COGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR VIRTUAL

LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Bruno Carvalho Castro Souza

brunoc@solar.com.br
Regina F. F. de A. Bolzan, M.Eng
regina@led.ufsc.br
Janae G. Martins, M.Eng
janae@eps.ufsc.b
Alejandro M. Rodriguez, Dr
martins@eps.ufsc.br

Federal University of Santa Catarina; Post-Graduating Program in Production

Engineering,
Technological Center ó Campus ó Trindade, P.O Box 476 ó ZIP Code 88040-900
ó Floriano polis, SC, Brazil.
University of Vale do Itajaıó Itajaı, SC, Brasil.
University of Brasılia, UNEB ó Brasılia, Brasil.

Overview
Learning can be considered as a conjunction of a number of factors, both
internal and external origins. This paper offers a reconcilement of these factors in
interdependent unity, building a ”total learning environment„ , adding up emotional
sensorial, motivational and intellectual aspects. It also approaches the use of
reconcilement in virtual learning environments, seeking for technological tools for
permanent and renewing quest of knowledge, in contrast with the behaviorist model
repetition of content and stimulus-response conditioning.

Key words: Virtual Learning, knowledge, Cognitive Strategies.

 Introduction
Historically, the educational process has always been linked to the social evolution
of humanity itself (Gadotti, 1999). Therefore, to understand it in its plenitude, it would
necessary a detailed analysis of the cultural, social, economic, technological and politica
aspects, present in society. This is not the intention of this paper. Rather, the focus is
the interactions between the individual-pupil and the possible technological learning
environments, analyzing the factors that influence the efficiency of such learning
suggesting alternatives to improve the effectiveness of the process. Therefore,
imperative to acknowledge some cognitive learning strategies, including some virtua
environments and the interactions between apprentice and master.

Cognitive Learning Strategies

The history of the psychology of learning retraces, pertaining to the study
question, to the IV century a.C., specifically to the school of philosophy established
Plato to spread out the ideas of Socrates. In the book VII of "the Republic", Plato displays
the myth of the cave, an alegory according to which the world that we know is nothing bu
a shade in a wall of the cave of reality projected by the pure ideas that are planted, since
birth, in our soul. In other words, knowledge is always the projection of our innate ideas
(Pozo, 1999). This doctrine resurged in the racionalist and idealistic thoughts
Descartes, Leibniz or Kant, being revisited by authors representing the current cognitivis
movement, like Fodor and Chomsky. Aristotle, disciple of Plato, developed another
doctrine: the tabula rasa, according to which the knowledge comes from the senses
endow the mind with pictures, interlinked according to three laws: proximity, similarity
and contrast. Aristotleés influence will be felt in the psychology of learning through
consequences in both the estruturalism and, mainly, in the behaviorism of Skinner
Regarding behaviorism, it is a form of response to subjectivism. For the behaviorists,
study of higher mental processes for the understanding of human behavior is unnecessary
one learns through conditioning and repetition (Pozo, 1999). The impulse given by diverse
external factors to psychology, especially the technological evolution, the new theories
communication, linguistics and cybernetics, brought a new paradigm, represented
information processing, that enables the study of the mental processes denied
behaviorism. These new studies, supported in technological bases and searching
interdisciplinarity in such fields as philosophy, computer science, medicine and psychology
itself, had generated the cognitive school. The relevance of these two doctrines to
learning process is significant. Historically, as well as in the present, there
predominance of the behaviorist approach in educational methodologies used in schools
practically all levels. Theorists like Chi and Rees (1983), Gagne Glaser (1987), Mandler
(1985), Shuell (1986), among others, support that there are reasons enough to believe
the possibility that the cognitive approach may be adopted as the model of learning
near future. Actually, some experiments are already being carried out in such direction, bu
they are embryonic studies and do not really represent a clear movement towards
 LEARNING
THEORIES
(Stimulus-Response) CONDUCTS

Unified elements
through syntactic rules

Correspondence Stimuli, species and

between learning and individuals are equipotent
external environment

Antimentalist External
Reductionism Ambientalism

Passive Subject
Anomalies due to Anomalies due to
lack of organization incapacity of
Hume s Problem. signification acquire.
Contends Problem.

Figure 1: behaviorism as a scientific research program. Source: Pozo (1999)

One of the main criticisms to behaviorism is its incapacity to produce origina

theoretical responses. As a consequence, new programs are being elaborated, whose basic
difference consists of a release of the behaviorist conceptual core, eliminating, mainly,
rejection of cognitive processes and increasing information gathering (Pozo, 1999).
central concept of cognitive psychology, the basis of this new program, is broader than
concept of information processing itself. According to Rivi` re (1987), "the most genera
and ordinary things we can say of Cognitive Psychology refers to the explanation
behavior, mental entities, states, processes and definitions of mental nature, all which
demand an unique level of speech". This means, therefore, that the actions of
individual are determined by his mental representations, according to some authors
Piaget and Vigotsky. Fig. 2, counter-pointing fig. 1, shows the strategy of scientific
research according to cognitive psychology.
 CAUSAL
MEMORY
COGNITIVE
THEORY
REPRESENTATIONS PROCESSES

Recursive Decomposition.
Elements united due to
syntactic rules.

Correspondence? Same potentiality?

Subject as an Interaction of
active data variables:
processing unit subject and task

Signification
Organization?
acquisition?

Figure 2: Information processing as a program of scientific inquiry. Source: Pozo (1999)

Thus, learning capacity would be determined by the way that the individua
represents his knowledge, together with his memory capabilities and his causal cognitive
processes. To acquire these representations, the human being uses his mechanisms
assimilation as channels, understood here "as a broad sense of an integration to
previous structures" (Piaget, 1967) and uses, therefore, his senses as a door towards
perception of the external world together with the mental processes of information
handling. The greater or minor effectiveness of this assimilation depends on learning
factors, varying from person to person, and constituting learning strategies. These
strategies take in account emotional, motivational, sensorial, and intellectual factors
using a computer era terminology, logical-mathematical factors).

Emotional Factors
Goleman (1995), places the issue of emotional intelligence as a new type of ability
requiring a development of aptitudes natural to the "human heart". His theory appears
the context of a society with a rising increase of violence in practically all its forms (crime
suicides, drug abuse and other indicators of social distress); individualism, even
consequence of social pressures, reaches an unprecedented exaggeration, causing
therefore, a growing competitiveness, mainly in the job market and academic fields.
conjunction of factors brings the isolation and deterioration of social relations, generating
a slow disintegration of community life and the need for self-confidence.
Placing this scenario under a learning perspective, it is inferred that emotiona
education - or, in other words, emotional learning - urgently needs to be rethought.
human brain has mechanisms to deal with emotions, but such mechanisms come from
biological evolution that goes back to the origin of life itself (Pinker, 1998). Our menta
as disclosed by its distinct biological signatures (...). Using the new technologies that allow
the exploration of the brain and the body as a whole, the researchers are discovering
physiological details that enable the verification of how different types of emotions prepare
the body for different types of responses:
§ In anger, the blood flows to the hands, making it easier to draw a weapon or to
hit the enemy; the cardiac beats speed up and a wave of hormones,
adrenalin, among others, generate a pulsation, a strong enough energy for
vigorous performance.
§ In fear, the blood runs to the muscles of the skeleton, like those in your legs
facilitating the escape; the face is livid, since the blood is taken from there
At the same time, the body is paralyzed, even if for a brief moment, to perhaps
allow the person to consider the possibility of, instead of reacting, running
away to hide. Existing circuits in the emotional centers of the brain trigger
torrent of hormones that puts the body in general alert state, making it uneasy
and ready to act. The attention is focused in the immediate threat, to better
calculate the response to be given.
§ The feeling of happiness causes one of the main biological alterations.
activity of the cerebral center is triggered, inhibiting negative feelings
favoring the increase of existing energy, silencing those that generate concern
thoughts. But no particular physiological change occurs, except for a sense
tranquility, which makes the body recoup quickly from the stimulation caused
by disturbing emotions. This pattern gives the body total relaxation, as well
energy and enthusiasm for the execution of any task and to achieve a grea
variety of goals.
§ Love, and the feelings of affection and sexual satisfaction, implies
parasympathic stimulation, which constitutes the physiological opposite
mobilizes one to "fight-or- run away" which occurs when the feeling is of
or anger. The parasympathic standard, called "relaxation response", is a set
reactions that cover the whole body, causing a general state of calm
satisfaction, facilitating recovery.
§ The rising of eyebrows, in surprise, provides ampler visual sweepings, and
more light for the retina. This allows us to get more information on unexpected
events, making it easier to perceive accurately what is happening, and
elaborate the best plan of action.
§ Around the world, the expression repugnance is similar and sends the same
message: some thing is unpleasant to the taste or smell, in actuality
metaphorically. The face expression of repugnance (...) suggests, as Darwin
observed, a primeval attempt to cover the nostrils to prevent a harmful odor
to spit out deteriorated food.
§ One of the main functions of sadness is to propitiate an adjustment to a grea
loss, like the death of somebody or some major disillusionment. Sadness causes
a loss of energy and enthusiasm towards life's activities, in particular
diversions and pleasures. When sadness is deep, approaching depression,
 energy was caused to keep the vulnerable human beings in sadness state so
they remained close to home, where they felt safer."1
This emotional diversity shown by Goleman demonstrates that there are moments
and situations that propitiate more effective learning. An educational methodology
would provoke a feeling of happiness, or, at the very least, respect moments of sadness
anger, would have better conditions to form new mental structures2 and to more efficiently
relate all acquired knowledge.

Motivational Factors
Motivation brings inlaid the concept of impulse for action and the maintenance
such action. Schank (1995) states that learning is a natural process that happens in
form of a " waterfall": first, the apprentice creates a goal, then generates a question
finally, answers the question. This process brings implicitly the importance of motivationa
factors in learning: when there is a desire to learn to ride a bicycle, for example, a goal wa
created. During the process of "riding a bicycle", the apprentice will fall, loose balance
feel foolish, and all this will make him question exactly, even if internally, what he is doing
wrong - why can't he succeed in riding a bicycle? He will then look for answers to
questioning, and will learn.
However, Schank doesn't expose the initial motivational role: why would someone
want to ride a bicycle? Also, following the same reasoning, why didnét the apprentice
up when he fell for the first time? This motivation "to continue trying" is a consequence
the internal pressures generated by curiosity or challenge, both feelings of inadequacy.
for the learning to occur entirely, a constant stimulation of the student's motivation
necessary.
To successfully keep the motivation, researchers develop new educationa
proposals, like self-orientation and personal effectiveness as educational goals (Barrel
1995). This way, the students can make their own learning decisions, cultivating
existing desire in all human beings: independence (Goodlad, 1984). Another important
motivational factor is the relevance of learning. Students learn more effectively when wha
they are being taught has direct relation with their reality, offering them a chance
become agents of their own lives (Freire, 1996). "When professors add new information to
the previous knowledge of the student, they activate his interest and curiosity, and apply
their teachings with a sense of intention" (Presseisen, 1995). It is not enough, therefore,
simply adopt the "natural waterfall" proposed by Schank. The teacher needs to show
student that it is good to get your feet wet, "to climb the waterfall".

Sensorial Factors
Senses are open doors to information in the world. All our knowledge comes
directly from the mechanisms that we possess to absorb reality and to represent it. As
biological phenomenon, a human being has systems of perception capable of stimulating
guarantee the adaptation3 of the species. The quality of this perception varies from person
to person, and from culture to culture. "To perceive is to know, through the senses
objects and situations (...) the act of perceiving can also be characterized by the limitation
of information. It is perceived according to a perspective. The possibility of apprehending
the totality of the object only occurs in the imagination, which constitutes, on the other
hand, a form of organization of the conscience internally protected against error"4.
Under this definition, there are some hidden basic aspects of learning. One of them
is the limitation on the amount and the quality of information that can be perceived.
can easily be understood when we study, for example, Classic History. No matter
hard we read about the subject, no book will be able to transmit the feelings, the odors
the colors accurately, the social tensions and politics that existed at the time. Another
aspect poses the question of perspective: one perceives what one wishes to perceive.
practical learning, this means that it is of little value to insist on teaching a pupil whose
basis of knowledge differs from the professor's, since his perspective of the subject
another - it would be like trying to talk with a Chinese person without knowing how
speak Chinese. In this case, according to the concept of perception by Penna, there is
real perception of the object of study, but an inadequate mental construction that shelters
the mind against error. In other words, "no human being (...) can dominate presented
elements under a way not manageable by the nervous system" (Greenspan, 1999).

Intellectual Factors
For Piaget, all learning derives from mental relations of abstraction and balance.
other words, the human being is constantly seeking the improvement of his higher
reasoning capabilities. Thus, using mechanisms of assimilation, adjusting and adaptation
people learn through their mistakes and victories, analyzing them through menta
operations and grouping relations. This process is what Piaget calls balancing mechanism.
It can also be included in the intellectual factors, the operations, the relations,
groupings, the construction of schemes and the structuring, all according to Piaget.
fact, such mental manipulations derive from the representation of reality that each one
For Piaget, intelligence is constructed in continuous form, through processes of menta
abstraction resulting from the relations between the individual and the object. These
relations happen, in a higher form, as abstract operations that perceive reality associating
mental structures and creating projects of assimilation of reality. That is where
denomination of intellectual factors comes from: its effectiveness depends on the logical
mathematical mental coordination, influenced by all the other factors, such as perception
emotion and motivation.
The importance of intellectual factors is as essential to determine the quality
learning as all other factors. Some educators tend to place too much emphasis in
intellectual aspects, forgetting, however, that these same factors depend upon a series
external circumstances (Antunes, 1998; Gardner, 1995). In other words, it is important
think, but the world is not only made of thoughts.
 Learning, therefore, depends on a conjunction of dual factors, involving physica
(sensorial and intellectual) and sensational (motivational and emotional) aspects,
complex relations between themselves and the external environment:

TOTAL LEARNING SPACE

L IZED LEARNIN G S
MOTIVATION RN A PA
TE C E
FACTORS IN

EMOTIONAL
FACTORS

INTELLECTUAL
FACTORS
SENSORIAL
FACTORS

Figure 3: The interaction of factors in learning spaces

Figure 3 considers the existence of two learning spaces: one that is internalized
where emotional and intellectual factors act more effectively; and a more general space
that allows more complex interactions between the individual and the environment
mediated by the motivational and sensorial factors. According to this reasoning, there
no learning without all the factors being involved, in greater or smaller degree, in
creation of knowledge (Greenspan, 1999).

The Virtual Environment

The optimization of such learning factors in an educational program
technological bases facilitates a better exploitation of the studentés cognitive capabilities
For this to occur, it would be necessary to build a virtual environment where the pupil
motivated to join; where he could show initiatives and feel good about it; where he would
interact, through his senses, with the object of study; and where he would be allowed
guess the objectés rules, patterns of behavior, and its relations with his reality. Also
would be important to let him make mistakes, and to construct his own "base
knowledge" on the subject.
Schank suggests several learning environments that make use of various cognitive
strategies striving to construct these ideal conditions for learning. His architecture
student into exploring diverse possibilities, so he may build different perspectives on wha
is being studied6.
For an effective use of all the cognitive learning strategies, it is necessary
develop an environment that permits interactions between factors as described in fig.
Such environment needs to take in consideration not only the factors themselves, but
their interactions, and to allow emotional, sensorial feedback or both, giving motivationa
continuity to the learning process. It is important to remember that, as Piaget defends
change is the natural state of the human being - we are in constant balancing process
perceiving it as "a succession of the subjectés active compensations in response to exterior
disturbances and to certain regulating factors, at the same time, of retroactive (ring
systems or feedback) and anticipatory nature, constituting a permanent system of
compensations" (Piaget, 1966).
An environment of such nature can also be constructed in the Internet, using
technologies of artificial intelligence and of broadband data communication. Todayés
Internetés interactive nature allows the environment to supply the student with
feedback, creating challenges, stimulating curiosity and offering perspective (motivationa
factors). It also enables the creation of complex problems pertinent or adjacent to
studentés object of study, leading him to use his logical-mathematical faculties and
establish relations between premises (intellectual factors). The possibilities of contacting
other people, or intelligent tutors themselves - something a virtual environment necessarily
would have - gives the pupil the option of relaxation, of focusing on other areas
exchanging experiences, and relief of any emotional tension inherent to the solution
particularly difficult problems (emotional factors). Finally, the ample scope of available
multimedia features makes the exchange of information possible between the environmen
and the pupil using different senses, complementing and strengthening all importan
content, calling for the use of several mental abilities7 (sensorial factors). The creation
complete environment is already possible with the tools currently available by simply
forming a multidisciplinary team and having appropriate financial support for the project.

Conclusions
Cognitive learning strategies can be understood as a conjunction of factors
define a variety of interactive ways responsible for the amplitude of an individualés
knowledge. The knowledge of such factors (emotional, motivational, sensorial
intellectual) allows the educator to prepare all pedagogical content more efficiently and
offer his students, effectively, a much better learning process. These factors are
important in the creation of virtual environments. The experiences of Schank demonstrate
the potential of a natural educational approach, but maintain the existence of these factors
implicit. The realization of their existence could define a new methodology of work in
construction of such environments, focused not only on natural learning, but also in
interaction between emotional, sensorial, motivational and intellectual factors in
6
See also SCHANK, Roger & CLEARY, Chip. Engines for education. New Jersey (USA): Lawrence
formation of a permanent learning cycle, where the individual would be continuously
motivated, moved, challenged, and sensorially interpellated, in a learning space full
stimuli and feedback.
Research in this area could find support in the theories of LeDoux, Goleman
Greenspan, regarding the emotional and motivational factors; in the Gestalt theories and
the biological foundations of the senses, for a more profound approach on sensoria
aspects; in the studies of the cognitivists, like Piaget, Pinker and Pozo, about
intellectual aspects; and in the works of scientists on artificial intelligence, like Dennet
Schank and Minsky, among many others.

Bibliography
ANTUNES, Celso. As intelige ncias multiplas e seus estı mulos. 3.ed. Campinas: Papirus, 1998
(Colec ao Papirus Educac ao).
ANTUNES, Celso. Jogos para estimulac ao das multiplas intelige ncias. 2.ed. Petro polis: Vozes
1999.
BARREL, John. Critical issue: working toward student self-direction and personal efficacy
educational goals. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Available in the Internet
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr200.htm (Jun 17th, 2000).
CARMELLO, Eduardo. O poder da informac ao intuitiva: como assimilar informac o es
rapidez e criatividade. Sao Paulo: Gente, 2000.
CENTRO DE INFORMAC O ES MULTIEDUCAC A O. Pressupostos da teoria construtivista
Piaget. Available in the Internet: http://www.rio.rj.gov.br/multirio/cime/ME01/ME01_030
html (Feb 28th, 2000). Unknown author.
DéAGORD, Marta ET all. Teoria da equilibrac ao - a virada na teoria piagetiana na dàcada
70. Available in the Internet: http://www.psico.ufrgs.br/lec/repositorio/posinfor/equilib/index
htm (Feb 28th, 2000).
FIALHO, Francisco. Uma introduc ao ` engenharia do conhecimento. Floriano polis: UFSC
1999 (annotations).
FREIRE, Paulo. Pedagogia da autonomia: saberes necessórios ` prótica educativa. Sao Paulo
Paz e Terra, 1996.
GADOTTI, Moacir. Hist㴠ria das idàias pedag㴠gicas. 7Á ed. Sao Paulo: á tica, 1999.
GARDNER, Howard. Intelige ncias multiplas: a teoria na prótica. Trad. Maria Adriana
Verıssimo Veronese. Porto Alegre: Artes Medicas, l995.
GOLEMAN, Daniel. Intelige ncia emocional: a teoria revolucionória que redefine o que à
inteligente. 76Á ed. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 1995.
GREENFIELD, Susan A. The human brain: a guided tour (science master series). New York
(USA): Basic Books, 1997.
GREENSPAN, Stanley I. A evoluc ao da mente: as origens da intelige ncia e as novas ameac as
seu desenvolvimento. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1999.
LEDOUX, Joseph. O càrebro emocional: os misteriosos alicerces da vida emocional. Rio
Janeiro: Objetiva, 1998.
MONTANGERO, Jacques e Naville, D.Maurice. Piaget ou a intelige ncia em evoluc ao. Artes
Medicas: Porto Alegre, 1999.
PELUSO, Angelo (org.). Informótica e afetividade. Bauru-SP: EDUSC, 1998.
PRESSEISEN, Barbara Z. Critical issue: building on prior knowledge and meaningful studen
context/cultures. North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Available in the Internet
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr100.htm (Jun 17th, 2000).
SCHANK, Roger & CLEARY, Chip. Engines for education. New Jersey (USA): Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1995.
SCHANK, Roger. Tell me a story: narrative and intelligence. Evanston, Illinois (USA)
Northwestern University Press, 1998.
SCHANK, Roger. Virtual learning: a revolutionary approach to building a highly skilled
workforce. New York (USA): McGraw-Hill, 1997.
SILVA, Zil A. P. Moura. A aprendizagem de Pavlov a Piaget: algumas reflexo es. Available
the Internet: http://www.bauru.unesp.br/fc/boletim/formacao/pavlov.htm (Feb 28th, 2000)
VIGOTSKY, Lev Semenovich. A formac ao social da mente: o desenvolvimento dos processos
psicol㴠gicos superiores. 6Á ed. Sao Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1996.