composite is calculated from the measured weight with
equation(3.1). Next, with the density of the fiber and matrix, and the mass fraction of the fiber and
matrix, the FVF of the lamina is calculated with equation(3.3).

f
mof
M
mof mm
=
+
(3.1)
1
m f
M M = (3.2)
f
f
f
m
f m
M
FVF
M
M
o
o o
=
+
(3.3)
Where:
Mf is the mass fraction of fiber
Mm is the mass fraction of matrix
f is the density of the fiber
m is the density of the matrix
mof is the total mass of the fiber
mm is the total mass of the matrix
This calculation method of FVF is practical and it is used industries. It is usually used to control
the content of materials in production process like hand lay-up of chopped or strand mat fibers and to
perform basic stress analysis.
3.2.2 Determination of FVF using Image analysis and simulation
An actual composite lamina usually includes a reinforcing inclusion of different size and shapes.
Moreover, the fibers form an infinitely varying local packing arrangements. These randomness and
disparity of the micro-structure of the lamina has an influence on the behavior of the lamina. The
objective of generating and studying the micro-structure is to analyze and predict the macro scale
property of lamina. To analyze the randomness and the FVF of lamina researchers use a method that
directly involve the physical study of the specimen with optical device. And with computer simulation.
29 | P a g e
Andrei A. Guseva, et al [21] have studied the effect of the randomness, shape and the size of the
inclusion (fiber reinforcement) in an elastic medium (matrix) of composite materials properties. The
techniques used by Andrei A. Guseva et al, to characterize the microstructure of the unidirectional glass
fiber/epoxy were experimentally with image analysis and with statistics of microstructures simulated
numerically with Mote Carlo method. The procedure and techniques how to apply the image analysis
with computer simulation is explained briefly on the coming paragraphs.
The image analysis was conducted by Andrei A. Guseva, et al on a cross- sectional surface as
shown in Figure 3.1taken from composite sample. The instrument used to accomplish the image analysis
was a transputer controlled image analyzer designed to measure the three-dimensional orientation of
fibers. The sample is scanned in a raster manner. The image is analyzed with the foot print that each
fiber makes with the cross section plan as seen in Figure 3.1. A different set of pixels were assigned to
the image, in order to distinguish the fiber and matrix and for a further analysis on the microstructure
of the composite. With the image analysis method it was possible to study the diameter variation, FVF,
the variety of local packing arrangements across the cross-section and the spacing between the fibers.
See figure an example of image analysis image sample.

Figure 3.1 The fibers are shown in black and the matrix in grey FVF 54%. [21]
A computer software analyzes the image based on the pixels difference and counts the number
of fibers in the give cross sectional area, then presents the average FVF percentage. To validate the
premise on the image analysis done by Andrei A. Guseva, et al a computer model of periodic unit cell of
fibers was generated. Mote Carlo method was used to generate periodic computer models of unit cell
covering the randomness of the fibers, distribution of spacing and different diameters. The attempt was
to generate a FVF 54% that resembles the actually physically analyzed image. After several Mote Carlo
simulation runs the computer models had FVF of 54%. The Mote Carlo (MC) method has approximated
the periodic unit cell arrangement of fibers to the realistic of randomness as seen in Figure 3.2.
30 | P a g e

Figure 3.2 the transition computer model of periodic unit cell to a realistic randomness model with Mote Carlo
method [21]
The measured data from image analysis and numerically simulated data, distribution of fiber
spacing is depicted with Figure 3.3 the y-axis represents the frequency of occurrences and the x-axis the
spacing in micro units. The graphs contain the measured data and the prediction of the simulation made
by MC method. As the graphs illustrate in Figure 3.3, that the measured data using image analysis has
almost the same value as the MC solutions. As a result Andrei A. Guseva, et al work confirmed that the
numerical computer model can be used to approximate the randomness, the varieties of spacing and
packing arrangement in composites in order to predict the homogenous composite properties. Although
this method is acceptable, an ambiguity exist when talking about the MC method which Andrei A.
Guseva, et al did not at all show the formula or either the method of MC. More over the approach tends
more to numerical methods, which is more or less not the main objective of this thesis. In contrast to
the numerical approach method, the experimental technique (image analysis) will be used to determine
the actual FVF, fiber diameter, fiber spacing and packing arrangement of the FMLs.
Figure 3.3 fiber spacing frequency in a given cross section of composite [21]
31 | P a g e
3.2.3 Model of FVF based on the geometry of the microstructure
The micromechanics approach is used to study the interaction of the fiber with the surrounding
matrix. Micro-mechanics looks specifically to the individual constituents in terms of the geometrical
shape of fibers, orientation of fibers, spacing between fibers and wetted areas of fiber [22]. The thesis
objective is to drive an analytical equation of fiber volume fraction relating the fiber diameter, nominal
thickness of lamina and wetted area. The fiber diameter, wetted area of fibers and fiber spacing are all
micro structure geometrical characteristics of the composite lamina. The FVF calculation based on the
micro-structure geometrical entities of the lamina, is an analytical approach established on theoretical
assumption of micro-structure models of the fiber inside a matrix. The orientation of the fibers in the
composite lamina is important factor when formulating the FVF equation models. In order to drive the
equation, lamina fibers orientation and geometry has to be defined.
Figure 3.4 lamina with the passing plane A-A [12]
The lamina considered in this thesis is unidirectional prepreg. As it was mentioned in section 2.
The 0 direction is the longitudinal direction or loading axis. If a plane A_A passes through the composite
lamina perpendicular to the 0 as illustrated in Figure 3.4. A cross section will appear containing a
circular fibers with certain diameter and spacing between the fibers occupied by a matrix. As seen in
Figure 3.1the fibers (white circle) are distributed randomly in the prepreg. At the lamina level (meso-
analysis) the randomness could be replaced by periodic microstructure model [14]. In the periodic
microstructure model, the fibers are modeled with a constant circular cross section and regular spacing
between the fibers see Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 a periodic arrangement of fibers with regular spacing [12]
32 | P a g e
The periodic microstructure model approach is not only used to simulate the micromechanics
analysis of composite materials, it is also used for other purposes. For instance it can be used to model
and simulate the production process of composites, such as the impregnation process. The
Impregnation process is impregnating of fibers with resin to produces prepreg, or to wet the fibers with
resin during resin transfer molding (RTM). During impregnation process the fibers are scattered and
random therefore it is very difficult to predict the impregnation process parameters (fiber spacing,
impregnation time pressure drop required to drive the flow) and flow characteristics (velocity, planer
elongation and shear rates) [23]. In order, to predict these process parameters and flow characteristics
S.S. BAFNA and D.G.BAIRD [23] have modeled the fibers in the matrix as periodic micro-structure. The
periodic micro-structure was modeled with varying space distance and angles between the fibers. The
fiber packing geometries assumed by S.S. BAFNA and D.G.BAIRD [23] were the symmetric square
packing and symmetric equilateral packing arrangement.
Figure 3.6 symmetric square fiber packing (=90
0
S1 > S2) [23]
The symmetric square packing is shown in Figure 3.6, Where S1 is the diagonal spacing distance
between two fibers and S2 represents the horizontal and vertical spacing distance between two fibers.
The angle alpha () is the angle between the vertical and horizontal line. The D represents the diameter
of the fibers and R is the radius of the fibers. In the symmetric square packing geometry the distance S2
is equal is every direction (horizontal and vertical). The angle alpha () is 90
0
. Moreover the distance S1
is greater than the distance S2.
The symmetric equilateral packing is shown in Error! Reference source not found. where S1 is the
diagonal spacing distance between two fibers and S2 represents the horizontal and vertical spacing
distance between two fibers. The angle alpha () is the angle between the vertical and horizontal line.
The D represents the diameter of the fibers. In the symmetric equilateral packing geometry the distance
S2 is equal is every direction (horizontal and vertical). The angle alpha () is 60
0
. Moreover the distance
S1 is equal to the distance S2 which is also equal to s.
These fiber packing patterns greatly simplify the complexity of the randomness of micro-
structure of composite lamina. The Figure 3.6 and Error! Reference source not found.show how the
periodic microstructure of fibers is arranged in the composite prepreg in to manageable fiber packing
pattern in order to perform quantitative analysis concerning the strength performance of the composite
or to predict important processing parameters.
33 | P a g e
Figure 3.7 symmetric equilateral fiber packing (=60
0
S1= S2=S) [23]
The equilateral packing arrangement sometimes it is called hexagonal packing. The square packing and
hexagonal packing arrangement are found in many composites mechanics textbooks, to analysis the FVF
of a lamina. The main parameter for the square packing and hexagonal are fiber spacing(h) and fiber
radius (r), with theses parameter it is possible to calculate the FVF of a composite lamina. See Figure 3.8
for the geometric arrangement of square packing and hexagonal packing [24].
Figure 3.8(a) hexagonal and (b) square packing arrangement [24]
Where: h is fiber spacing, 2R is the distance between the centers of two neighboring fibers and r is the
radius of the fiber. By using the R, h, and, r variables the FVF equation is formed [24].
The FVF equation for the hexagonal packing geometry is shown with equation (3.4)
2
2 3
r
FVF
R
t | |
=
|
\ .
(3.4)
Where:-
- f is FVF fiber volume fraction
- r is radius of fiber
- R half of the center to center distance
The FVF equation for the square packing geometry is shown with equation (3.5)
2
4
r
FVF
R
t | |
=
|
\ .
(3.5)
Where:-
- f is FVF fiber volume fraction
- r is radius of fiber
- R half of the center to center distance
34 | P a g e
The FVF equation for hexagonal and square packing arrangements are based on the area and
volume ratios. The area ratios area the area of the fibers divided to the area of the circumscribing
polygons, then the volume ratio is the volume of the fiber divided to the volume of the surrounding
polygon as seen in Figure 3.9 .To simplify the analysis simple geometry and trigonometric analysis are
used to define the area of the circumscribing polygons and the fiber cross sections.
Figure 3.9 the polygons circumscribing the fibers for the given packing arrangements [24]
It is depicted in Figure 3.8 the length 2R is the distance between the centers of two neighboring
fibers, h being the spacing between the neighboring fibers and r is the radius of the fibers.
Equation(3.6) could be used to calculate the given spacing between the fibers.
2 2 R r h = + (3.6)
An alternative method to calculate a FVF of lamina, which does not depend on the packing
geometry of the fiber, but on the periodic micro-structure is called FVF or Fiber scaling method. The
main parameters of this method are the number of fibers, thickness of the lamia and the radius of the
fibers. An example of this method geometry is illustrated in Figure 3.10. The width and the length of the
lamina could be assumed as a unit value (1 unit).
Figure 3.10 lamina with a thickness ts [12]
The formula to compute the FVF of a lamina using the fiber scaling method is given with
equation(3.7).
2
s
n r
FVF
t l
t
=
(3.7)
35 | P a g e
Where:
- n is the number of fibers
- r is the radius of the circle
- ts is the thickness of the lamina
- l is the length of the lamia
Note that the length of the lamina is taken as a unit (1 unit)
3.3 FVF Model development analysis
In this section the FVF of a lamina will be analyzed with analytical method using parameters
like: fiber spacing, fiber radius, geometric packing arrangement, thickness of lamina and number of
fibers. Up to now, equations and literature studies have been conducted on the methodologies and
techniques to calculate the mechanical properties of Glare and FVF of a lamina. The equations given in
section 3.2 will be used to perform the FVF analysis. The analysis is aided by micro mechanics theories
that will set boundaries and limitations to the parameters in order to predict an acceptable FVF.
In many literatures it is mentioned that the FVF parameters namely the spacing between fibers
and the number fiber in a given area have a limited values for a given FVF and fiber diameter. The
limiting criteria are based on the micro-mechanics theories and assumptions. One of the basic governing
micro-mechanics criteria is the interfacial bond strength between fiber and matrix. Composite lamina
(FRP) the fiber-matrix interface is considered as a critical factor that affect the overall mechanical
properties of the composite. The fiber-matrix interface is a region where the load transfer occurs
between the fiber and the matrix and between the fibers.
The strength and stiffness of the interfacial bond are essential factors affecting the lamina
mechanical properties and fatigue behavior. The interfacial bonded areas are the surface areas of the
fibers. If the total bonded area of a lamina is increased the load may transfer efficiently from fiber to
fiber and fiber to matrix. Moreover, the increased interfacial surface area could compensate for damaged
fibers and imperfectly bonded regions. Another way of improving the mechanical property of the lamina
is by increasing the FVF of lamina [25]. Based on this interfacial bond strength concept criterion and
improved mechanical property due to FVF increase, the goal will be to increase the number of fibers in
a given lamina and the FVF. The objectives could be achieved: [26].
- by changing the fiber diameter and spacing between the fibers with constant FVF
- by changing the fiber diameter and spacing between the fiber with varying FVF
- by changing the FVF and spacing but with constant fiber diameter
These methods will be analyzed with equations(3.4)(3.5)(3.7) in the coming analysis. To realize
a larger interfacial surface area and an optimal higher FVF in relation with fiber diameter is a sub-
objective of the thesis work as in optimizing the current Glare.
Increasing the number of fibers or FVF could improve the interface strength and the mechanical
property of lamina. However, the improvements of the mechanical property and interfacial the strength
of lamina due to the increase of FVF of lamina have certain limiting point. Beyond the limiting point that
is beyond the maximum value of FVF the bonding between the fibers and the matrix will start to degrade.
The de-bonding of fibers from the matrix will take place leading to micro-crack in the matrix finally to a
failure of the lamina [25].The loss of lamina strength at higher FVF could be caused by the fibers packing
problem creating large amount of voids and the incomplete penetration of matrix between the fibers.
These two factors affect the interfacial surface areas of the lamina [27].
36 | P a g e
Another approach that explains the limiting factors is, due to the fiber spacing between the fibers
becoming too small as the FVF increase and number of fibers. This phenomena is dealt with a shear
strength criterion within the composite lamina. The criterion is called shear-lag theory [28] . The shear
- lag analysis it was proposed by Cox [28] to analyze the stress transfer between fibers and matrix by
means of interfacial shear stress for broken and damaged fibers in lamina. The shear lag theory
assumes the following ideas to perform the analysis [28]:
- A damage to a fiber or a broken fibers
- The model is linear elastic both the fiber and matrix behave elastically
- The FVF across the cross section is constant
- A prefect bonded between fiber and matrix
- The strain in the matrix and fiber are equal
The shear-lag equation that predicts the maximum interfacial shear stress and axial stress has an
important parameter called the share-lag parameter, shown with equation (3.8)
1 2
ln
m
f
G
R r E
r
|
| |
|
|
=
| |
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
(3.8)
Where:
- Gm is shear modulus of the matrix
- Ef is the elastic modulus of fiber
- R is the half of the center to center distance
- r is the radius the fiber
- | is the shear- lug parameter
The matrix volume effectively involved in load transferring which the region is covered by R. In
unidirectional composites this volume fraction(R) is presumed to be the distance between the fibers.
The shear-lag parameter could be measure experimentally. The value of obtained from
experimental work, coupled with fiber and matrix property and equation (3.8) is rearranged to
determine R/r (fiber spacing ratio) or R for a given fiber radius. The computed fiber spacing ratio at a
given fiber radius and shear-lag parameter could be used to determine the maximum FVF of the lamina
and the minimum fiber spacing distance between neighboring fibers. Measuring shear-lag parameter
experimental is not the scope of this thesis work and requires fibers with different diameters. The
equation to predict the maximum shear stress around the fiber is shown with equation (3.9)
max
coth
4
2 ln( )
m
bf
f
G l
R
E
r
t o | =
(3.9)

37 | P a g e
Where:
-
m
G is shear modulus of the matrix
-
f
E is the elastic modulus of fiber
- R is the half of the center to center distance
- r is the radius the fiber
- | is the shear- lug parameter
-
max
t is the maximum shear stress in the system
-
bf
o is the fiber breaking stress
- l l is the length of the fiber
Equation(3.9) provides the relation between the shear-lag parameter, fiber spacing ratio(R/r)
or R and the maximum shear stress. When (R/r) decreases the value of ( )
max
t will increase as shown
in Figure 3.11. The minimum fiber spacing R is determined when ( )
max
t is co-related to the maximum
interfacial shear stress or shear strength of the matrix near the fiber ( )
s
t [28].If the fiber length is
relatively long enough the term coth | ( 4 l ) approaches 1 and, this is the case considered in this thesis
work to compute the minimum fiber spacing related to the maximum interfacial shear stress.
Figure 3.11 Shear stress verse Fiber spacing ratio
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Shear Stress as function of Fiber Spacing Ratio
Fiber Spacing Ratio(R/r)
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
s
s

(
G
p
a
)
intersection point
38 | P a g e
The strength ratio of fiber breaking stress to the interfacial shear stress (
bf s
o t ) and stiffness
ratio of the matrix shear modulus fiber elastic modulus to the fiber elastic modulus (
m f
G E ) are given
on Table 3-1 the data are found on ref [28].
Table 3-1 the fiber matrix properties ratio used in the shear-lag calculation [28]
Item Range
Strength Ratio(
bf s
o t )
1.5-5.0
Stiffness Ratio(
m f
G E )
0.02-0.3
The data given in Table 3-1 is used to compute the maximum interfacial shear stress (
s
t ), at a
given fiber breaking stress and selected strength ratio range. The selected strength ratio is 2.4 an
average value of the range. When the strength ratio is 2.4 and the fiber ultimate strength is 4.8Gpa then
the interfacial shear stress (
s
t ) is 1.41Gpa.
As seen in Figure 3.11a line is drawn from the y-axis of the interfacial shear stress that intersect
the graph. Then from the intersection point a perpendicular line is drawn toward the x-axis to find the
corresponding fiber spacing ratio. This corresponding fiber spacing ratio is the minimum allowable fiber
spacing ratio for a given strength ratio and stiffness ratio. Now with the interfacial shear stress (
s
t ) it
is possible to find the minimum fiber spacing using the graph in Figure 3.11.
The maximum allowable FVF for the two types of packing (hexagonal and square) configuration
and the related minimum fiber spacing ratio is shown in Table 3-2. The FVFs are computed with
equation (3.4) and equation(3.5). The minimum fiber spacing ratio is obtained from Figure 3.11graph
data. In Table 3-2 across the row each packing configuration of FVF is shown and each column shows
the related fiber and matrix properties, parametric ratios and FVF.
Table 3-2stress ratio and maximum allowed FVF
s
t
min
( ) R r
By rearranging equation (3.6) and by substituting R from the fiber spacing ratio in terms of r
and a constant representing the ratio of minimum spacing( ) equation (3.10) is obtained to predict h.
The spacing between two neighboring fibers can be calculated with equation(3.10), for a given radius
and minimum fiber spacing Ratio.
2 ( 1) h r =
(3.10)
min
R
r
| |
=
|
\ .

39 | P a g e
Where:
- h is fiber space between two neighboring fibers
- r is fiber diameter
- R is the half of fibers center to center distance
- is the fiber spacing ratio constant
In order to perform analysis on the fiber radius, fiber spacing, the number of fibers and FVF of
lamina the nominal or the current lamina should be analyzed. The current lamina has a fiber diameter
of 10m, a FVF of 57% and nominal thickness of 0.125mm a 1mm length. The remaining Fiber spacing
and number of fibers for a given thickness are calculated using equation(3.4), equation(3.5) and
equation(3.7). The results of the analysis for the nominal lamina is depicted on Table 3-3.
Table 3-3the current lamina parameters
r (m) h (m) n FVF ts (m) l (m)
Square 5 1.785 796 .57 125 1000
Hexagonal 5 2.69 796 .57 125 1000
In the next sub section the methods to analyze FVF and fiber radius are discussed.
3.3.1 Analysis of FVF of a Glare
In this section analysis is conducted on a lamina at a given nominal thickness, with varying fiber
diameter, fiber spacing, number of fibers and FVF. This analysis is conducted to explore the number of
fibers with changing fiber diameter and spacing. Moreover, to set a basis for the investigation of a
mechanical and fatigue property of Glare for changing number of fibers and fiber radius and FVF. The
limiting factor and other physically imposed assumption are considered in this analysis. The analysis is
performed with equations(3.4)(3.5)(3.7). The fiber radius range is between 1m up to 30m. The fiber
spacing range is between 1m up to 5m. Also the maximum allowed FVF is included in the graphs. A
graph will be plotted for the two different fiber packing configuration. The results and data are
presented using graph and tables.
The selected FVF are as follows
- FVF 1 with 40 % FVF
- FVF 2 with 50% FVF
- FVF S max with 57% FVF
- FVF 3 with 60% FVF
- FVF H max with 66%FVF
From Error! Reference source not found. and Table 3-2 it is observed that the maximum allowed FVF for
the square packing is 0.57.In addition the current FVF value is also 0.57. To obtain a higher FVF by
changing either by the number of fibers, fiber diameter or fiber spacing for square packing is theoretical
meaning less. Therefore in the coming analysis the square packing configuration is not analyzed, instead
the hexagonal packing configuration is assumed as a model of the microstructure of the lamina.
40 | P a g e
Figure 3.12 FVF for square packing as function of radius
Figure 3.13 FVF as function of radius fiber for hexagonal packing
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
FVF as function of fiber radius for a square packing
Fiber radius( micrometer)
F
V
F

h=0 micrometer
h=1 micrometer
h=2 micrometer
h=3 micrometer
h=4 micrometer
h= 5 micrometer
FVF 1
FVF 2
FVF S
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
FVF as function of radius for Hexagonal packing
Fiber radius (micrometer)
F
V
F

h=0 micrometer
h=1 micrometer
h=2 micrometer
h=3 micrometer
h=4 micrometer
h=5 micrometer
FVF 1
FVF 2
FVF 3
FVF H
FVF S
41 | P a g e
The Figure 3.13 depicts the FVF as a function of a fiber radius. It is illustrated in the Figure 3.13
the FVF increase as the fiber radius increase for a given fiber spacing. Moreover for a given fiber radius
the FVF can be increased or decreased by changing the fiber spacing. To increase the FVF the fiber
spacing is reduced from the previous value. For example in Figure 3.13 to change the FVF from 55% to
60% of a fiber radius of 10m, the spacing is reduced from 5m by moving up in the graph to 4m.
Additionally, to increase the FVF without increasing the fiber radius or keeping it constant, is
accomplished by tracing to the left of the graph on Figure 3.13. When tracing back to the left there is
simultaneous change of fiber radius and fiber spacing, in which the size of the fiber radius and fiber
spacing is diminishing.
In Figure 3.13 for a given FVF and a fixed fiber spacing path the fiber radius vary between
specific intervals in order to attain the given maximum FVF. For example, in Figure 3.13 for a given FVF
of 57% and fiber spacing of 5m the range of the fiber radius to reach the maximum FVF 57% is between
1m to 10m.
For the changes that were discussed in the preceding two paragraphs, the fibers number present
in a given area will be analyzed. The given area is (125m125m=15625m
2
). Before discussing the
changes, a visual graph is needed to demonstrate the changes and the data. Equation(3.7) is rearranged
to plot the number of fibers present in a given area for a given FVF as a function of fiber radius. Number
of fiber for a given FVF's as function of fiber radius
Figure 3.14 Number of fiber for a given FVF's as function of fiber radius
The Graph on Figure 3.14 demonstrates the variation of number of fibers in a given area for a
different FVF and fiber radius. These number of fibers could vary depending up on any change on the
fiber radius, fibber spacing and FVF. Next the three approaches to vary the number of fibers are
discussed.
0 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Number of fiber for a given FVF's as function of fiber radius
Fiber radius(micrometer)
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

f
i
b
e
r
s

FVF=0.4
FVF=0.5
FVF=0.57
FVF=0.6
FVF=0.66
42 | P a g e
Constant FVF and varying fiber diameter and spacing
For instance take the constant line of FVF (0.5 the green line) from the graph on Figure 3.14 as
a target FVF. Any simultaneous change of the fiber radius and spacing (h) of the graph on Figure 3.13
has an immediate effect on the number of fibers in a given area for the target FVF 0.5. If the simultaneous
change is tracing back to the left of the plot on Figure 3.13, the dimensions of the fiber radius and spacing
will reduce. While the spacing and fiber radius is decreasing the number of fibers in the given area will
increase inversely proportional to the square of the fiber radius as depicted on Figure 3.14.
On the other hand, the number of fibers decreases as the fiber radius and spacing increases, on
moving from left to the right on Figure 3.13. On Table 3-4 it is illustrated the number of fibers and the
related fiber radius and spacing for a given FVF.
Constant radius with varying fiber spacing and FVF
At a constant fiber radius if the fiber spacing is varied automatically the FVF is altered. The fiber
space is varied by going vertically up or down on the graph on Figure 3.13. During the variation of the
fiber spacing the matching FVF is sought out horizontally from the corresponding fiber spacing on
Figure 3.13.If the direction taken to change the fiber spacing is vertically upward meaning reducing the
dimension of the fiber spacing ,will induce a higher FVF. The consequence of the higher FVF with
constant fiber radius is the increase of number of fibers in a given area. As the fiber spacing is changing
on Figure 3.13 the FVF get higher or lower. These changes are correlated to the number of fibers on
Figure 3.14 by assigning the corresponding FVF with the selected fiber radius. On Table 3-5 a data is
presented on the number of fibers at a constant fiber radius with changing fiber spacing and FVF.
Constant fiber spacing with changing fiber diameter and FVF
Another way of changing the FVF and the number of fibers in a given cross sectional area is by
change the fiber diameter with a selected fiber spacing. On Figure 3.13 for example let the fiber spacing
(h=2m) be the selected constant fiber spacing. If the fiber radius is traced to the right of the graph, the
FVF will increase together with the increasing size of the fiber radius. The changing fiber radius and FVF
are directly co related to Figure 3.14.
Interestingly, the number of fibers will not increase as the FVF increase together with the fiber diameter.
The number of fiber could stay constant or it might decrease. The changing FVF is marked by the
increasing constant line on the Figure 3.14. A summary of the changing FVF and fiber radius and fiber
number is given on Table 3-6.
Table 3-4 number of fiber constant FVF and varying fiber diameter and spacing
( r, h ) [m] Number of fibers FVF
(8,5) 342 0.55
(6,4) 553 0.55
(5,3) 796 0.55

Table 3-5number of fibers for constant fiber Radius and changing FVF and spacing
(8,5) 342 0.55
(8,4) 360 0.58
(8,3) 398 0.64
43 | P a g e
Table 3-6number of fibers for constant spacing and changing fiber radius and FVF
(8,5) 342 0.55
(9,5) 285 0.58
(10,5) 238 0.60
3.4 The Shear Lag Method in relaton with the mechanical propertes of the
lamina.
So far methods were discussed how to calculate the mechanical properties of lamina as a
function of FVF and the mechanical properties of Glare as function of the MVF. However, methods that
relate the fiber diameter or radius directly to the mechanical properties of lamina has not been
mentioned yet. At this time, few analytical technique are known or documented about the effect of fiber
diameter on the mechanical properties of lamina or composite. More over the micro mechanical method
(homogenization techniques) are all based on the volume fraction. Therefore, in this section a selected
theoretical or analytical method that relate the fiber radius to some mechanical properties and fatigue
behaviors of lamina or composite is explored. This method is based on the micromechanics approach
which cover the geometry of the fiber and the spatial orientation of the fibers in a matrix medium. The
methods is called Shearlag analysis
- Shear lag method
The shear lag model analysis was first proposed by Cox [28] to determine the stress in a fiber
embedded in an elastic matrix. For this shear lag analysis the composite is loaded in tension parallel to
the longitudinal axis. As it was mentioned in the assumptions in section3.3, the strain in matrix and fiber
is equal. This means no shear stress exists at the interface of fiber and matrix. On the other hand it is
also mentioned in the assumptions in section 3.3 the fiber ends are broken. Due to this broken fiber ends
the matrix momentarily transmits a large portion of the load. As a consequence strain gradient will arise
at the fiber-matrix interface until the load is redistributed back to the broken fiber or to the fibers
around the broken fiber. And this redistribution of the load occurs via shear stress at the fiber-matrix
interface region. This phenomena could be analyzed using shear lag method. A shear lag model is usually
modeled by a single broken fiber surrounded by a matrix material. The model for the shear lag is shown
on Figure 3.15 [26] [29].
Figure 3.15 the fiber model in hexagonal packing for the shear lag analysis
The load is transferred over a finite length of the fiber. On figure 44566 the fiber break is mark with the
latter A . at the vicinity of the break the interfacial stress rise
44 | P a g e

45 | P a g e
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Fiber Diameter Optimization For Composite

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