ENERGY HARVESTING USING A THERMO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR MODULE

A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BY

AISHWARYA JAIN (Student ID 08104074)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PEC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY CHANDIGARH 160012 January to May, 2012

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project ENERGY HARVESTING USING A THERMO ELECTRIC GENERATOR MODULE submitted by

Mr. Aishwarya Jain is a record of bonafide work carried out by him at the Department of Electrical Engineering, PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh under my supervision and guidance in partial fulfilment of requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor in Electrical Engineering.

Dated:

Guide:

Dr. Darshan Singh Associate Professor Electrical Engineering Department PEC University of Technology Chandigarh

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CANDIDATE DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled ENERGY HARVESTING USING A THERMO ELECTRIC GENERATOR MODULE is an authentic record of my own work carried out at Department of Electrical Engineering, PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh as requirements of six months capstone project for the award of the degree of B.E. Electrical Engineering, under the guidance of Dr. Darshan Singh, during January to May, 2012. The matter embodied in this dissertation has not been submitted by me for the award of any other degree.

(Aishwarya Jain) Date: Student I D- 08104074

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who provided me with the possibility to complete this project. I would like to give my heartfelt thanks to Dr. Darshan Singh, Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, for allowing me to work under his guidance and providing me with this opportunity to work in a very open end field and challenging environment. To devise benefit of his enormous experience, it is a matter of great privilege to me.

I owe sincere gratitude to the whole teaching faculty of PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh for their encouragement and unfailing interest and sincere suggestions from time to time in this work. I also extend my gratitude to Dr. Tilak Thakur, Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering. His valuable inputs and guidance has given me immense support.

I offer my heartfelt appreciation to all my friends and my team in IEEE Student Branch who helped me move ahead with the project. Last but not the least; thanks are also extended to Dr. Balwinder Singh, Professor and Head of Department of Electrical Engineering, PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh for his help and encouragement for carrying out this project.

Dated:

(Aishwarya Jain)

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ABSTRACT
Due to the continued exploitation of natural resources, the conventional sources of electric energy, consisting of fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal are getting depleted. The number of countries that are suffering due to the lack of electric energy is increasing every day. Global energy consumption has doubled in the past thirty years and is expected to increase by another 60% by 2030. From the report of International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the consumption rose from 5.5 billion toe (tons of oil equivalent) in 1971, to 10.3 billion toe in 2002. By 2030, global energy demand is expected to reach 16.3 billion toe, 1.6 times that of 2002. However, a large portion of this huge energy consumption is dissipated into the air in terms of heat e.g., from power factory, which cannot be efficiently used by human beings. Hence, a technique to collect this huge amount of wasted heat and convert it to electric energy is worth exploring. While new sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy and hydropower etc. are being explored, an important alternate energy source that is often overlooked is thermal energy. Whenever, a work is done, small to large amount of thermal energy is dissipated into the ambience, which if converted back to electric energy may serve useful purposes. In the project we will focus on the use of Thermo Electric Generators for converting wasted heat into electric energy. One of the applications is a device which generates power from a heat source which is very commonly available in the rural houses such as gas or charcoal grills, oil & alcohol burners, camping stoves of all types including bio-gas, wood stoves. The power generated can be used for charging cell phones. In the project, following contributions will be made. We will investigate an energy harvesting technique to recycle the wasted heat in a cooking utensil into electric energy. We will present measurement results from experiments performed with a commercial TEG and a normal cooking utensil, in order to obtain a realistic estimate of the harnessed energy and determine the prospective applications of the recycled energy.

INDEX
Topic Page No.

Certificate..............................................................................................................................ii Candidate Declaration...iii Acknowledgement.....iv Abstract......v List of Figures...ix List of Tables..x INTRODUCTION......1 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Disposition Chapter (2). THERMO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR.3 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Thermocouple 2.3. Principle of Operation 2.3.1. Laws for Thermocouple circuits 2.4. Practical Use 2.4.1. Temperature- Voltage relationship 2.4.2. Cold- junction compensation 2.5. Types of Thermocouples 2.6. Thermo-Electric Generator 2.7. Conclusion Chapter (3). DESIGN OF OUTPUT CIRCUIT11 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. Introduction DC-to-DC Convertor Boost Convertor 3.4.1. Circuit Analysis 3.4.2. Applications 3.5. Conclusion

Chapter (1).

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Chapter (4).

DESIGN OF HARDWARE MODEL.15 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. Introduction Temperature Sensor LM 35 Temperature Sensor AVR 8-bit Microcontroller Conclusion

Chapter (5).

LABORATORY VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT ENGINEERING WORKBENCH (LABVIEW)..21 5.1. 5.2. Introduction Features of LabVIEW 5.2.1. Data Flow Programming 5.2.2. Graphical Programming 5.3. Benefits of using LabVIEW 5.3.1. Interfacing 5.3.2. Code Compilation 5.3.3. Large Libraries 5.3.4. Code Re- Use 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. Software Architecture- VISA Serial Communication Conclusion

Chapter (6).

RESULTS AND SNAPSHOTS OF THE PROJECT..29 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. Significance of the Project Circuit Diagram of Hardware Model Heat Sink mechanism Flowchart for Notification system in LabVIEW LabVIEW Programs Applications

Chapter (7). Chapter (8). Chapter (9).

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK...39 REFERENCES.41 ANNEXURES..43 10.1. LabVIEW Technical Details 10.2. Source Code 10.3. LM 35 Datasheet 10.4. ATMEGA 16 Datasheet

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Global primary energy consumption, 1971-2030 Figure 2.1: A Thermocouple measuring circuit Figure 2.2: When heat and cold are applied, the device then generates electricity Figure 3.1: The basic schematic of a boost converter Figure 4.1: The Sensing Process Figure 4.2: Connections of LM35 Figure 4.3: Working of ADC Figure 4.4: Pin configuration for ADC system of Atmega16 microcontroller Figure 5.1: The LabVIEW Environment Figure 5.2: Virtual Instrument Software Architecture Figure 5.3: Serial Communication 1 4 9 12 15 17 18 19 21 25 26

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Polynomial Coefficients 0-500 C Table 2.2: Thermocouple Comparison Table 5.1: RS 232 Cabling Table 10.1: Windows System Requirements 6 8 27 43

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION

Energy harvesting devices, which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, have attracted much interest in both the military and commercial sectors. Some systems convert random motion, such as that of ocean waves, into electricity to be used by oceanographic monitoring sensors for autonomous operation. Future applications may include high poweroutput devices (or arrays of such devices) deployed at remote locations to serve as reliable power stations for large systems. All of these devices must be sufficiently robust to endure long-term exposure to hostile environments and have a broad range of dynamic sensitivity to exploit the entire spectrum of wave motions. Typical power densities available from energy harvesting devices are highly dependent upon the specific application and design of the harvesting generator.

The number of countries that are suffering due to the lack of electric energy is increasing every day. Global energy consumption has doubled in the past thirty years and is expected to increase by another 60% by 2030. From the report of International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the consumption rose from 5.5 billion toe (tons of oil equivalent) in 1971, to 10.3 billion toe in 2002. By 2030, global energy demand is expected to reach 16.3 billion toe, 1.6 times that of 2002.

Figure 1.1: Global primary energy consumption, 1971-2030 Source: Energy White Paper 2005 Japan.

While new sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy and hydropower etc. are being explored, an important alternate energy source that is often overlooked is thermal energy. Whenever, a work is done, small to large amount of thermal energy is dissipated into the ambience, which if converted back to electric energy may serve useful purposes. In the project we will focus on the use of Thermo Electric Generators for converting wasted heat into electric energy. One of the applications is a device which generates power from a heat source which is very commonly available in the rural houses such as gas or charcoal grills, oil & alcohol burners, camping stoves of all types including bio-gas, wood stoves. The power generated can be used for charging cell phones.

1.2.

DISPOSITION

In the project, following contributions will be made. We will investigate an energy harvesting technique to recycle the wasted heat in a cooking utensil into electric energy. We will present measurement results from experiments performed with a commercial TEG and a normal cooking utensil, in order to obtain a realistic estimate of the harnessed energy and determine the prospective applications of the recycled energy.

The project report begins with the introduction of the project with an overview of the problem statement in consideration. It is followed with separate chapters dedicated to each major topic of the project. To start with, first of all the concept of thermo-electric generators is explained. The next chapter describes the role of dc-to-dc convertor in the output circuit and importance of the same. Analysis of the hardware model is done with the theoretical description of each of the major components used in the circuit. A separate chapter is dedicated to LabVIEW describing its usefulness and ease of use. A notification system is put in place to make the feedback system of the project responsive. Results and snapshots of the project are followed. The report then concludes giving conclusion and future scope of the work done followed by the references to the project.

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2. THERMO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR MODULE

2.1. INTRODUCTION

TEGs are made from thermoelectric modules which are solid-state integrated circuits that employ three established thermoelectric effects known as the Peltier, Seebeck and Thomson effects. It is the Seebeck effect that is responsible for electrical power generation. Their construction consists of pairs of p-type and n-type semiconductor materials forming a thermocouple. These thermocouples are then connected electrically forming an array of multiple thermocouples (thermopile). They are then sandwiched between two thin ceramic wafers. Their typical efficiencies are around 5-10% [1].

2.2.

THERMOCOUPLE

A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal alloys) that produce a voltage, proportional to a temperature difference, between either ends of the two conductors. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert a temperature gradient into electricity. They are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy and system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for

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varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

Figure 2.1: A Thermocouple measuring circuit with a heat source, cold junction and a measuring instrument

2.3.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

In 1821, the GermanEstonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. [2] Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a
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dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (V/C) for standard metal combinations.

The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same temperature gradient, the end result is a measurement of the difference in temperature between the thermocouple junction and the reference junction.

2.3.1. Laws for Thermocouple Circuits

The properties of thermoelectric junctions with varying temperatures and compositions can be summarized in three laws describing the behavior of thermocouple circuits.

Homogeneous material A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material by the application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary in cross section. In other words, temperature changes in the wiring between the input and output do not affect the output voltage, provided all wires are made of the same materials as the thermocouple. No current flows in the circuit made of a single metal by the application of heat alone.

Intermediate materials The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric emfs in a circuit composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the junctions are at a uniform temperature. So if a third metal is inserted in either wire and if the two new junctions are at the same temperature, there will be no net voltage generated by the new metal.

Successive or intermediate temperatures If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce thermal emf1 when the junctions are at T1 and T2 and produce thermal emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3, the emf generated when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be emf1 + emf2, provided T1<T2<T3.

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2.4.

PRACTICAL USE

2.4.1. Voltagetemperature relationship

For typical metals used in thermocouples, the output voltage increases almost linearly with the temperature difference (T) over a bounded range of temperatures. For precise measurements or measurements outside of the linear temperature range, non-linearity must be corrected. The nonlinear relationship between the temperature difference (T) and the output voltage (mV) of a thermocouple can be approximated by a polynomial:

The coefficients an are given for n from 0 to between 5 and 13 depending upon the metals. In some cases better accuracy is obtained with additional non-polynomial terms. A database of voltage as a function of temperature, and coefficients for computation of temperature from voltage and vice-versa for many types of thermocouple is available online. [3]

In modern equipment the equation is usually implemented in a digital controller or stored in a look-up table; older devices use analog circuits. Piece-wise linear approximations are an alternative to polynomial corrections

Table 2.1: Polynomial Coefficients 0-500 C

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2.4.2. Cold junction compensation

Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute temperature. To measure a single temperature one of the junctionsnormally the cold junctionis maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other junction is at the temperature to be sensed.

Having a junction of known temperature, while useful for laboratory calibration, is not convenient for most measurement and control applications. Instead, they incorporate an artificial cold junction using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or diode to measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known as cold junction compensation. Some integrated circuits such as the LT1025 are designed to output a compensated voltage based on thermocouple type and cold junction temperature.

2.5.

TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLE

Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry standards. Selection of the combination is driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different applications. They are usually selected based on the temperature range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples with low sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower resolutions. Other selection criteria include the inertness of the thermocouple material and whether it is magnetic or not. Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the positive electrode first, followed by the negative electrode.

The table below describes properties of several different thermocouple types. Within the tolerance columns, T represents the temperature of the hot junction, in degrees Celsius. For example, a thermocouple with a tolerance of 0.0025T would have a tolerance of 2.5 C at 1000 C. [4]

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Table 2.2: Thermocouple Comparison

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2.6.

THERMO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR

Thermoelectric generators are all solid-state devices that convert heat into electricity. Unlike traditional dynamic heat engines, thermoelectric generators contain no moving parts and are completely silent. Such generators have been used reliably for over 30 years of maintenancefree operation in deep space probes such as the Voyager missions of NASA.1 Compared to large, traditional heat engines, thermoelectric generators have lower efficiency. But for small applications, thermo-electrics can become competitive because they are compact, simple (inexpensive) and scalable. Thermoelectric systems can be easily designed to operate with small heat sources and small temperature differences. Such small generators could be mass produced for use in automotive waste heat recovery or home co-generation of heat and electricity.

Figure 2.2: When heat and cold are applied, the device then generates electricity [5]

2.7.

CONCLUSION

While new sources of energy such as solar energy, wind energy and hydropower etc. are being explored, an important alternate energy source that is often overlooked is thermal energy. Whenever, a work is done, small to large amount of thermal energy is dissipated into the ambience, which if converted back to electric energy may serve useful purposes.

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3. DESIGN OF OUTPUT CIRCUIT

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The constant output voltage can be maintained by using a DC/DC Converter. Power for the boost converter can come from any suitable DC sources, such as batteries, solar panels, rectifiers and DC generators. A process that changes one DC voltage to a different DC voltage is called DC to DC conversion. A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a stepup converter since it steps up the source voltage. Since power P=V I must be conserved, the output current is lower than the source current.

3.2.

DC-TO-DC CONVERTER

DC to DC converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily. Such electronic devices often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level requirement different from that supplied by the battery or an external. Additionally, the battery voltage declines as its stored power is drained. Switched DC to DC converters offer a method to increase voltage from a partially lowered battery voltage thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries to accomplish the same thing.

Most DC to DC converters also regulate the output. Some exceptions include high-efficiency LED power sources, which are a kind of DC to DC converter that regulates the current through the LEDs, and simple charge pumps which double or triple the input voltage.

The constant output voltage can be maintained by using a DC/DC Converter such as TPS60130. The TPS60130 charge pumps provide a regulated 5-V output from a 2.7-V to 5.4V input. They deliver a maximum load current of 300 mA or 150 mA, respectively. The complete charge pump circuit requires four external capacitors. The conversion ratio is dependent on the input voltage and load current. This assures high efficiency over a wide input voltage range.

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3.3.

BOOST CONVERTER

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter with an output voltage greater than its input voltage. It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. Filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple. [6]

Figure 3.1: The basic schematic of a boost converter

3.3.1. Circuit Analysis

Operating Principle

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist changes in current. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input voltage. When the switch is turned- ON, the current flows through the inductor and energy is stored in it. When the switch is turned-OFF, the stored energy in the inductor tends to collapse and its polarity changes such that it adds to the input voltage. Thus, the voltage across the inductor and the input voltage are in series and together charge the output capacitor to a voltage higher than the input voltage.

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3.3.2. Applications Battery powered systems often stack cells in series to achieve higher voltage. However, sufficient stacking of cells is not possible in many high voltage applications due to lack of space. Boost converters can increase the voltage and reduce the number of cells. Two batterypowered applications that use boost converters are hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and lighting systems.

The NHW20 model Toyota Prius HEV uses a 500 V motor. Without a boost converter, the Prius would need nearly 417 cells to power the motor. However, a Prius actually uses only 168 cells and boosts the battery voltage from 202 V to 500 V. Boost converters also power devices at smaller scale applications, such as portable lighting systems. A white LED typically requires 3.3 V to emit light, and a boost converter can step up the voltage from a single 1.5 V alkaline cell to power the lamp. Boost converters can also produce higher voltages to operate cold cathode fluorescent tubes (CCFL) in devices such as LCD backlights and some flashlights.

A boost converter is used as the voltage increase mechanism in the circuit known as the 'Joule thief'. This circuit topology is used with low power battery applications, and is aimed at the ability of a boost converter to 'steal' the remaining energy in a battery. This energy would otherwise remain untapped because many applications do not allow enough current to flow through a load when voltage decreases. This voltage decrease occurs as batteries become depleted, and is a characteristic of the ubiquitous alkaline battery. Since (P=V2/R) as well, and R tends to be stable, power available to the load goes down significantly as voltage decreases.

3.4. CONCLUSION
A boost converter is a DC to DC converter with an output voltage greater than the source voltage. A boost converter is sometimes called a step-up converter since it steps up the source voltage. The constant output voltage can be maintained by using a DC/DC Converter such as TPS60130. DC to DC converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop computers, which are supplied with power from batteries primarily.

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4. DESIGN OF HARDWARE MODEL

4.1. INTRODUCTION

A sensor converts physical phenomena to measurable signals, typically voltages or currents. Consider a simple temperature measuring device, there will be an increase in output voltage proportional to a temperature rise. A computer could measure the voltage, and convert it to a temperature. Sensors are also called transducers. This is because they convert an input phenomenon to an output in a different form. This transformation relies upon a manufactured device with limitations and imperfection.

Figure below shows the sensing process in terms of energy conversion. The form of the output signal will often be a voltage analogous to the input signal, though sometimes it may be a wave form whose frequency is proportional to the input or a pulse train containing the information in some other form.

Figure 4.1: The Sensing Process

4.2. TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Several temperature sensing techniques are currently in widespread usage. The most common of these are: 1. RTDs 2. Thermocouples 3. Thermistors 4. Sensor ICs. In our project we are using LM35 temperature sensor.

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These sensors use a solid-state technique to determine the temperature. That is to say, they dont use mercury (like old thermometers), bimetallic strips (like in some home thermometers or stoves), nor do they use thermistors (temperature sensitive resistors). Instead, they use the fact that as temperature increases, the voltage across a diode increases at a known rate. (Technically, this is actually the voltage drop between the base and emitter - the Vbe - of a transistor. By precisely amplifying the voltage change, it is easy to generate an analog signal that is directly proportional to temperature. There have been some improvements on the technique but, essentially that is how temperature is measured.

1. LM35 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

We can measure temperature more accurately than using a thermistor. The sensor circuitry is sealed and not subject to oxidation, etc. The LM35 generates a higher output voltage than thermocouples and may not require that the output voltage be amplified. [7]

Features:

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Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade). The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling.

Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor 0.5C accuracy guarantee able (at +25C) Rated for full 55 to +150C range Suitable for remote applications Low cost due to wafer-level trimming Operates from 4 to 30 volts Less than 60 A current drain Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air Nonlinearity only 14C typical Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load Because these sensors have no moving parts, they are precise, never wear out, don't need calibration, work under many environmental conditions, and are consistent between sensors and readings. Moreover they are very inexpensive and quite easy to use.

The general equation used to convert output voltage to temperature is: Temperature ( oC) = Vout * (100 oC/V) So if Vout is 1V , then, Temperature = 100 oC The output voltage varies linearly with temperature. [8]

Figure 4.2: Connections of LM35

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2. AVR 8-BIT MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontroller understands only digital language. However, the inputs available from the environment to the microcontroller are mostly analog in nature, i.e., they vary continuously with time. In order to understand the inputs by the digital processor, a device called Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is used. As the name suggests this peripheral gathers the analog information supplied from the environment and converts it to the controller understandable digital format, microcontroller then processes the information and provides the desired result at the output end. [9]

Figure 4.3: Working of ADC

ATmega16 has an inbuilt 10 bit, 8-channel ADC system. Some of the basic features of Armega16 ADC are: 8 Channels. 10-bit Resolution. Input voltage range of 0 to Vcc. Selectable 2.56V of internal Reference voltage source. AREF pin for External Reference voltage. ADC Conversion Complete Interrupt. ADC channels in Atmega16 are multiplexed with PORTA and use the common pins (pin33 to pin40) with PORTA. ADC system of Atmega16 microcontroller consists of following pins: ADC0-ADC7: 8 Channels from Pin 40 to Pin 33 of Atmega16 ADC peripheral. AREF: Pin32 of Atmega16 microcontroller, the voltage on AREF pin acts as the reference voltage for ADC conversion, reference voltage is always less than or equal to the supply voltage, i.e., Vcc.

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 AVCC: Pin30, this pin is the supply voltage pin for using PORTA and the ADC; AVCC pin must be connected to Vcc (microcontroller supply voltage) to use PORTA and ADC. [10]

Figure 4.4: Pin configuration for ADC system of Atmega16 microcontroller

External reference voltage source can be used at AREF pin. However, Atmega16 also has internal reference voltage options of 2.56V and Vref = Vcc.

3. CONCLUSION By interfacing different types of sensors with our MCU we can sense the environment and take decisions, in this way we can create "smart" applications. There is wide variety of sensors available. LM35 can be used to measure temperature with accuracy of 0.5 degree centigrade. We can interface it easily with AVR MCUs and can create thermometers, temperature controller, fire alarms etc.

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5. LABORATORY VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT ENGINEERING WORKBENCH (LabVIEW)

5.1. INTRODUCTION

LabVIEW is a graphical programming environment used by millions of engineers and scientists to develop sophisticated measurement, test, and control systems using intuitive graphical icons and wires that resemble a flowchart. It offers unrivalled integration with thousands of hardware devices and provides hundreds of built-in libraries for advanced analysis and data visualization all for creating virtual instrumentation. The LabVIEW platform is scalable across multiple targets and OSs, and, since its introduction in 1986, it has become an industry leader. [11]

Figure 5.1: The LabVIEW Environment

For over 20 years, National Instruments LabVIEW has revolutionized the way engineers take measurements and use this information to improve product quality, get to market faster, and gain greater engineering and manufacturing efficiency. We can implement a powerful realtime performance monitoring and control system using graphical programming with LabVIEW. With more than 600 analysis functions in LabVIEW, breadth of I/O for highspeed monitoring, and connectivity to enterprise level systems, LabVIEW is well suited to complement your PLC system for plant automation.

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5.2.

FEATURES OF LABVIEW

LabVIEW is different from most other general-purpose programming languages in the way of its G programming capability. It is performed by wiring together graphical icons on a diagram, which is then compiled directly to machine code so the computer processors can execute it. While represented graphically instead of with text, G contains the same programming concept; G code is typically easier for engineers and scientists to quickly understand because they are largely familiar with visualizing and even diagrammatically modeling processes and tasks in terms of block diagrams and flowcharts (which also follow the rules of data flow).

5.2.1. Dataflow Programming The programming language used in LabVIEW, also referred to as G, is a dataflow programming language. Execution is determined by the structure of a graphical block diagram (the LV-source code) on which the programmer connects different function-nodes by drawing wires. These wires propagate variables and any node can execute as soon as all its input data become available. Since this might be the case for multiple nodes simultaneously, G is inherently capable of parallel execution. Multi-processing and multi-threading hardware is automatically exploited by the built-in scheduler, which multiplexes multiple OS threads over the nodes ready for execution.

5.2.2. Graphical Programming LabVIEW ties the creation of user interfaces (called front panels) into the development cycle. LabVIEW programs/subroutines are called virtual instruments (VIs). Each VI has three components: a block diagram, a front panel and a connector panel. The last is used to represent the VI in the block diagrams of other, calling VIs. Controls and indicators on the front panel allow an operator to input data into or extract data from a running virtual instrument. However, the front panel can also serve as a programmatic interface. Thus a virtual instrument can either be run as a program, with the front panel serving as a user interface, or, when dropped as a node onto the block diagram, the front panel defines the inputs and outputs for the given node through the connector pane. This implies each VI can be easily tested before being embedded as a subroutine into a larger program. [12]

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5.3.

BENEFITS OF USING LABVIEW

5.3.1. Interfacing A key benefit of LabVIEW over other development environments is the extensive support for accessing instrumentation hardware. Drivers and abstraction layers for many different types of instruments and buses are included or are available for inclusion. These present themselves as graphical nodes. The abstraction layers offer standard software interfaces to communicate with hardware devices. The provided driver interfaces save program development time. The sales pitch of National Instruments is, therefore, that even people with limited coding experience can write programs and deploy test solutions in a reduced time frame when compared to more conventional or competing systems. A new hardware driver topology (DAQmxBase), which consists mainly of G-coded components with only a few register calls through NI Measurement Hardware DDK (Driver Development Kit) functions, provides platform independent hardware access to numerous data acquisition and instrumentation devices. The DAQmxBase driver is available for LabVIEW on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux platforms.

5.3.2. Code Compilation In terms of performance, LabVIEW includes a compiler that produces native code for the CPU platform. The graphical code is translated into executable machine code by interpreting the syntax and by compilation. The LabVIEW syntax is strictly enforced during the editing process and compiled into the executable machine code when requested to run or upon saving. In the latter case, the executable and the source code are merged into a single file. The executable runs with the help of the LabVIEW run-time engine, which contains some precompiled code to perform common tasks that are defined by the G language. The run-time engine reduces compile time and also provides a consistent interface to various operating systems, graphic systems, hardware components, etc. The run-time environment makes the code portable across platforms. Generally, LV code can be slower than equivalent compiled C code, although the differences often lie more with program optimization than inherent execution speed.

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5.3.3. Large Libraries

Many libraries with a large number of functions for data acquisition, signal generation, mathematics, statistics, signal conditioning, analysis, etc., along with numerous graphical interface elements are provided in several LabVIEW package options. The number of advanced mathematic blocks for functions such as integration, filters, and other specialized capabilities usually associated with data capture from hardware sensors is immense. In addition, LabVIEW includes a text-based programming component called Math Script with additional functionality for signal processing, analysis and mathematics. Math Script can be integrated with graphical programming using "script nodes" and uses a syntax that is generally compatible with MATLAB. 5.3.4. Code Re-Use

The fully modular character of LabVIEW code allows code reuse without modifications: as long as the data types of input and output are consistent, two sub VIs are interchangeable. The LabVIEW Professional Development System allows creating stand-alone executable and the resultant executable can be distributed an unlimited number of times. The run-time engine and its libraries can be provided freely along with the executable.

A benefit of the LabVIEW environment is the platform independent nature of the G code, which is (with the exception of a few platform-specific functions) portable between the different LabVIEW systems for different operating systems (Windows, Mac OS X and Linux). National Instruments is increasingly focusing on the capability of deploying LabVIEW code onto an increasing number of targets including devices like Phar Lap or VxWorks OS based LabVIEW Real-Time controllers, FPGAs, PocketPCs, PDAs, and Wireless sensor network nodes.

More details on LabVIEW are provided in Annexure I in the end.

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5.4.

SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE - VISA

For many years, industry has moved toward purchasing instrumentation from a variety of vendors. Successful integration of a multivendor system requires all hardware and software products work together, eliminating system-level compatibility issues for end-users.

VISA (Virtual Instrument Software Architecture) is the underlying layer of function calls used in the LabVIEW instrument driver VIs to communicate with the driver software.

Figure 5.2: Virtual Instrument Software Architecture

5.5.

SERIAL COMMUNICATION

Serial communication uses a transmitter to send data, one bit at a time, over a single communication line to a receiver. You can use this method when data transfer rates are low or you must transfer data over long distances. Serial communication is popular because most computers have one or more serial ports, so no extra hardware is needed other than a cable to connect the instrument to the computer or two computers together.

Serial communication requires that you specify the following four parameters:

The baud rate of the transmission The number of data bits encoding a character The sense of the optional parity bit The number of stop bits

Each transmitted character is packaged in a character frame that consists of a single start bit followed by the data bits, the optional parity bit, and the stop bit or bits. Following figure shows a typical character frame encoding the letter m. [13]

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Figure 5.3: Serial Communication RS-232 uses only two voltage states, called MARK and SPACE. In such a two-state coding scheme, the baud rate is identical to the maximum number of bits of information, including control bits that are transmitted per second.

MARK is a negative voltage, and SPACE is positive. Above figure shows how the idealized signal looks on an oscilloscope. The following is the truth table for RS-232:

Signal>3V=0 Signal<-3V=1

The output signal level usually swings between +12 V and -12 V. The dead area between +3 V and -3 V is designed to absorb line noise.

RS-232 Cabling Devices that use serial cables for their communication are split into two categories. These are DCE and DTE. DCE are devices such as a modem, TA adapter, plotter, and so on, while DTE is a computer or terminal. RS-232 serial ports come in two sizes, the D-Type 25-pin connector and the D-Type 9-pin connector. Both of these connectors are male on the back of the PC. Thus, you require a female connector on the device. Table below shows the pin connections for the 9-pin and 25-pin D-Type connectors.

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Table 5.1: RS 232 Cabling Function Data Signal PIN DTE TxD RxD RTS CTS Handshake DSR DCD STR Common Other Com RI 3 2 7 8 6 1 4 5 9 DCE

Output Input Input Output

Output Input Input Input Input Output Output Output

Output Input ---

Output Input

The DB-9 connector is occasionally found on smaller RS-232 lab equipment. It is compact, yet has enough pins for the core set of serial pins (with one pin extra).

In our project, we have used Serial Communication through RS232 DB-9 connector to transmit data from the microcontroller.

5.6.

CONCLUSION

LabVIEW makes it easy to create human-machine interface (HMI) applications for monitoring and control. LabVIEW provides hundreds of objects for developing a professional user interface: graphs, charts, knobs, dials, thermometers, and more. Simply drag and drop the objects from the controls palette and then use interactive property pages to customize their behaviour and appearance. User interface applications can be deployed on PCs, touch panels, panel PCs, and even web browsers. LabVIEW allows multiple clients to simultaneously control a web published application or VI and also gives you a wide selection of choices to present your data. With the 3D Picture Control in LabVIEW, it is now easy to create, import and control 3D graphics for realistic presentation of real world objects.

With these features, LabVIEW becomes a powerful HMI/SCADA package for industrial control applications.

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6. RESULTS AND SNAPSHOTS OF THE PROJECT

6.1. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT Electricity is no longer a luxury; it has become a necessity in our everyday lives. Every year thousands, even millions have been in a position when a winter storm knocked out power over large areas and there is no heat. Not to mention rapidly rising energy costs and an uncertain economic future. Still many people have become complacent about their electrical energy needs.

Thermoelectric generators have been in use for many years by NASA to power spacecraft and the oil and gas industry to power remote monitoring stations around the globe. Only in recent years has this technology become available to the general public and TEG Power is at the forefront of this thermoelectric energy revolution.

When we compare the costs of solar and our thermoelectric generators based on the amount of electricity they actually produce per day, we find that our TEGs cost far less per kWh than solar. The PV (photovoltaic) equivalent of 50 watts of TEG power operating on a wood stove is 330 watts of solar panels or 1.2 kWh per day. This means using just 150 watts thermoelectric power can produce the same amount of electricity in a day as 990 watts of solar PV panels. If comparing costs, the price range for 990 watts of solar would be as much as $5,000 depending on the particular brand. Whereas the cost of 150 watts of thermoelectric power can be as low as $500. Unlike solar TEGs are not dependent on the sun to producing electric power. If you have a continuous heat source, like a wood stove, TEGs can produce power day and night, 24/7-365! Granted you will need a cheap or free source of heat, but if you already have an existing heat source such as a wood stove or hot flu gases there is no added fuel cost to run the TEG!

Unlike conventional electric generators powered by fossil fuels, TEGs have no moving parts to break! They are virtually silent and rated to last more than 200,000 hours of continuous operation!

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6.2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF HARDWARE MODEL

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6.3.

HEAT SINK MECHANISM

WATER

DC FAN

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6.4.

FLOWCHART FOR NOTIFICATION SYSTEM IN LABVIEW

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6.5.

LABVIEW PROGRAMS

This is the Data Flow Diagram of the Measurement of temperature. Here temperature values are transferred serially through LM35 sensor. This is possible because of the explicit support of LabVIEW to many varieties of hardware through a library of Device Drivers.

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In the Diagram, the values of temperature are displayed using a Waveform Graph and also a Digital and Analog Meter. The data is logged is using the DIAdem support and also otherwise. The results generated can be used for further offline analysis. Next diagram shows the example of Data Acquisition through LabVIEW and its ability to provide a platform for analysis at the same time.

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6.6.

APPLICATIONS

Integrated Soldier Systems Project In order to maintain battlefield superiority through technological advantages, the dismounted soldier of the future will carry with them a multitude of electronic devices, such as computers, personal radios, GPS, head up displays, all of which are intended to increase effectiveness, lethality and survivability. Such electronic devices will naturally increase the electric power demands from the already limited power sources largely available today as batteries.

Thermoelectric power generation can reduce logistical burdens of fuel transport, which can lead to lower costs and personnel risks on the battlefield. Specific defense applications for thermoelectric power generation include: portable power for battery recharging; remote power for telecommunications and unattended sensors; waste heat recovery from vehicles; powering autonomous microsystems/robotics; and portable/wearable soldier power

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Easy Charge: Inexpensive Mobile Charging Solutions The biggest enemy of mobile phones in rural areas is no-power According to the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) 267.74 million rural mobile subscribers. Yet 40 percent of the villages do not have proper access to electricity to their homes. This implies approximately 90 million people need alternative source of power to charge their cell phones. Inexpensive mobile charging solutions; All it needs is a cheap or free source of heat Will help millions of people living in the rural sector of the country where, communication connectivity reached faster than electricity With an access to a Charged Mobile 24 X 7, unimaginable impact will be there. Connectivity to the outside world as a window to their development and success.

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7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK

CONCLUSION

Thermo electric devices are highly reliable due to their solid state construction. Thermo electric modules in various types of assemblies have been used for years in different military and aerospace applications, such as satellites. The challenge has been to concentrate this power into a compact package and maintain sufficient output for practical consumer use in running multiple appliances at the same time. The Project can generate power from a heat source which is very commonly available in the rural houses of India such as gas or charcoal grills, oil & alcohol burners, camping stoves of all types including bio-gas, wood stoves. The power generated can be used in for charging the cellphone battery.

FUTURE SCOPE

Additional TEG modules can be used to get a better voltage output. The charging circuit can be integrated with a boost IC to maintain a constant output voltage. Also a better and compact design of the end product can be developed for commercial purposes. TEG power can be used for number of applications. Industrial applications such as where furnace is used or places such as data centers can prove be highly efficient in cost cutting if Thermo-electric power is put in place. A major challenge in this regard will be the overall set up of the Thermo-electric devices and heat sink mechanism. Using a PLC and LabVIEW to maintain the feedback control system will be a good alternative. Better thermocouple combinations and heat sink materials can be explored for higher efficiencies.

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8. REFERENCES
[1]. "Thermocouple temperature sensors". Temperatures.com. Retrieved 2007-11-04. [2]. a b Ramsden, Ed (September 1, 2000). "Temperature measurement". Sensors. Retrieved 2010-02-19. [3]. a b c "NIST ITS-90 Thermocouple Database". [4]. Buschow, K. H. J.Encyclopedia of materials : science and technology, Elsevier, 2001 ISBN 0-08-043152-6 page 5021 table 1 [5]. https://www.tegpower.com/index.html [6]. "Boost Converter Operation". LT1070 Design Manual, Carl Nelson & Jim Williams [7]. http://www.engineersgarage.com [8]. Datasheet of LM35 (temperature sensor)- http://www.atmel.com/LM35 [9]. http://www.ecircuitcenter.com [10]. Datasheet of AVR Microcontroller- http://www.atmel.com/avr [11]. www.ni.com/labviewse/ [12]. sine.ni.com/np/app/flex/p/ap/global/lang/en/pg/1/docid/nav-77/ [13]. www.industrialtext.com/ [14]. Department of Microwave and Optics - University of Campinas (FEEC/Unicamp), Division of Telecommunication Technology (FT/Unicamp), Brazil [15]. Remote SMS Instrumentation Supervision and Control Using LabVIEW- Rafael C. Figueiredo, Antonio M. O. Ribeiro, Rangel Arthur and Evandro Conforti [16]. ftp.ni.com/pub/devzone/pdf/tut_7450.pdf

10.

ANNEXURES
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10.1. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF LABVIEW

This section contains the system requirements and installation instructions for specific operating systems. Table below describes the system requirements needed to run LabVIEW on Windows.

Table 10.1: Windows System Requirements

10.2.

SOURCE CODE

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#include <avr/io.h> #include <util/delay.h> #include "lcd.h" #include <inttypes.h> //This function is used to initialize the USART at a given UBRR value void USARTInit(uint16_t ubrr_value) { //Set Baud rate UBRRL = ubrr_value; UBRRH = (ubrr_value>>8); /*Set Frame Format >> Asynchronous mode >> No Parity >> 1 StopBit >> char size 8 */ UCSRC=(1<<URSEL)|(3<<UCSZ0); //Enable The receiver and transmitter UCSRB=(1<<RXEN)|(1<<TXEN); } /*This fuction writes the given "data" to the USART which then transmit it via TX line void USARTWriteChar(uint8_t adc_result) */ { //Wait untill the transmitter is ready while(!(UCSRA & (1<<UDRE))) { //Do nothing } //Now write the data to USART buffer UDR= adc_result; } void InitADC() { ADMUX=(1<<REFS0);

// For Aref=AVcc;

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ADCSRA=(1<<ADEN)|(1<<ADPS2)|(1<<ADPS1)|(1<<ADPS0); //Rrescalar div factor =128 } uint16_t ReadADC(uint8_t ch) { //Select ADC Channel ch must be 0-7 ch=ch&0b00000111; ADMUX|=ch; //Start Single conversion ADCSRA|=(1<<ADSC); //Wait for conversion to complete while(!(ADCSRA & (1<<ADIF))); //Clear ADIF by writing one to it //Note you may be wondering why we have write one to clear it //This is standard way of clearing bits in io as said in datasheets. //The code writes '1' but it result in setting bit to '0' ADCSRA|=(1<<ADIF); return(ADC); } void Wait() { uint8_t i; for(i=0;i<50;i++) _delay_loop_2(0); } void main() { int a=60; uint8_t adc_result; //Wait for LCD to Startup _delay_loop_2(0); //Initialize LCD LCDInit(LS_BLINK|LS_ULINE); LCDClear(); //Initialize ADC InitADC(); USARTInit(51);

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while(1) { LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Set Temp"); LCDWriteIntXY(9,0,a,3); LCDWriteStringXY(13,0,"deg"); adc_result=ReadADC(0)/2; // Read Analog value from channel-0

LCDWriteIntXY(8,1,adc_result,3); LCDWriteStringXY(0,1,"Temp Nw"); LCDWriteStringXY(13,1,"deg"); USARTWriteChar( adc_result); //Print the value in 4th column second line if(adc_result>a) {LCDClear(); LCDWriteStringXY(0,0,"Emergency Stop"); } Wait(); } }

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