PRACTICAL GUIDE TO

Community Stream Monitoring

IN THE CAMERON HIGHLANDS

ANTONY VAN DER ENT - REACH

 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

CONTENTS

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
Rivers and Catchments ................................................................................................. 4
Pollution of Rivers .......................................................................................................... 5
Aquatic macro invertebrates ......................................................................................... 6
Going in the Field ........................................................................................................... 5
Chemical Testing ........................................................................................................... 6
Getting the Results on Paper ......................................................................................... 6
Monitoring and Presentation ......................................................................................... 5
Glossary ......................................................................................................................... 6
Literature & References .................................................................................................
6
Attachments .................................................................................................................. 6

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Introduction
Aims
The local volunteer organization REACH. is actively
involved and concerned about the quality of their
environment in the Cameron Highlands. One of the
aims on the basis of funding of REACH. was
formulated as follows: ‘’Maintaining a balance
between environmental protection and development
and to safeguard water catchments areas as a vital
resource both for supply to the highlands and the
lowlands as well as for hydroelectric power.’’
Community Stream Monitoring
More and more, volunteer monitors are interested in
taking a combination of physical, chemical and
biological measurements and are beginning to
understand how land uses in a watershed influence
the health of the rivers. The Community Stream
Monitoring project involves a low-cost and
uncomplicated method for gathering information on
Beautiful forest streams with pure
water (above) and polluted streams in
agricultural area (left).
the water quality of rivers in the Cameron
Highlands. By collecting and analyzing key indicator
species of aquatic macro invertebrates, together with
some basis chemical testing; one can obtain an
understanding of the general condition of a stream.
This resource is designed primarily for High School
students and interested citizens to develop a general
information resource about the quality of mountain
rivers in the Cameron Highlands. The procedures in
this manual are designed to reveal changes in stream
quality over time, based on numerous collections,
specifically designed for the situation of the Cameron
Highlands and for REACH While these procedures
will not produce "research grade" information, they
will provide a fairly accurate evaluation of stream
quality.
Streams are very dynamic systems; they are
constantly changing. The section of stream polluted
today may be flushed clean next week. The effects of
pollution, however, may be dramatic, as reflected by
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changes in the quality and quantity of the macro • Providing a scientific basis for making decisions on
invertebrate populations. the management of a stream or watershed;
This manual is meant for community education and • Determining the impact of sewage treatment and
action programs, which raise awareness of the the impact of agricultural practises;
natural environment through water quality testing in • Educating the local community to encourage
local rivers and streams. This Adopt-a-river program pollution prevention;
empowers groups to protect the health of local • Showing public officials that local citizens care
waterways through their involvement in water quality about the condition and management of the water
monitoring. resources.
The ‘’research-group’’ (primary school, high school
and community) is trained by their ‘regional Final objectives are:
coordinator’ of REACH to monitor the water • Understand the natural forces that shape the water
quality in the local river/stream. They monitor the catchment and make them unique;
water quality regularly and upload their testing • Determine how clean and healthy the rivers and
results on the REACH website. streams are;
• Identify pollution problems and the sources;
General aims: • Evaluate the effectiveness of water catchment
1) To identify whether waters are meeting designated protection and restoration activities;
uses. The Malaysian government has established • To help people collect, understand and use
specific criteria (limits on pollutants) identifying what information about the health and pollution of the
concentrations of chemical pollutants are allowable Cameron Highland rivers and the people who
in their waters. When chemical pollutants exceed depend on them;
maximum or minimum allowable concentrations, • To gather and interpret information on the health
waters might no longer be able to support the of the water catchment and their communities;
beneficial uses such as fishing, swimming, and • To promote public awareness of watershed values,
drinking for which they have been designated. issues, problems and solutions;
Designated uses and the specific criteria that protect • To create opportunities for students to learn science
them (along with anti-degradation statements say and other subjects through hands-on projects, and
waters should not be allowed to deteriorate below gather information that helps community leaders
existing or anticipated uses) together form water identify and solve problems;
quality standards. • To track ecological and human health conditions
and trends to assess whether protection and
2) To identify specific pollutants and sources of restoration efforts are working.
pollution. Water quality monitoring helps link sources
of pollution to a stream quality problem, because it REACH
identifies specific problem pollutants. Regional Environmental Awareness Cameron
Highlands (REACH) was formed by several residents
3) To determine trends. Chemical constituents that of the Cameron Highlands who were concerned
are properly monitored (i.e., consistent time of day about environmental issues in the Cameron
and on a regular basis, using consistent methods) can Highlands. It was officially registered on 6th
be analyzed for trends over time. September 2001. REACH aims "to conserve
Cameron Highlands as an area of natural resources
4) To screen for impairment. Finding excessive levels and as a natural heritage, a highland resort
of one or more chemical constituents can serve as an surrounded by permanent forest reserve and
early warning system of pollution problems. sustainable agriculture with quality drinking water".
REACH tries to increase the awareness of the
Specific aims for this project: importance of good river water quality. REACH is
• Developing baseline characterization data; doing this by organizing exhibitions, giving talks and
• Documenting water quality changes over time; by doing own research. For further information
• Screening for water quality problems; please contact the R.E.A.C.H. Office.
• Determining whether waters are safe for recreation;
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Rivers and Catchments

Clean mountain streams (left) and

polluted streams full with waste
(above)

Introduction condenses into clouds. Rain then forms. Forests

In this chapter a short explanation of water on earth, cushion the rain before it seeps into the soil. Some of
in Malaysia and especially in the Cameron Highlands the water is stored in the soil and vegetation, while
is given as well as some information on problems the rest drains down to the lowlands through soil,
regarding it; water pollution. streams and rivers, where it is used for water supply.

Water on earth The water cycle is the movement of water through

Earth may be a water planet, but freshwater is very
scarce. 97% of the water is salt or otherwise
undrinkable and almost 3% is locked away in ice caps
and glaciers or deep underground. It is estimated that
only 0.003% is actually available for use. Mountain
areas are like natural water towers that provide us
with a clean and steady supply of freshwater. They
are important water catchment areas, providing
water for the domestic, agricultural and industrial
demands of the more densely populated lowlands.
The mountains intercept the circulation of air and
force it upwards where it cools and water vapour
the environment. When precipitation falls to earth in
a natural (undeveloped) water catchment about 40
percent will be returned to the atmosphere by
evaporation or transpiration (loss of water vapor by
plants). About 50 percent will percolate into the
ground (water) and into streams. Ground water is
eventually discharged into the stream. The
combination of ground water discharges to a stream
is defined as its base flow. At times when there is no
surface runoff, the entire flow of a stream might
actually be base flow from ground water. The
interactions between the water catchment, soils, and
water cycle define the natural water flow (hydrology)

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of a stream. Most significant is the fact that
developed land is more impervious than natural land.
Instead of percolating into the ground, rain hits the
hard surfaces of buildings, pavement, and compacted
ground and runs off into a storm drain or other
artificial structure designed to move water quickly
away from developed areas and into a natural
watercourse.
Water in Malaysia
Generally, land above 900 metres above sea level is
called ‘mountain’, and land above 300 metres
‘highlands’ in Malaysia. Less than 5% of Peninsular
Malaysia is more than 900 metres above sea level.
Although very small in area, these mountains are
headwaters of valuable surface water resources. They
are also the refuge of many plants and animals,
making them valuable to biological diversity.
Highland forests control soil erosion, helping to
ensure that the water is clean and free from silt and
sediment. They also trap moisture from clouds and
slowly release it into streams and rivers. Cloud forest,
or montane forest, is the term used to describe forests
that are influenced by the presence of cloud or mist.
They are usually found at elevations of over 1,500
metres above sea level, and sometimes down to 1,000
metres. Cloud forests supply water to the ecosystem
via 'horizontal precipitation'- clouds and fog
condense to form water droplets on vegetation
surfaces. This is an important source of water and
contributes to the maintenance of the base flow of a
river especially during periods of scarce rainfall.
Due to the wet humid equatorial/monsoonal climate,
Malaysia has abundant rainfall, more then 2000mm
annually, one of the highest in the world. However,
the actual amount of water available for use is
reduced because of seasonal droughts, deterioration
in water quality, wastage and poor management of
water resources. On average, the Malaysian uses 526
litres per day, and wastes up to 233 litres per day. Of
the 117 rivers in Malaysia, the Department of
Environment reported in 1997, that only 24 rivers
were classified as 'clean'. 59 were 'slightly polluted'
and 13 'very polluted' in Malaysia.
Water in the Cameron Highlands
The Cameron Highlands is located on the Main
Range, Peninsular Malaysia’s largest block of
highland forest, in the State of Pahang. The whole
Cameron Highlands district is mountainous with
altitudes ranging from 1,000m at the river valleys to
2,031m at the highest peaks. About 71% of the area
in the district of Cameron Highlands is still under
forest and 8% is agricultural land. The Cameron
Highlands is drained by eight rivers with Sg. Bertam,
Sg.Telom, and Sg. Lemoi, being the biggest ones; as
well as Sg. Ringlet, Sg.Habu, Sg. Burong, Sg.
Tringkap and Sg. Terla. These rivers drain into the
Sg. Pahang. The surface water is used for drinking
water supply for the Cameron Highlands; the main
drink water supply is the Sungai Burong intake. The
water quality of the rivers Cameron Highlands has
become bad in many places, because of siltation from
land clearing for development, road construction and
agricultural activities. A very important source of
water pollution is sewage that is poured into the
rivers. The 3 main rivers that drain the Cameron
Highlands, Sungai Bertam, Sungai Telom and
Sungai Telom which drain the northern, middle and
southern parts of the area are fed by the very
constant source of clean water from montane forests,
even in dryer seasons. The 3 rivers have a total of
over 123 tributaries and play a vital role in fresh
water supply, agricultural activities (irrigation) and as
source for hydroelectric generation. The Cameron
Highlands form the headwater catchment for 2
major rivers of the lowlands; Sungai Pahang and
Sungai Perak. Here water is abstracted for drinking
water supply at several intake points along rivers
coming from montane forests of the Cameron
Highlands.
Water catchments
Water catchment refers to the land area in the upper
reaches of the river system (in the highlands and
mainly forested) which feeds into a stream/river. Of
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all the functions, the highlands are famous as
catchment areas.
Water is the most important thing for living
organisms. It is the basis of life, playing an essential
part in all living processes, especially in the fragile
highlands of Peninsular Malaysia. The highlands and
specifically the montane ecosystem form some of the
most important water catchment areas in Peninsular
Malaysia. The montane forests in particular are
“water producers”. The supply of this precious and
perhaps most endangered and limited natural
resource, both in terms of quantity and quality is
dependent on forested water catchment areas in the
highlands.
A water catchment is the area of land from which
runoff (from rain and springs) drains to a stream,
river, lake, or other body of water. Its boundaries can
be identified by locating the highest points of lands
around the water body. Streams and rivers function
as the "arteries" of the watershed. They drain water
from the land as they flow from higher to lower
elevations. As small streams flow downhill and meet
other streams in the watershed, a branching network
is formed. When observed from the air this network
resembles a tree.
Water functions
Rivers and streams serve many functions in today’s
society including serving as a source of food and
water and a recreational place for many people, and
for nature as part of the ecology. The many functions
of rivers and streams create pressure on this resource.
Water catchments that were once mainly forested
have been changed for the social and economic
benefit of today’s society. The degradation in water
quality of rivers in the Cameron Highlands is
because of many sources including sewage,
agricultural runoff of pesticides, nutrients and
sediment; hydrologic alteration from stream
canalization, dams, artificial drainage and habitat by
canalization in conceit structures. Water catchment
disturbances from urban and ag ricultural
development contribute to an overall decrease in the
chemical & biological quality of the rivers and
streams (e.g., road building, stream canalization,
alteration of the stream’s riparian zone, and many
others).
Water ecology
A healthy stream is a busy place. Wildlife and birds
find shelter and food near and in its waters.
Vegetation grows along its banks, shading the stream,
slowing its flow in rainstorms and filter pollutants
before they enter the stream. Within the stream itself
are fish, insects and other tiny creatures with very
particular needs. For example, Stonefly larvae need
dissolved oxygen to breathe; rocks, overhanging tree
limbs, logs, roots for shelter; vegetation and other tiny
animals to eat; and special places to breed and hatch
their young. For many of these activities, they might
also need water of specific velocity, depth, and
temperature. Human activities shape and alter many
of these stream characteristics. Humans dam up,
straighten, divert, dredge, dewater, and discharge to
streams. These activities can dramatically affect the
many components of the living stream environment.
These components include:
• The riparian zone is the area of natural
vegetation extending outward from the edge
of the stream bank. The riparian zone is a
buffer to pollutants entering a stream from
runoff, controls erosion, and provides stream
habitat and nutrient input into the stream. A
healthy stream system generally has a healthy
riparian zone. Reductions and impairment of
riparian zones occur when roads, parking lots,
fields, lawns and other artificially cultivated
areas, bare soil, rocks, or buildings are near
the stream bank;
• The stream bank includes both an upper
bank and a lower bank.
• T h e s t re a m s i d e c ove r i n c l u d e s a ny
overhanging vegetation that offers protection
and shading for the stream and its aquatic
inhabitants;
• Stream vegetation includes emergent,
submerge and floating plants. Emergent
plants include plants with with most of their
vegetative parts above the water. Submerge
plants also include some of the same types of
plants, but they are completely immersed in
water. Floating plants (e.g. algae mats) are
detached from any substrate and are therefore
drifting in the water;
• The channel of the streambed is the zone of
the stream cross section that is usually
submerged and totally aquatic.
• The substrate is the material that makes up
the streambed, such as clay, cobbles, or
boulders.
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Pollution of rivers

The main source of water pollution,

next to urban waste water, is
agriculture. Intensive agriculture on
high degree slops (left) and
application of pesticides (above) and
fertilizers have a major impact on
water deterioration.

The water in a stream is always moving and mixing, comes from surface water runoff. It originates from a
from top to bottom and from one side of the stream broad area and thus can be difficult to identify.
to the other. Pollutants that enter the stream travel Examples of non-point sources include agricultural
some distance before they are thoroughly mixed runoff and construction site runoff. More impacts are
throughout the flow. For example, water upstream of caused by sediments and silt from eroded land and
a pipe discharging wastewater might be clean. At the nutrients such as the Nitrogen and Phosphorus found
discharge site and immediately downstream, the in fertilizers, detergents, and sewage treatment plant
water might be extremely degraded. Further discharges. Other leading pollutants include
downstream, in the recovery zone, overall quality pathogens such as bacteria, pesticides, and organic
might improve as pollutants are diluted with more enrichment that leads to low levels of dissolved
water. Far downstream the stream as a whole might oxygen.
be relatively clean again. Unfortunately, most streams
with one source of pollution often are affected by
many others as well. Pollution is broadly divided into
two classes, point- and non-point sources, according
to its source. Point source pollution comes from a
clearly identifiable point such as a pipe, which
discharges directly into a water body. Examples of
point sources include; wastewater treatment plants
and urban discharge. Non-point source pollution

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Common sources of pollution to streams
include:
• Ag ricultural activities such as crop
production. These pollutants contribute
sediments, nutrients, pesticides, herbicides,
pathogens and organic pollutants;
• Municipal dischargers such as sewage
treatment plants which contribute nutrients,
pathogens, organic enrichment, and toxicants;
• Runoff from building sites adding massive
amounts of sediments to the rivers.
Unsustainable development hits hard
on the environment in the Cameron
Highlands.
Water pollution in the Cameron
Highlands
The Cameron Highlands are drained by eight rivers
with Sg. Bertam, Sg. Telom, and Sg. Lemoi being the
biggest ones. The upper reaches of the Bertam River
basin serves as an important water catchment area
for water supply. Forest cover is essential in this
function, despite that fact the Upper Bertam
catchment is for 30% covered by agriculture and
urban area. In preventing erosion and runoff in
agriculture the slope gradient must be less then 25°
and of a capable soil type, almost 45% of the
agricultural land in the Cameron Highlands takes
place on land with a higher slope degree.
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The Cameron Highlands are characterized by
undisturbed nature on one hand and on the other
intensive agriculture. Unfortunately not much
attention is driven to the back draw of this
agricultural use; pesticides, fertilizers and in urban
area sewage (not treated thoroughly or at places not
at all) entering the river system, causing severe water
pollution.
The (already scarce) drinking water supply is
therefore polluted with several chemicals i.e.
pesticides, fertilizers, faecal bacteria (causing diseases)
and hardly available through lack of management,
(illegal) tapping and soil erosion.
The positive news:
• Virgin and original mountain forest streams
of (ecological and chemical) outstanding
quality and importance of the ecosystem,
which form a vital and reliable supply of good
quality drinking water.
The negative news:
• Most vulnerable part of the catchment lies in
urbanized area, with pollution sources
(agricultural & urban) located at the far
upstream part of the catchment;
• The Sungai Bertam is heavily polluted with
faecal bacteria (E.Coli), organic pollution
(sewage, manure & fertilizers), suspended
solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste and
pesticides.
Reasons of water pollution in the Cameron
Highlands:
• Increasing water pollution by agriculture by
excessive pesticide and fertilizer use and by urban
area with poorly treated or untreated sewage
poured in the river;
• Lack of enforcement by Land Office (MDCH),
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) and
Water Board (JBA), thousands offences of public
laws are broken everyday, causing pollution or
illegal tapping
• Siltation and erosion from land clearing, agriculture
and construction;
• Illegal water tapping. 20% of water is left for
public. 80% of the total water supply is being
tapped by farmers and is utilized for agricultural
activities. Most of the water used in agriculture is
(illegally) tapped from small mountain streams in
the forest containing the best quality water of the
Highlands
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Community Stream Monitoring
The (Upper) Sungai Bertam is the river that starts its
journey high-up the slopes of Gunung Brinchang, as
tiny forest streams; with outstanding water quality. It
ends its journey in the Ringlet Reservoir near Habu.
In the meanwhile it passes Brinchang town, the Parit
Falls, Tanah Rata town, the Robinson Falls, the
PowerStation and Habu. In these 18 kilometres it
runs through pristine forest with absolutely clear
water of perfect quality (slopes Gunung Brinchang),
here does your tap-water come from, a little later the
sewage of the town of Brinchang is poured in as well
as some pesticides and fertilizers from local farms, the
rivers of Sungai Burong and Sungai Ruil are joining
the river further down, after passing the golf course
and the Parrit Falls Tanah Rata town lies ahead.
Here Sungai Jasar joins adding the sewage of Tanah
Rata town. After the Robinson Falls and the Power
Station, Sungai Ulung (adding fertilizers and
pesticides from farms) and Sungai Batu Pipih (again
adding fertilizers and pesticides from farms) are
joining by, just before the Sungai Bertam enters the
Ringlet Reservoir. In this journey it started with very
clean drinking water, but got polluted more and
more. When it flows in to the Reservoir it is heavily
polluted with faecal bacteria (E.Coli), organic
pollution (sewage, manure & fertilizers), suspended
solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste and pesticides.
Sample locations
Within the Sungai Bertam catchment the river
Sungai Bertam is the most evident. This river is the
major river leading to the Ringlet Reservoir. This
catchment is chosen because of its allocation in the
urbanized area of the Cameron Highlands. The
Sungai Bertam is fed by a few dozen other (smaller)
rivers; including (from source down): Sungai Burong,
Sungai Ruil, Sungai Pauh, Sungai Jasar, Sungai Batu
Pipih and Sungai Ulung. All these rivers have an
influence on the water quality of the main course;
Sungai Bertam, ounce added to the stream. This can
be positive (with clean water and thus diluting any
pollutants in the Sungai Bertam) or negative; adding
more pollution.
Site selection
Sites are chosen to provide baseline data to
characterize the stream and screen for problems, it
monitors a number of sites representing a range of
conditions in the river/stream water catchment (e.g.,
an upstream "pristine" area, above and below towns
and cities and in agricultural areas). To determine
whether a particular land use activity or potential
source of pollution is, in fact, having an impact, it
might be best to monitor upstream and downstream
of the area where the source is suspected.
General influence of side streams to the
Sungai Bertam:
• Sungai Burong: relatively clean, little upstream,
before joining Sungai Bertam the large Sungai
Burong drinking water intake, but also small
agricultural activities i.e. strawberry farms.
• Sungai Ruil: relatively clean; running trough Orang
Asli settlement.
• Sungai Pauh: very clean, non-polluted stream from
Sungai Pauh forest reserve
• Sungai Jasar: extremely polluted, adding all sewage
of Tanah Rata town.
• Sungai Batu Pipih: polluted; influence because of
intensive agriculture along its stretch
• Sungai Ulung: polluted; influence because of
intensive agriculture along its stretch
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Aquatic macro invertebrates
Macro invertebrates as indicators
Aquatic macro invertebrates are tiny creepy crawlies
living in the water. It is a community of insect
(larvae), beetles, worms, snails and other small
creatures. Not every aquatic macro-invertebrate can
live in every type of water quality: some species need
really clean water (water with the quality of drinking
water) others can live perfectly well in polluted water
with lots of sewage. These little creatures are super-
sensitive for changes in their environment. This
means that they are very accurate in telling you how
clean the water is. Biological monitoring, the study of
biological organisms and their responses, is used to
determine environmental conditions. One type of
biological monitoring, the aquatic macro invertebrate
assessment, is described in this chapter. The aquatic
macro invertebrate assessment involves collecting,
processing, and analyzing aquatic organisms to
determine the health of the biological community in
a stream. Aquatic Macro invertebrates are organisms
The purest water houses Stone Fly
larvae (left), the dirtiest are full with
leeches (above).
that are large (macro) enough to be seen with the
naked eye and lack a backbone (invertebrate) living in
the water. They inhabit all types of running waters,
from fast-flowing mountain streams to slow-moving
muddy rivers. Examples of aquatic macro
invertebrates include insects in their larval or nymph
form, crayfish, clams, snails and worms. Most live
part or most of their life cycle attached to submerged
rocks, logs, and vegetation. Aquatic macro
invertebrates are good indicators of stream
quality because:
• They are affected by the physical, chemical, and
biological conditions of the stream;
• They can't escape pollution and show the effects of
short- and long term pollution events;
• They may show the cumulative impacts of
pollution;
• They may show the impacts from habitat loss not
detected by traditional water quality assessments;
• They are a critical part of the stream's food web;
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• Some are very intolerant of pollution; farmland, habitat degradation such as excess sand or
• They are relatively easy to sample and identify. silt on the stream bottom that has ruined Stonefly
sheltering areas, or other conditions.

Macro invertebrate assessments In a stream, habitat for aquatic macro invertebrates

Aquatic macro invertebrates are an important part of includes the rocks and sediments of the stream
the community of life found in and around a river/ bottom, the plants in and around the stream, leaf
stream. Stream-bottom macro invertebrates are a link litter and other decomposing organic material that
in the aquatic food chain. In most streams, the energy falls into the stream, and submerged logs, sticks, and
woody debris. Aquatic macro invertebrates need the
stored by plants is available to animal life either in the
form of leaves that fall in the water or in the form of shelter and food these habitats provide and tend to
algae that grows on the stream bottom. The algae congregate in areas that provide the best shelter, the
and leaves are eaten by aquatic macro invertebrates. most food, and the most dissolved oxygen. The
Aquatic macro invertebrates are a source of energy information provided by aquatic macro invertebrate
for larger animals such as fish, which in turn, are a assessments can be used for many purposes. Aquatic
source of energy for amphibians, birds, water snakes macro invertebrate assessments can be used to
and even human beings. identify problem sites along a stream.
The basic principle behind the study of aquatic
macro invertebrates is that some are more sensitive to • To identify the impact of pollution and of pollution
pollution than others. Therefore, if a stream site is control activities. Aquatic macro invertebrates are
inhabited by organisms that can tolerate pollution stationary and are sensitive to different degrees of
and the more pollution-sensitive organisms are pollution, changes in their abundance and variety
missing a pollution problem is likely. vividly illustrate the impact pollution is having on
the stream. Similarly, when a pollution control
For example, Stonefly nymphs are very sensitive to activity takes place an aquatic macro invertebrate
most pollutants cannot survive if a stream's dissolved assessment may show that the sensitive aquatic
oxygen falls below a certain level. If an aquatic macro invertebrates have returned and a habitat
macro invertebrate assessment shows that no assessment might find that the formerly eroded
stoneflies are present in a stream that used to support stream banks have recovered.
them, a hypothesis might be that dissolved oxygen • To determine the severity of the pollution problem
has fallen to a point that keeps stoneflies from and to rank stream sites. To use biological data
reproducing or has killed them outright. This brings properly, water resource analysts generally compare
up both the advantage and disadvantage of the the results from the stream sites under study to
aquatic macro invertebrate assessment. The those of sites in ideal or nearly ideal condition
advantage of the aquatic macro invertebrate (called a reference condition). Individual stream
assessment is that it tells us very clearly when the sites can then be ranked from best to worst, and
stream ecosystem is impaired, or "sick," due to priorities can be set for their improvement.
pollution or habitat loss. It is not difficult to realize • To identify water quality trends. In any given site,
that a stream full of many kinds of crawlies is biological data can be used to identify water quality
healthier than one without much life. The trends (increasing or decreasing) over several years.
disadvantage of the aquatic macro invertebrate
assessment, on the other hand, is that it cannot While most water quality analysis and standards
definitively tell us why certain types of creatures are focus on chemical data, these measures only reflect
present or absent. In this case, the absence of the conditions at the moment the sample is taken.
Stoneflies might indeed be due to low dissolved Aquatic macro invertebrates, however, possess a life
oxygen. But is the stream under oxygenated, because cycle of at least one year or more, do not move great
it flows too sluggishly or because pollutants in the distances and are more or less confined to the area of
stream are damaging water quality by using up the stream being sampled. Therefore, their diversity and
oxygen? The absence of Stoneflies might also be due populations exhibit the long-range effects of waste
to other pollutants discharged or runoff from effluents to the aquatic environment. The aquatic
macro invertebrate community of a stream lives with

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the stresses and changes that occur in the aquatic
environment.  Aquatic invertebrate bio monitoring
has long been a tool of choice in assessing and
monitoring the impacts of anthropogenic stress in
aquatic systems. Aquatic macro invertebrates are a
very diverse group of organisms. They display a wide
range of sizes, habitat requirements, life histories and
sensitivities to water quality impairment. Some are
sensitive to changes in substrate composition; others
are sensitive to fluctuations in dissolved oxygen. Some
require cold water temperatures, while others can
tolerate a wide range of temperatures. This wide
range of living requirements makes aquatic macro
invertebrates excellent indicators of anthropogenic
stress on aquatic systems. Very important is also that
you can test for example for Nitrate in chemical
analysis but unless you test them all (Nitrate, Nitrite,
TotN, Ammonia) you can not tell if the water is
polluted with Nitrogen compounds. With an aquatic
macro invertebrate assessment you can; because they
are sensitive for the whole package of chemical
parameters; from Nitrogen compounds, till heavy
metals and pesticides. They thus provide with an
instant single parameter for the “overall” water
The steam on the left is severely
polluted with sewage, and only fungus
can live here. The stream above is also
polluted.
quality and often more accurate and sensitive then
for human health or chemical testing.
Positive points of an aquatic macro
invertebrate assessment:
• Diversity of some form and habits;
• Many sedimentary species can indicate effects at
site of sampling;
• Whole communities can respond top change;
• Long-lived species can indicate integrated pollution
effects over time;
• Qualitative sampling easy;
• Simple sampling equipment;
• Good taxonomic keys.
Negative points of an aquatic macro
invertebrate assessment:
• Quantitative sampling difficult ;
• Substrate important when sampling;
• Species my drift in moving waters;
• Knowledge of life cycles necessary to interpret
absence of species;
• Some groups difficult to identify.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
The pollution tolerances of the various aquatic
macro invertebrates are based upon the aquatic
macro invertebrates' tolerance to dissolved oxygen
concentrations in water.  Organisms are separated
into 3 categories of pollution tolerance:  Sensitive or
intolerant (class I), Facultative or somewhat sensitive
(class II) and Tolerant (class III) to pollution.   usually in high numbers: high abundance);
In a river/stream with good water quality aquatic
macro invertebrates of both sensitive to and tolerant
to pollution are found.  No particular group or types
of organisms will dominate the aquatic macro
invertebrate population of the stream.  With
increased organic pollution (from nutrients found in
fertilizers, sewage, and other sources) dissolved
oxygen levels within the stream are expected to
fluctuate more extremely and fewer pollution
sensitive organisms will be found.  Aquatic macro
invertebrates that can tolerate lower oxygen levels will
become more prevalent.  As organic pollution
continues to increase, some pollution tolerant aquatic
macro invertebrates will become dominant and will
be able to support large populations within the
stream, while pollution sensitive or semi-sensitive
organisms will be unable to survive.  groups:
A shift in aquatic macro invertebrates' food sources is
expected with changes in amount of organic
pollution in a stream.  In clean streams, food sources
are usually from within the natural stream system,
including leaf litter from trees in the riparian
corridor of the stream.  In more organically-polluted
streams, food might be supplied by other than natural
sources, such as nutrients input as fertilizers through
runoff or from a sewage pipe.  Increased nutrients
will also stimulate plant and algal growth within a
stream, offering yet another food source for aquatic
macro invertebrates in polluted streams. Pollution of
water causes a decrease of aquatic macro
invertebrate diversity, which is an "indicator" of a
healthy aquatic ecosystem. Thus, when an organic
effluent is discharged into a stream, the numbers of
species decline, with an increase in the population of
those organisms that tolerate such stresses.
Summarizing:
• In a healthy stream, the stream-bottom community
will include a variety of pollution-sensitive aquatic
macro invertebrates (high diversity). In a polluted
river there may be only a few types of Tolerant
(class III) aquatic macro invertebrates present (but
• Aquatic macro invertebrate assessments provide
information about the quality of a stream over long
periods of time. It may be difficult to identify
stream pollution with water analysis, which can
only provide information for the time of sampling
and only for 1 parameters at the time. Even the
presence of fish may not provide information about
a pollution problem, because fishes are mobile and
can move away to avoid polluted water and then
return when conditions improve. However, most
aquatic macro invertebrates cannot escape and
move to avoid pollution. An aquatic macro
invertebrate assessment may thus provide
information about pollution that is not present at
the time of sample collection;
Aquatic macro invertebrates can be dived in 3
Class I Organisms Very sensitive: The aquatic macro
invertebrates of this group will immediately suffer,
stress, die and disappear due to commencing of
lowering water quality in slightly polluted water. This
group includes pollution- sensitive organisms such as
mayflies, stoneflies, and non net-spinning Caddisflies,
which are typically found in good-quality water.
Class II Organisms Facultative or somewhat sensitive:
The aquatic macro invertebrates of this group will
present in low number individuals because of
intermediate water quality in mild polluted water and
have the capability to live under varying conditions.
This group includes somewhat pollution-tolerant
organisms such as net-spinning Caddisflies, Crayfish,
Sow bugs, and Clams, found in fair-quality water
  Class III Organisms Not sensitive/Tolerant: The
aquatic macro invertebrates of this group will survive,
dominant and high in number of individuals in very
low water quality and severe polluted water. This
group includes pollution-tolerant organisms such as
Worms, Leeches and Midges, found in poor-quality
water.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Perfectly clean water (left) and

extremely polluted. Here (in Brinchang
town) a drain reales waste in the river.
This is a major source of pathogenic
bacteria like E. Coli. The clean stream
has a very diverse aquatic macro
invertebrate community (mostly
classes I & II). The polluted stream with
only very aquatic macro invertebrate
species (only class III) but thousands of
each species (low diversity + high
abundance = low water quality).

Identification the identification characteristics. This key is specially

The identification key provided with this Manual adapted for the condition and occurrence of aquatic
consists of pairs of opposite choices in form of macro invertebrates in the Cameron Highlands and
dichotomous key. To use this key, start at the first for this Manuel.
number and read the two statements. Decide which
statement best describes the organism and click on Taxonomic Classification
your choice. Repeat the procedure until the aquatic Scientists have developed a system for classifying all
macro invertebrate is identified. If you reach a point living creatures based on shared characteristics
in the selection of descriptive statements at which (taxonomic classification). It is a tiered system that
none of the statements apply, you can work your way begins on a large scale (i.e., Animal Kingdom/Plant
back through the preceding pairs of statements and Kingdom) and works its way down to the level of
perhaps reconsider the choices. In others, you will individual species.
find that you are unable to identify the particular
aquatic macro invertebrate and you will have to To illustrate, a mayfly is classified as follows:
identify it as "unknown". Some aquatic macro
invertebrates (such as some Caddisfly larvae) will be Kingdom: Animal Family: Ephemerida
found in a protective case of sand, small sticks, or Phylum: Arthropoda .Genus: Hexagenia
other material. Class: Insecta Species: limbata
Order: Ephemeroptera
You may find it necessary to remove these cases in
order to make an identification. For some specimens,
magnification with a hand lens will be needed to see

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Interpretation of the results
While the presence or absence of certain species will
reflect conditions of stress on the aquatic community,
it will also reflect the diversity or lack of diversity of
the habitat of various sampling locations. For
example, the riffle communities of a stream are
generally more diverse in invertebrate forms than
pools. Some samples may be taken in a pool, which
will naturally be less diverse and possess other "pond-
like" biota than another point sampled in the riffle.
Also, the type of substrate of the stream will affect
the index. For instance those sampling locations that
possess bedrock as a substrate tend to be less diverse
in invertebrate forms than those containing gravel
and boulders. 
One of the inherent dangers of the "indicator
organism" concept or classification is that the
occurrence of a Class III organism exhibits pollution.
This is not true. Even clean aquatic communities will
have their share of sludge Worms, air-breathing
Snails, Leeches, etc. Therefore, one must search
thoroughly over the sampling point to find other
organisms. If only Class III forms can be found,
Two macro invertebrates, both
indicating good water quality. The
Stone Fly larvae (above), recognisable
by its characteristic two thread like
tails. is more sensitive to pollution than
the Dragon Fly larva (left), recognisable
by its big head and eyes and the
absence of a distinguishable tail.
severe degradation is evident. However, one seldom
needs to sample such points - pollution is often
obvious. The results of the aquatic macro
invertebrate assessment described in this Manual are
meant to be indicative. The only mean is to give
indicative values of water quality and not an
extensive survey of species occurrence. Identification
of species is only to family level; because of the goal
of general water quality assessment and defining
potentials of the niche. Main reason for choosing
aquatic macro invertebrates is its great potential as
water quality indictor to be used in a relatively simple
way by not-extensively trained people; like High
School students or the interested.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Aquatic macro invertebrate populations are more Sedimentation

sensitive than fish populations by local water quality • Decrease in Mayflies (Ephemeropterae) and
and habitat conditions. A few examples of reaction of Midges(Chironomidae).
the aquatic macro invertebrate community on water
pollution effects are: A few examples of specific families reacting
on water pollution
Nutrient enrichment • Stoneflies (Insect Order:  Plecoptera) prefer cool,
• Increased ratio of aquatic Worms (Oligochatae) to oxygen-rich streams and are generally intolerant or
aquatic insects; very sensitive for water pollution; 
• Increased ratio of Midges (Chironomidae) to other • Leeches (Hirundinae) and Snails (Gastropoda) live
aquatic insects; generally in nutrient rich water with plants growing
• Increase of herbivorous Mayflies (Ephemeropterae) on the riverbanks.
and Midges(Chironomidae).
Some families such as Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera
Low dissolved oxygen and Trichoptera are especially sensitive to pollutants
• Increased ratio of aquatic worms to aquatic insects; and are commonly used as indicators of water
• Increased ratio of Midges (Chironomidae) to other quality. This group of aquatic insects: Ephe-
aquatic insects. meroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera are called the
sensitive EPT group.

Diversity

Species
abundanc e

Clean
Non-Polluted Pollut e d Clean

Relationship between diversity and abundance. In a polluted stream a few species ‘’can take over’’ and thrive by the
thousands. This figure of diversity and abundance is shown in the graph above and it is one to remember. Even when
not identifying the occurring species you can already tell something about the water quality by just looking at this
figure.

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Going in the field

Picking a few of the larger animals out

as well as some of the bigger leaves/
branches before placing the sample in
the bucket (left). Lifting a stone,
disturbing some gravel when keeping
the net in the current. In this way the
aquatic macro invertebrates are
flushed into the net (above).

Macro invertebrates of the Cameron (and where organic pollution of sewage decreases the
Highlands dissolved oxygen level) these species are replaced by
others from mainly the Nematoda and Gastropoda
The macro invertebrate community of the fast families.
flowing rivers of the Cameron Highlands mainly For the Cameron Highlands generally no native fish
consists out of insects. All the upper parts of the species were found above 1000m. The Common
rivers (still in the forest) have excellent water quality. Carp and the Guppy are two introduced fish species
The families found are Ephemeroptera, Odonata, and are very common in the Upper-Bertam river.
Plecoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. However, these introduced fish species are very
Especially the fast running small forest streams insensitive for water pollution and can live in very
contain a diverse aquatic macro invertebrate fauna of polluted water.
Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera and
species of the Odonata family. Most of them are the
larvae/nymphs of forest insects. Lower on the slopes,
where the river becomes deeper and slower running

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Sample stations • Petri dishes;

Sampling transects are chosen in the Sungai Bertam • Aquatic macro invertebrate assessment worksheet.
river; regarding the land use around the stream; i.e.
virgin forest, urban and agricultural area, in the main Sampling Method
stream (sg. Bertam) as well as the several adjoining In the Cameron Highlands the upper-parts of the
side streams. In this Manual we suggest a few rivers; such as the Sungai Bertam are generally fast
sampling points for the aquatic macro invertebrate flowing, have a rocky bottom and not many aquatic
assessment; these are the same as for the chemical plants are present. The method you use to collect
testing; see chapter 3. aquatic macro invertebrates using this approach
depends on the type of stream you are sampling.
Sampling moment Most streams (especially the smaller ones in the
In dryer periods with a few days of dry weather the forest) have bottoms made up of gravel, cobbles and
river runs with relatively stable water rates, During boulders in any combination and usually have
rain or just after raining, the river is relatively definite riffle areas. Riffle areas are fairly well
unstable with rapidly increasing water rates, the oxygenated and are therefore prime habitats for
water stream will then be brown of silt and have a aquatic macro invertebrates. The wider streams near
water rate which is up to 10 times the original water the Parit Falls and the town of Tanah Rata have silt
rate in dryer moments. The period of time when it & sandy bottoms and are slower moving with a low-
this has a high flow is called HWF or High Water gradient (i.e., streams that flow along relatively flat
Flow, the period with a stable ‘normal’ flow; AWF or terrain). In these parts of the river course aquatic
Average Water Flow. The aquatic macro invertebrate macro invertebrates generally attach themselves to
assessments according to this Manuel; will be carried overhanging plants, roots, logs, submerged vegetation
out during the normal or AWF; This is important and stream substrate where organic particles are
because after a period of heavy rain most trapped. It is important to collect a representative
invertebrates living in the water will be disturbed or sample of the river. The method that we are going to
‘’washed away’’, it takes a little time for them to use in this Manual is called scientifically qualitative
recover to the average circumstance; and this is when multi-habitat (QMH) sampling. It means that samples
the assessment should be carried out in order to get a are collected to characterize the overall aquatic
clear and honest picture. macro invertebrate diversity of the river, by looking
and collecting at all the micro-biotopes of the river.
Equipment for the assessment This include: under and on rocks, gravel and sand,
Much of the required equipment is easily obtained under plants and roots, along the sides and in the
from either hardware stores or scientific supply middle of the river. You will be doing this on a rivers
houses. Other equipment can be found around the stretch of 35 times the width of the stream, making
house. Listed below is the basic equipment to carry- sure you catch as many diverse organisms and no
out the assessment discussed in this Manual: more then half a 5.5l bottle.
So the goal is to sample the most productive habitats
• Clipboard, preferably with plastic cover;
available and look for the widest variety of
• Several pencils;
organisms. So the entire sampling method is based on
• Field data sheet;
catching not as many, but the most diverse range of
• Dip-net;
organisms of the river. This is best done by looking
• Two 10 l buckets;
and catching at diverse micro-biotopes within the
• Alcohol to preserve samples;
stream. So you have to look; under stones, under
• Hand lens, magnifying glass;
vegetation banks and between vegetation, in gravel or
• Large, shallow, white pans, such as dishpans;
sand, as well on the sides of the stream. You first have
• Plastic ice cube trays;
to choose a transect of 35 times the river width. In
• Taxonomic key to aquatic organisms;
this transect you have to do your best to catch as
• Calculator;
many diverse micro-biotopes as you can.
• Boots (knee-high);
• Taxonomic keys ;
• Fine-point forceps or tweezers;

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
At the end of the session you got to have a half-full
5.5 l mineral water bottle with material and the
organisms (without sand or leafs !!! you have to wash
that out in prior). This will be easy in the more
polluted streams, where you will find Snails and
Leeches by the thousands and more difficult in very
clean streams; where you will find only tiny Stonefly-
and Mayfly larvae. But remember you have to collect
over 60 individuals, a few hundred is also ok (will cost
you more work however in the identification &
analysis), but do not collect thousands of snails,
diversity is what counts.
• Approach the sample site from downstream and
sample as you walk upstream. Always use a clean
dip-net that is free of mud and debris from previous
uses. Fill one-third of the bucket with stream water;
• Sample vegetated bank margins by jabbing
vigorously, with an upward motion, brushing the
net against vegetation and roots along the bank.
The entire jab motion should occur underwater;
Sorting the largest invertebrates from
the sample (left). This net full with
snails is not a good indication, they are
are Class III organisms
To sample a silt/sand/gravel substrate, place the net
with one edge against the stream bottom and
Dislodge the aquatic macro invertebrates by moving
your boot through the first few inches of silt, sand,
gravel, or rocks and placing your dip-net about half a
meter of your boot downstream, catching up the
disturbed material in the net. To avoid gathering a
net full of mud, periodically sweep the mesh bottom
of the net back and forth in the water, making sure
that water does not run over the top of the net. This
will allow fine silt to rinse out of the net. The
member of the team designated as the "kicker"
should thoroughly stir up the sampling area with
their feet, starting at the upstream and working
downstream, moving toward the net. All dislodged
organisms will be carried by the stream flow into the
net.
Be sure to disturb the first few inches of stream
sediment to dislodge burrowing organisms;
• Pick up any large rocks in the sampling area; mostly
Stonefly- and Mayfly larvae hide under rocks in fast
flowing streams. One member of the team, the net
holder, should position the net at the downstream
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
end of the rock you are going to lift. Hold the net
handles at a 45 degree angle to the water's surface.
Be sure that the bottom of the net fits tightly
against the streambed so no aquatic macro-
invertebrates escape under the net. Do not allow
any water to flow over the net. Then one team
member should lift the rock carefully but fast, when
the net-holder or a third person with hand dislodge
aquatic macro invertebrates in the sediment under
the rock, by pouring it towards the net (in a way the
material is washed in the net by the stream current).
After you have done this, inspect the rock surface
itself for any living organisms and try to dislodge
the foreign particles from the rock's surface. Also
look for clumps of gravel or leaves stuck to the rock.
These clumps may be houses of Caddisflies and
should be dislodged as well;
• Next, remove the net without allowing any of the
organisms it contains to wash away. While the net
holder grabs the top of the net handles, the
‘’kicker’’ grabs the bottom of the net handles and
the net's bottom edge. Remove the net from the
stream with a forward scooping motion;
• Hold the net above the partially filled bucket and
put the material carefully in the bucket by hand.
Pour or spray water down the net to flush its
contents into the bucket. If necessary, pick debris
and organisms from the net by hand and pick any
clinging organisms from the net by hand and put
them in the bucket;
• Release back into the stream any fish, amphibians,
or reptiles caught in the net. Carefully remove large
pieces of debris (leaves, twigs, and rocks) from the
sample. While holding the material over the bucket,
use the forceps and your hands to pick, rub, and
rinse the big leaves, twigs, and rocks to remove any
attached organisms and remove large pieces of
debris from the sample this way;
• You will need to drain off the water before
transferring the material to the 5.5 l bottle;
• This process will require two team members. One
person should place the net, like a sieve, the second
person can now carefully pour the contents of the
bucket onto the center of the net to drain the water
and concentrate the organisms. Use care when
pouring so that organisms are not lost over the side
of the net. Use your hands then to transfer all the
material from the net into the 5.5l bottle;
• The samples are transported with a closed 5.5l
mineral water bottle to the workplace where the
invertebrate holding mass of debris is washed,
sieved and selected. The sampling, transport and
selecting and identification of aquatic macro
invertebrates has to take place the same day.
Work space
Important!! The following step can be carried out
with many volunteers at the same time (the more the
faster it will go), by dividing the sample evenly among
the volunteers in different steps of the process. So
give a few volunteers each portions of the sample to
sort, and others already begin with identification. In
case you got many hundreds or even thousands of
the same organisms (most likely Snails or Leeches)
don not count or collect them all!!! In stead of that
mix the whole sample thoroughly first, and pick a
sub-sample of 1/10th of the entire sample, collect
and count these particular organism in this bit and
multiply the outcome with 10 (for the whole sample).
After you have done that work through the rest of the
sample as normal, but ignore the family or families
you just calculated, do not collect or count them
anymore. When arrived at the workplace, pour the
contents of the 5.5l bottle (remaining water,
organisms, and organic material) into a large, shallow,
white pan and fill the ice cube tray with stream water.
Then bit by bit take a handful of the material and
wash it under the running tap. You do this by place
the material in the fine net, place it above an empty
bucket and carefully run tap-water over it. At the
same time wash the material with your hand, making
sure the material and organism not leaving the fine-
net and the bucket overrunning. When the bucket is
full, check for any escaped organism, pick them out
and empty the bucket, continuing once you have
done that. Using tweezers, eye dropper, or spoon,
pick through the leaf litter and organic material
looking for anything that swims, crawls, or seems to
be hiding in a shell (like a snail). Examine the
material (organic materials in the sample like small
leaf and sticks) and make sure you picked-out the
organisms from it, before you remove the organic
material. Remember that the organisms will have
sought shelter, and they could be hiding.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Using tweezers carefully and remove anything that After the whole sample is worked through and you
resembles a living organism. Look carefully; many of are left with ice cube trays with organisms, work them
these creatures are quite small and fast-swimming. through identifying the aquatic macro invertebrates
Sort the similar organisms into the plastic ice cube to within each order to family level using your
tray. This last step will become easier once you knowledge and the taxonomic keys. You will only
starting to recognize the families. After you worked need to identify the families that are used in the
through each handful of sample, put the remaining metrics.
material in a bucket and start over with a new
handful material. After you worked through the
whole sample, picked-out all big organisms, and are
left with fine (organic material or some sand) and
small organism within this mass in the bucket. Empty
this bucket in a large white pan (not too much at once
otherwise you won’t see anything!), add enough water
to cover the material. Evenly disperse the material
over the entire bottom of the pan; the water will help
in distributing the sample throughout the pan.
Look the material carefully through with your
tweezers, removing any organism larger then 2 mm.
This is most easy done by beginning at one corner of
the pan, a partial work through tiny bits, until you
The Guppy (Gambusia affensis) is a perfect
worked trough all the material, sweeping the material indictor of the worst water quality; this
you worked through by hand to the another corner. invasive species occurs even in sewage
Sort the similar organisms again and put them in the drains, where it feeds on organic matter. It is
plastic ice cube tray. found abundantly in polluted water in the
Cameron Highlands (above).

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Chemical testing
Chemical & physical testing
Because of the relative limited resources and
apparatus, only a few chemical/physical
parameters are chosen to be carried out in the
course of this program. The accent lies more on
the biological properties i.e. the aquatic macro
invertebrates assessment. In this Manuel the
following parameters are chosen to test; pH, EC
and TDS using the Multi-meter, Phosphor (as
Phosphate) and Nitrogen (as Ammonia and as
Nitrate) using quick-test-kits.
However it is incidentally possible to carry out
other water test than at the standard monitoring.
These include: pesticides, heavy metals, nutrient-
content (i.e. BOD, COD) and E.Coli.
Filling in the information on the
fieldwork form in the field with values
of EC, pH and general visible pollution
indicators (left). Multi meter for
measuring temperature, TDS, pH and
EC (above).
Standard monitoring parameters
Selection of parameters to be monitored is based
on:
• The water quality problems and pollution
sources in the case of the Cameron Highlands;
• The cost of available monitoring equipment;
• The precision and accuracy of available
monitoring equipment;
• The capabilities of the volunteers;
• Because of the expense and difficulty involved,
volunteers generally do not monitor for toxic
substances such as heavy metals and pesticides.
Additional it is however to collect water samples
and send for analysis at an accredited laboratory.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
pH (acidity)
pH is a term used to indicate the
alkalinity or acidity of a substance
as ranked on a scale from 1.0 to
14.0. Acidity increases as the pH
gets lower. pH affects many
chemical and biological processes
in the water. For example, different
organisms flourish within different
ranges of pH. The largest variety
of aquatic animals prefers a range
of 6.5-8.0. pH outside this range
reduces the diversity in the stream,
because it stresses the physiological
systems of most organisms and
can reduce reprod-uction. The pH
scale measures the logarithmic
concentration of hydrogen (H+)
and hydroxide (OH-) ions, which
make up water (H+ + OH- =
H2O). When both types of ions
are in equal concentration, the pH
is 7.0 or neutral. Below 7.0, the
water is acidic (there are more
hydrogen ions than hydroxide
ions). When the pH is above 7.0,
the water is alkaline or basic (there
are more hydroxide ions than
hydrogen ions). Since the scale is
logarithmic, a drop in the pH by
1.0 unit is equivalent to a 10-fold
increase in acidity. So, a water
sample with a pH of 5.0 is 10
times as acidic as one with a pH of
6.0, and pH 4.0 is 100 times as
acidic as pH 6.0.
Measuring pH
pH can be analyzed in the field or
in the lab. The pH measurements
for this monitoring program are
carried-out in the field with the
Multi-meter instrument. Taking a
sample for pH-measurement is not
Set of pH-meters at tyhe works space
(left). Taking in the middle of the
stream, directly in the strongest
current in the middle between surface
and bottom and recapping it under
water without air coming in the bottle
(above).
a good idea, since the pH tends to
be unstable, when water is stored
or transported. This is because of
Carbon dioxide from the air
dissolving in the water, which will
bring the pH toward 7.
The pH meter of the Multi-meter
instrument measures the electric
potential (millivolts) across an
electrode when immersed in water.
This electric potential is a function
of the hydrogen ion activity in the
sample. A pH meter consists out of
a potentiometer, which measures
electric current; a glass electrode,
which senses the electric potential
where it meets the water sample; a
reference electrode, which provides
a constant electric potential; and a
temperature compensating device,
wh i ch a d j u s t s t h e re a d i n g s
according to the temperature of
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

the sample (since pH varies with temperature). The Measuring Conductivity (EC)
instrument is calibrated on two buffer solution, of pH Conductivity is useful as a general measure of stream
4.0 and pH 7.01). water quality. Each stream tends to have a relatively
The instrument should be calibrated prior to constant range of conductivity that, once established,
measurement and after every 25 samples according can be used as a baseline for comparison with regular
to the instructions in the instruction hand-out of the conductivity measurements. Significant changes in
instrument. conductivity could then be an indicator that a
The following is important regarding buffers: discharge or some other source of pollution has
• The buffer solutions should be at room entered a stream. Conductivity is measured with a
temperature when you calibrate the meter; probe and a meter. Voltage is applied between two
• Do not use a buffer after its expiration date; electrodes in a probe immersed in the sample water.
• Always cap the buffers during storage to The drop in voltage caused by the resistance of the
prevent contamination; water is used to calculate the conductivity per
• Do not re-use buffer solutions; centimetre. The meter converts the probe
• Shake of the electrode of the instrument measurement to microSiemens per centimetre and
gently, to prevent dilution of the buffer displays the result for the user. The multi-meter can
solution when calibrating. also be used to test for total dissolved solids. The total
dissolved solids concentration in milligrams per liter
Conductivity and TDS (mg/L) can also be calculated by multiplying the
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to conductivity result by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9,
pass an electrical current. Conductivity in water is which is empirically determined.
affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids
such as Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate, and Phosphate Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or Sodium, In river water, Total Dissolved Solids or TDS consist
Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, and Aluminium cat ions of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chlorides, Nitrate,
(ions that carry a positive charge). Conductivity is Phosphates and other ions particles that will pass
also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, through a filter with pores of around 2 microns
the higher the conductivity. For this reason, (0.002 cm) in size. The concentration of total
conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25 degrees dissolved solids affects the water balance in the cells
Celsius (25 C). Conductivity in streams and rivers is of aquatic organisms. High concentrations of TDS
affected primarily by the geology of the area through are an indicator of pollution since natural highland
which the water flows. Streams that run through rivers contain very low concentrations of TDS
areas with granite bedrock (like in the Cameron (because of its origin as rain water). Sources of TDS
Highlands) tend to have lower conductivity because include Sewage Treatment Plants, fertilizers, road
granite is composed of more inert materials that do runoff, and soil erosion. Total solids are measured in
not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when milligrams per liter (mg/L). TDS is important to
washed into the water. On the other hand, streams measure in areas where there are discharges from
that run through areas with clay soils tend to have sewage treatment plants or extensive crop irrigation.
higher conductivity because of the presence of TDS measurements can be useful as an indicator of
materials that ionize when washed into the water. the effects of runoff from construction, agricultural
Ground water inflows can have the same effects practices, logging activities, sewage treatment plant
depending on the bedrock they flow through. discharges, and other sources. Concentrations often
Discharges to streams can change the conductivity increase sharply during rainfall, especially in
depending on their make-up. A failing sewage system urbanized and agricultural water catchment.
would raise the conductivity because of the presence
of chloride, phosphate, and nitrate; an oil spill would Phosphorus
lower the conductivity. Both Phosphorus and Nitrogen are essential nutrients
for the plants and animals that make up the aquatic
food web. Since phosphorus is the nutrient in short
supply in most fresh waters, even a modest increase in

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
phosphorus can, under the right conditions, set off a
whole chain of undesirable events in a river/stream
including accelerated plant growth, algae blooms, low
dissolved oxygen, and the death of certain fish,
invertebrates, and other aquatic animals. There are
many sources of phosphorus, natural as well added
by human. These include wastewater treatment
plants (sewage) and runoff from agricultural land.
Forms of Phosphorus
Phosphorus has a complicated story. In nature,
phosphorus usually exists as part of a Phosphate
molecule (PO43-). Phosphorus in aquatic systems
occurs as organic Phosphate and inorganic
Phosphate. Organic Phosphate consists of a
Phosphate molecule associated with a Carbon-based
molecule, as in plant or animal tissue. Phosphate that
is not associated with organic material is inorganic.
Inorganic Phosphorus is the form required by plants.
Animals can use either organic or inorganic
phosphate. Both organic and inorganic phosphorus
can either be dissolved in the water or suspended
(attached to particles in the water column).
Phosphorus cycles through the environment,
changing form as it does so. Aquatic plants take in
dissolved inorganic Phosphorus and convert it to
organic Phosphorus as it becomes part of their
tissues. Animals get the organic phosphorus they
need by eating either aquatic plants, other animals, or
decomposing plant and animal material. As plants
and animals excrete wastes or die, the organic
phosphorus they contain sinks to the bottom, where
bacterial decomposition converts it back to inorganic
Phosphorus, both dissolved and attached to particles.
This inorganic phosphorus gets back into the water
column when the bottom is stirred up by animals,
human activity, chemical interactions, or water
currents. Then it is taken up by plants and the cycle
begins again. In a stream system, the Phosphorus
cycle tends to move Phosphorus downstream as the
current carries decomposing plant and animal tissue
and dissolved phosphorus. It becomes stationary only
when it is taken up by plants or is bound to particles
that settle to the bottom of rivers/streams.
Monitoring Phosphorus
Monitoring Phosphorus is challenging because it
involves measuring very low concentrations down to
0.01 milligram per liter (mg/L) or even lower. Even
such very low concentrations of Phosphorus can have
a dramatic impact on streams. Less sensitive methods
should be used only to identify serious problem areas.
While there are many tests for Phosphorus, only four
are likely to be performed by volunteer monitors.
The total Orthophosphate test is largely a measure of
Orthophosphate. Because the sample is not filtered,
the procedure measures both dissolved and
suspended Orthophosphate. The total Phosphorus
test measures all the forms of phosphorus in the
sample (Orthophosphate, condensed Phosphate, and
organic Phosphate). In this Manuel we recommend
testing Phosphorus with a quick-test; this gives quick
and instant results that are fairly accurate and can
measure even very low concentrations.
Nitrogen: Nitrate and Ammonia
Nitrates are a form of nitrogen, which is found in
several different forms in terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. These forms of nitrogen include
Ammonia (NH3-), Nitrates (NO3-), and Nitrites
(NO2-). Nitrates are essential plant nutrients, but in
excess amounts they can cause significant water
quality problems. Together with Phosphorus, excess
amounts of Nitrates can accelerate eutrophication,
causing dramatic increases in aquatic plant growth
and changes in the types of plants and animals that
live in the stream. This, in turn, affects dissolved
oxygen, temperature, and other indicators. The
natural level of Ammonia or Nitrate in surface water
is typically low (less than 1 mg/L); in the effluent of
wastewater treatment plants, it can range up to 30
mg/L. Sources of Nitrates include wastewater
treatment plants, runoff from fertilized lawns and
cropland, failing on-site septic systems and runoff
from animal manure storage areas.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants —
usually through their roots. However, most of the
Ammonia produced by decay is converted into
Nitrates. This is accomplished in two steps:
• Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize
NH3 to Nitrites (NO2−).
• Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the
Nitrites to Nitrates (NO3−).
Nitrate can be decomposed by other bacteria to N2
(nitrogen gas) in anaerobic circumstance (thus
without oxygen), since the oxygen-levels in the fast
flowing rivers of the Cameron Highlands are quite
high, Nitrate will thus be accumulated in the river
system.
Testing nitrate with the quick-test
Nitrates from land sources end up in rivers and the slimy brown ones (indicating severe nutrient
streams more quickly than other nutrients like enrichment).
Phosphorus. This is because they dissolve in water
more rapidly than Phosphates, which have an Water samples for laboratory analysis
attraction for soil particles. As a result, Nitrates serve
as a better indicator of the possibility of a source of
sewage or manure pollution during dry weather.
Water that is polluted with Nitrogen-rich organic
matter might show low nitrates. Decomposition of
the organic matter lowers the dissolved oxygen level,
which in turn slows the rate at which Ammonia is
oxidized to Nitrite (NO2 ) and then to Nitrate
+-
(NO3-). Under such circumstances it is also necessary
to test for Ammonia (which is also considerably more
toxic to aquatic life than Nitrate). We therefore in this
Manuel suggest testing for both Nitrate and
Ammonia.
General visible pollution
Always fill out some general information on your
sampling location each time you visit it. Below you
will find a short list of items that you should review
ever time you sample on or more of the chemical
parameters:
Water colour: colourless, transparent or has it a
colour (may be yellow or brown).
Foam on the surface: might be natural or due to
pollution, generally detergents or nutrients.
Water turbidity: cloudy brown due to suspended
silt or organic material.
Water colour dark brown: might indicate that
acids are being released into the stream due to
decaying plants.
Oily sheen on the water surface: multi-coloured
reflection might indicate oil floating in the stream,
although some sheens are natural.
Water odour: can be a physical indicator of water
pollution; no smell or a natural odour or strong smell
of some kind.
Visible sewage: might indicate the release of
human waste material
Litter or garbage in the stream: solid waste
from urban use may also in clued (partly) empty
pesticide bottles.
Fungi on the stream bottom: grey or whitish
underwater growing fungi indicate extremely
polluted water, full with sewage.
Algae on rocks and gravel: indicating nutrient
enrichment of the water, green algae are better then
1. Use bottles supplied by the laboratory;
2. Follow their comments and guidelines for
sampling tidily;
3. Label the bottle with the site number, date,
and time;
4. Remove the cap from the bottle just before
sampling. Avoid touching the inside of the
bottle or the cap. If you accidentally touch
the inside of the bottle, use another one;
5. Try to disturb as little bottom sediment as
possible. In any case, be careful not to
collect water that has sediment from
bottom disturbance. Stand facing
upstream. Collect the water sample on
your upstream side, in front of you;
6. Hold the bottle near its base and plunge it
(opening downward) below the water
surface;
7. Collect a water sample mid-way between
the surface and the bottom;
8. Turn the bottle underwater into the
current and away from you. In slow-
moving stream reaches, push the bottle
underneath the surface and away from you
in an upstream direction;
9. Fill the bottle completely without air in it
a n d r e c a p t h e b o t t l e c a r e f u l l y,
remembering not to touch the inside;
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Fill in the bottle number and/or site number
on the appropriate field data sheet. This is
important because it tells the lab coordinator,
which bottle goes with which site.
Place the samples in the cooler for transport to the
laboratory. The sooner the samples are in the
laboratory the better. The laboratory will inform you
in prior of the maximum time after sampling;
BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, measures the
amount of oxygen consumed by micro-organisms in
decomposing organic matter in stream water. BOD
also measures the chemical oxidation of inorganic
matter (i.e. the extraction of oxygen from water via
chemical reaction). A test is used to measure the
amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms
during a specified period of time (usually 5 days at 20
C). The rate of oxygen consumption in a stream is
affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH,
the presence of certain kinds of micro organisms,
and the type of organic and inorganic material in the
water. BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved
oxygen in rivers and streams. The greater the BOD,
the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream.
This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of
aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the
same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic
organisms become stressed, suffocate and die.
Sources of BOD include; animal manure; wastewater
treatment plants; failing septic systems; and urban
storm water runoff.
Sampling Considerations
BOD is affected by the same factors that affect
dissolved oxygen. Aeration of stream water by rapids
and waterfalls, for example will accelerate the
decomposition of organic and inorganic material.
Therefore, BOD levels at a sampling site with slower,
deeper waters might be higher for a given volume of
organic and inorganic material than the levels for a
similar site in highly aerated waters. BOD
measurement requires taking two samples at each
site. One is tested immediately for dissolved oxygen,
and the second is incubated in the dark at 20 C for 5
days and then tested for the amount of dissolved
oxygen remaining. The difference in oxygen levels
between the first test and the second test, in
milligrams per liter (mg/L), is the amount of BOD.
This represents the amount of oxygen consumed by
micro organisms to break down the organic matter
present in the sample bottle during the incubation
period. Because of the 5-day incubation, the tests
should be conducted in a laboratory.
Faecal Bacteria
Members of two bacteria groups, coliforms and
faecal streptococci are used as indicators of possible
sewage contamination, because they are commonly
found in human and animal faeces. Although they
are generally not harmful themselves, they indicate
the possible presence of pathogenic (disease-causing)
bacteria, viruses, and protozoon’s that also live in
human and animal digestive systems. Therefore, their
presence in streams suggests that pathogenic micro
organisms might also be present and might be a
health risk. Since it is difficult, time-consuming and
expensive to test directly for the presence of a large
variety of pathogens, water is usually tested for what
is the considered the best indicator of them all:
E.Coli instead. Sources of faecal contamination to
surface waters include wastewater treatment plants
(sewage) and runoff from agricultural land with
animal manure. In addition to the possible health risk
associated with the presence of elevated levels of
faecal bacteria, they can also cause cloudy water,
unpleasant odours, and an increased oxygen demand.
Indicator bacteria types and what they can tell you
The most commonly tested faecal bacteria indicators
are total coliforms, faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli
(= E.Coli), faecal streptococci, and enterococci. All
but E. coli are composed of a number of species of
bacteria that share common characteristics such as
shape, habitat, or behaviour; E. coli is a single species
in the faecal coliform group and it is the one that is
most tested as an indicator of contamination with the
whole group of pathogenic organisms. E. coli occurs
in human faeces, but some can also be present in
animal manure.
Sampling and equipment
Bacteria can be difficult to sample and analyze, for
many reasons. Natural bacteria levels in streams can
vary significantly; bacteria conditions are strongly
correlated with rainfall, and thus comparing wet and
dry weather bacteria data can be a problem; many
analytical methods have a low level of precision yet
can be quite complex; and absolutely sterile
conditions are required to collect and handle
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
samples. It is critical when monitoring bacteria that
all containers and surfaces with which the sample will
come into contact be sterile.
It is also possible to test the water on:
• Heavy metals like Zinc, Lead and Mercury;
• Pesticides;
• Chemical Oxygen Demand or COD;
Sampling moment
In dryer periods with a few days of dry weather the
river runs with relatively stable water rates, within
these periods riverbed erosion takes place delivering
bonded compounds in the riverbed to the water
stream (i.e. phosphates and pesticides). During rain or
just after raining, the river is relatively unstable with
rapidly increasing water rates with surface runoff of
the surrounding land (with compounds bonded to the
surface layers of i.e. agricultural land) being added to
the water stream. The water stream will then be
brown of silt and have a water rate which is up to 10
times the original water rate in dryer moments.
AWF at the Sg. Bertam near MARDI,
Tanah Rata; this is very suitable for
taking samples for chemical analysis
or biological samples. Left: HWF at
the same river; taking samples is now
very dangerous because of the
enormous increased water flow. The
water current not only can sweep you
away easily, but also changes in flow
very quickly; the flow can increase 10
fold in less then 5 minutes. This also
takes place when it is not raining on
the place were you are standing, it
can just as well be raining somewhere
else in the catchment causing a rapid
increase in water flow without
warning. Always be very careful near
the river and watch out when the
water colour changes (this can
indicate rain somewhere else in the
catchment) or when the flow
increases.
The period of time when it this has a high flow is
called HWF or High Water Flow, the period with a
stable ‘normal’ flow; AWF or Average Water Flow.
The testing of chemical parameters according to this
Manuel; will be carried out during the normal or
AWF; since the river has most of the time this flow
and thus that chemical quality. However during the
programme one can chose for some measurement
during HWF, to get results of much higher pollution.
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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Getting the results on paper

Heavy siltation from farms on too steep

slopes turns the rivers brown (above)
after rain, and clocks the Ringlet
Reservoir with sediment (left). This also
kills (suffocate) most aquatic macro
invertebrates in the stream.

Working with the results The group of aquatic insects namely Mayflies,
Metrics are used to do something with the biological Stoneflies and Caddisflies or Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera
data you just collected. By using metrics you tell if and Trichoptera are also called EPT-taxa; they are very
the water is polluted or not and in which degree. sensitive to pollution.
They make it possible to classify the sampling
locations/stations according to water pollution. In In this Manual we use the word ‘taxa’ which is in this
this Manual we will use a few different metrics to case the same as Order.
work with the data of your collected aquatic macro
invertebrates. Of the many different metrics that can After you have washed, sieved and sorted the sample,
be used to calculate water quality the following are dived the aquatic macro invertebrates according to
we going to use: (1) Total Number of Taxa and the groups in the provided table and fill this in. You
organism Density Per Sample (total abundance), (2) have to count the number of animals from each
Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant Groups, group and fill then in. Then you have to multiply that
(3) BMWP indice, (4) ASPT indice and the (5) to the special score for each family. After you have
Lincoln Quality Index). done that, you can dispose the macro invertebrates,
clean up and work with this data to make the
following calculations:

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
1) Total Number of Taxa (TNT) and Formula: 100% x group number/total number =
Organism Density Per Sample (ODPS) percentage group %. After you have made this
The total number of all the animals in the sample calculation you have to show these results in a Pie
and the total number of taxa (families) found in the Graph. Like the one below. Only animals from Class
sample. The more different animals from different I (sensitive) and Class III (tolerant) are chosen in this
families, the better. PAMAG, so you can display them in red (bad) for
TNT: …… animals in the sample Class III and green (good) Class I.
ODPS: ……. Different families (like: Gastropada,
Chironimidae or Decapoda)

For example:

TNT: 176
ODPS: 10
176 animals in sample of which Ephemeroptera 3,
Plecoptera 5, Trichoptera 12, Odonata 5, Decapoda
31, Coleoptera 4, Megaloptera 0, Hemiptera 0,
Hirundinae 33, Gastropoda 65, Chironimidae 11

2) Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant

3) BMWP indice
Groups (PAMAG)
BMWP means: Biological Monitoring Working Party
For this Manual; 5 groups were made: EPT-taxa
and together with the Average Score Per Taxon
(Stonefly,- Mayfly,- and Caddisfly larvae), Decapoda
(ASPT) Indices and the Lincoln Quality Index are
(f res h w ater Crabs), Gastropoda (Snails),
biological measures to investigate and determine the
Chironimidae (Mosquito larvae) and Hirundinae
river pollution. These three measure are the most
(Leeches). You have to count all the animals of these
reliable and most used ‘’biological indices’’ in the
groups and calculate the percentage of them in the
world. For this Manuel, they are speciality adapted
sample. PAMAG:
for this The Cameron Highlands and for the project.
EPT:......... animals in sample
In the BMWP aquatic macro invertebrates are
Decapoda:......... animals in sample
divided in groups, according to their tolerance to
Gastropoda:......... animals in sample
pollution (pollution Classes I, II & III). Each group
Chironimidae:......... animals in sample
gets a score, the higher the score, the more sensitive
Hirundinae:......... animals in sample
the animals of that group are, the lower, the more
Total of these groups: ……… animals
tolerant they are. Scores range from 10 to 1 (10 =
For example: very sensitive, Class I and 1 = very tolerant Class III).
Example of BMWP is given in the Example
PAMAG: Worksheet further below.
EPT:...20...... animals in sample
Decapoda:....31..... animals in sample
Gastropoda:...65...... animals in sample
Chironimidae:..11....... animals in sample
Hirundinae:...33...... animals in sample
Total of these groups: …160…… animals

100% x 11/160 = 6.9% Chironimidae

Total of groups is 164 and Chironimidae is 67 
100% x 67/164 = 40.8 % Chironimidae

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Procedure 5) Lincoln Quality Index

• Sort the aquatic macro invertebrates present This index combines both BMWP and ASPT and
into the groups listed in the BMWP table. gives a water quality index instead of a ‘’biological
health’’ index like BMWP and ASPT. In this way the
• Ticking off the groups present in the river can be categorised to its water quality in classes.
Worksheet. Even if you have more than one Just like with the aquatic macro invertebrates itself.
species for a particular group, you have to
record that particular group only once. Formula: Lincoln Quality Index = (X + Y)/2

• Sum all the scores for all groups ticked on the X = Rating BMWP
record sheet to give the BMWP score Y = Rating ASPT
You can find those X and Y numbers, by looking
You can look up what you score means regarding to them up in the supplied table. In this table you need
water quality in the supplied tables. In the example to compare the BMWP and ASPT score and read
the water quality according to BMWP is GOOD. out the X and Y rating. These numbers are based on
water characteristics and used for this kind of
4) ASPT indice research in water pollution.
ASPT means: Average score per taxon and is
calculated by dividing the score of the BMWP by the For example: BMWP score was 63, when looking it up in the
number of families in the BMWP index. It has the table it says: X = 7
advantage that is more sensitive to show pollution The ASPT score was 6.3, when looking it upo in the table it
and it is more reliable because it displays both says: Y = 7
diversity (the more diverse the better the water Then: 7 (Lincoln Quality Index) = (7 + 7)/2
quality) and abundance (the amount of animals in
the sample; many of one kind is bad). You can look up what you score means regarding to
water quality in the supplied tables. In the example
Formula: ASPT = BMWP score/total families the water quality according to the Lincoln Quality
Index is A++ or very good.
You can look up what you score means regarding to
water quality in the supplied tables. In the example
the water quality according to ASPT is CLEAN.

For example (see Example Worksheet further below): 6.3

(ASPT) = 63 (BMWP score) / 10 (families)

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Monitoring and presentation

EC and TDS Bertam river (AWF)

70
60
50
40 EC µS/cm
30 TDS mg/l
20
10
0
SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
Sample points

Line graph with Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of fictive sample points SP 1, SP2, SP3,
SP4 to the measured values in µS/cm and mg/l. Because these sample points are in line (going from upstream SP1 to
downstream SP4) the increase in both values indicating human disturbance (i.e. sewage with high EC/TDS) is clearly
visible.

Monitoring and data reproduction
The program coordinator should have a clear plan
for dealing with the data collected each year. Field
and lab data sheets should be checked for
completeness, data should be screened for outliers,
and a database should be developed or adapted to
store and manipulate the data. The elements of such
a database should be clearly explained in order to
allow users to interpret the data accurately and with
confidence. The program coordinator has also to
decide how to present data results, not only to the
general public and to specific data users, but also to
the volunteers themselves. It is hard to overemphasize
the importance of having established methods of
handling volunteer data, analyzing that data, and
presenting results effectively to volunteers, the public,
and water resource decision-makers. Without these
tools and processes, the data that volunteers and
program managers have laboured hard to collect are
virtually useless.
The program will then surely fail to meet its goals.
The volunteer program coordinator or designated
analyst should screen and review the field data sheets
as they are received. This involves some basic "reality
checks."
Once volunteer monitoring data has been entered
into a database, the next step is to generate reports on
the findings of the data. Today's computer software
includes a variety of spreadsheet and database
packages that allow to sort, manipulate and perform
statistical analyses on the data entered into the
computer. For most applications, spreadsheets are
adequate and have the advantage of being relatively
simple to use. We strongly recommend using
Microsoft Excel for data storage and manipulation.

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS
Data presentation
When presenting numerical data, one of your chief
goals should be to maintain the attention and interest
of your audience. This is very difficult using tables
filled with numbers. Most people will not be
interested in the absolute values of each parameter at
each sampling site. They will want to know the
bottom line for each site (e.g., is it good or bad) and
seasonal and year to year trends. Graphs and charts,
therefore, are typically the best way to present
volunteer data. Take care, however, that your graphs
"fit" your audience and are not too technical and not
too simple. An effective way to display your data is on
a map of the stream or watershed. This clearly
illustrates the relationship between land uses and the
quality of water, habitat, and biological communities.
This type of graphic display can be used to effectively
show the correlation between specific activities or
land uses and the impacts they have on the
ecosystem.
Working with the chemical data
Working with the data for the chemical part involves
insert the data in a database. For the database the
common program Excel is the most suitable. The
trends in the collected data can be shown best in a
line graph; this can also be done in Excel. Using a
line graph makes it is easier to recognize increases
and decreases over a longer period. Make sure that
the database is updated frequently to prevent loss of
information. Two people should be involved in
processing the data.
Graphs and Charts
Graphs can be used to display the summarized results
of large data sets and to simplify complicated issues
and findings. The three basic types of graphs that are
typically used to present monitoring data are:
• Bar graph;
• Pie chart;
• Line graph.
Bar graphs are typically used to show results, such as
Aquatic macro invertebrate assessment scores, along
a vertical or y-axis for a corresponding variable (such
as sampling date or site) which is marked along the
horizontal or x-axis. These types of graphs can also
have two vertical axes, one on each side, with two sets
of results shown in relation to each other and to the
variable along the x-axis.
Most used graphs are:
Bar Graph
• A bar graph uses columns with heights that
represent the value of the data point for the
parameter being plotted;
Pie Chart
• Pie charts are used to compare categories
within the data set to the whole. The proportion
of each category is represented by the size of
the wedge. Pie charts are popular due to their
simplicity and clarity;
Line Graph
• A line graph is constructed by connecting the
data points with a line. It can be effectively used
for depicting changes over time or space. This
type of graph places more emphasis on trends
and the relationship among data points and less
emphasis on any particular data point.
Regardless of which graphic style is chosen, follow
the next rules to ensure that they are used most
effectively:
• Each graph should have a clear purpose. The
graph should be easy to interpret and should
relate directly to the content of the text of a
document or the script of a presentation;
• The data points on a graph should be
proportional to the actual values so as not to
distort the meaning of the graph. Labelling
should be clear and accurate and the data
values should be easily interpreted from the
scales. Do not overcrowd the points or values
along the axes. If there is a possibility of
misinterpretation, accompany the graph with
a table of the data;
• Keep it simple. The more complex the graph,
the greater the possibility for
misinterpretation;
• Limit the number of elements. Pie charts
should be limited to five or six wedges, the
bars in a bar graph should fit easily, and the
lines in a line graph should be limited to three
or less;
• Consider the proportions of the graph and
expand the elements to fill the dimensions,
thereby creating a balanced effect. Often, a
horizontal format is more visually appealing
and makes labelling easier;
• Create titles that are simple, yet adequately
describe the information portrayed in the
graph;
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• Use a legend if one is necessary to describe
the categories within the graph;
• Accompanying captions may also be needed
to provide an adequate description of the
elements.
Producing Reports
On a regular basis, a successful monitoring program
should produce reports that summarize key findings
to volunteers, data users and the general public,
including the media. Depending on the user;
different reports are necessary, for example:
Professional Report
In a report designed for water quality or planning
professionals, you should go into detail about:
• The purpose of the study;
• Who conducted it;
• How it was funded;
• The used methods;
• The quality control measures taken;
• Your interpretation of the results;
• Your conclusions and recommendations;
• Further questions that have arisen as a result of the with confidence for those needs. Steps to ensure this
study;
• Graphics, tables and maps may be fairly
sophisticated. Be sure to include the raw data in an • Evaluating the program's success after an initial
appendix and note any problems encountered.
Lay out of reports
A report for the general public should be short and • Documenting in a written plan all the steps taken to
direct. It is very important to write in a non-technical sample, analyze, store, manage and present data;
style and to include definitions for terms and
concepts that may be unfamiliar to the lay person.
Simple charts, summary tables and maps with
accompanying explanations can be very useful. This
type of report should include a brief description of
the program, the purpose of the monitoring, an
explanation of the parameters that were monitored,
the location of sample sites, a summary of the results
and any recommendations that may have been made.
Both types of reports should acknowledge the
volunteers and the sources of funding.
Publishing of the Report
Develop a strategy for distributing and publicizing
your report before it is completed. Be sure the
REACH committee is confident about the data and
comfortable with the statements and conclusions that
have been included in the document. Some ideas for
distributing the results and informing the public
include the following:
• Mailing of the report via de REACH member-list
or on the website;
• Presentations with i.e. PowerPoint on schools,
Heritage Hotel or REACH- office;
• News releases in the press;
• News conferences with diverse press or interested;
• Leaflets on the findings, highlighting the study
outcome and creating awareness as well as funding;
• Exhibitions in schools or public buildings.
Data credibility
Credible data meet specific needs and can be used
include:
Properly training, testing, and retraining volunteers;
pilot stage and making any necessary adjustments;
• Assigning specific quality assurance tasks to
qualified individuals in the program;

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Glossary
Accuracy - a measure of how close repeated trials
are to the desired target.
Acidity - a measure of the number of free hydrogen
ions (H+) in a solution that can chemically react with
other substances.
Benthic - pertaining to the bottom (bed) of a water
body.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - the
amount of oxygen consumed by micro organisms as
they decompose organic materials in water.
Biological criteria - numerical values or narrative
descriptions that depict the biological integrity of
aquatic communities in that state. May be listed in
state water quality
standards.
Community - the whole of the plant and animal
population inhabiting a given area.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) - oxygen dissolved in
water and available for living organisms to use for
respiration.
Eutrophication - the natural and artificial addition
of nutrients to a water body, which may lead to
depleted oxygen concentrations. Eutrophication is a
natural process that is frequently accelerated and
intensified by human activities.
Kick net - a fine mesh net used to collect organisms.
Kick nets vary in size, but generally are about three
feet long and are attached to two wooden poles at
each end.
Land uses - activities that take place on the land,
such as construction, farming, or tree clearing.
Macro invertebrate - organisms that lack a
backbone and can be seen with the naked eye.
pH - a numerical measure of the hydrogen ion
concentration used to indicate the alkalinity or
acidity of a substance. Measured on a scale of 1.0
(acidic) to 14.0 (basic);
7.0 is neutral.
Phosphorus - a nutrient that is essential for plants
and animals.
Pipet - an eyedropper-like instrument that can
measure very small amounts of a liquid.
Pool - deeper portion of a stream where water flows
slower than in neighbouring, shallower portions.
Protocol - defined procedure.
Riffle - shallow area in a stream where water flows
swiftly over gravel and rock.
Riparian - of or pertaining to the banks of a body
of water.
Riparian zone - the vegetative area on each bank
of a body of water.
Submergent plants - plants that live and grow
fully submerged under the water.
Substrate - refers to a surface. This includes the
material comprising the stream bed or the surfaces to
which plants or animals may attach or live upon.
Taxon (plural taxa) - a level of classification within
a scientific system that categorizes living organisms
based on their physical characteristics.
Taxonomic key - a quick reference guide used to
identify organisms. They are available in varying
degrees of complexity and detail.
Tolerance - the ability to withstand a particular
condition, e.g., pollution-tolerant indicat es the ability
to live in polluted waters.
Tributaries - a body of water that drains into
another, typically larger, body of water.
Turbidity - murkiness or cloudiness of water,
indicating the presence of some suspended
sediments, dissolved solids, natural or manmade
chemicals, algae, etc.
Water quality criteria - maximum concentrations
of pollutants that are acceptable. The criteria for
water quality are listed in the Water Quality
Standards.
Water quality standards - written goals for water
quality
Water catchment - the area of land drained by a
particular river or stream system.
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Literature & References
This Manual is based on 3 existing programmes
for river water quality monitoring, and is derived
from them, adapted to the local circumstances for
the Cameron Highlands and for the needs of
R.E.A.C.H. The methodology like that of the
BMWP is adapted and changed in a form
suitable for these purposes.
Kanjanavanit, Oy, Moonchinda,
Niromon , 2002, Handbook for Stream
detectives The Green World Foundation
Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Water, 1997, Volunteer Stream
Monitoring: A Methods Manual, EPA
Adopt-A-Stream Foundation,
www.streamkeeper.org, 2005, monitoring
programmes
Consulted Literature & Reports:
A study on pollution prevention and water quality
improvement program of rivers in Cameron
Highlands, National Seminar, March 2005,
HANDOUTS, Government of Malaysia, Adroit
Consulting Engineers
Abdullah, Shahrizaila, 2003, Country Dialogue
on Water, Food and Environment, concept and
Process – A Malaysian Experience
Cameron Highlands Structure Plan 1998-2010,
Majlis Daerah Cameron Highlands
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Water, 1997, Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual, EPA
Genet, J, Chirhart, J, 2004, Development of a
Macro invertebrate Index of Biological Integrity
(MIBI) for Rivers and Streams of the Upper
Mississippi River Basin, Minnesota Pollution
Control Agency Biological Monitoring Program
Hashim, G.M., Wan Yusoff, W.A., 2003,
Environmental Issues In Highlands Agriculture,
M a l a y s i a n A g r i c u l t u r a l Re s e a r c h a n d
Development Institute (MARDI)
Ibrahim I, Ir, National Seminar, March 2005,
H A N D O U T Wa t e r q u a l i t y m o d e l l i n g,
Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting
Engineers
Kanjanavanit, Oy, Moonchinda, Niromon , 2002,
Handbook for Stream detectives The Green
World Foundation
Kumaran, S, Ainuddin, A. N., 2004, Forests,
Water and Climate of Cameron Highlands,
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Kumaran, S, The Highland ecosystems: The
urgency for conservation and protection, WWF
Malaysia
Mohd. Long, S, Abang, F, Rahim, K.A, 2002,
The macro invertebrate community of the fast
flowing rivers in the Crocker Range National
Park Sabah, Malaysia, ASEAN Review of
Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation
(ARBEC)
Salam, M, N, A, Tang, J, Aquatic biota studies in
the Selangor river basin, WWF Malaysia
WWF Malaysia, 2001, Study for the Sustainable
Development of the Highlands of Peninsular
Malaysia, Economic Planning Unit, Prime
Minister’s Department
WWF Malaysia, 2001, Study on the
Development of Hill,, Economic Planning Unit,
Prime Minister’s Department
WWF Malaysia, 2003, Water for Life
presentation
Internet sources:
www.reach.org.my 10/05/05
http://www.reach.org.my/index.php?
option=content&task=category&sectionid=17&id=31
&Itemid=55
www.greenworld.org.th 21/03/05
http://www.greenworld.or.th/2_gwf.htm
www.environmentagency.gov.uk 18/03/55
http://www.environmentagency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/
wildlife/inverts/fresh_inverts/545851/545897/
lang=_e&theme=&region=&subject=&searchfor=water
+qualitty..html
www.streamkeeper.org 19/03/05
http://www.streamkeeper.org/education/index.htm
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Attachments
Water quality classification based on BMWP Biotic Rating Standards based on BMWP and ASPT
Index, ASPT and Lincoln Quality Index (adapted) (adapted)
The numbers given in the tables are adapted and
calculated for this Manual.
biological indice score Water Quality
> 66 Very good BMWP Score X Rating
49 - 65 Good 60 + 7
BMWP 33 – 49 Moderately good 50 – 59 6
17 – 33 Bad 40 – 49 5
0 - 16 Very bad 30 – 39 4
0 Very polluted 20 – 29 3
– 2.9 Polluted 10 – 19 2
ASPT – 4.9 Moderately 0–9 1
5.0 – 5.9 polluted ASPT Y Rating
6.0 – 7.9 Moderately clean 6.0 + 7
8.0 – 10.0 Clean 5.5 – 5.9 6
Very clean 5.1 – 5.4 5
6+ A++ Very good 4.6 – 5.0 4
5.5 A+ Very good 3.6 – 4.5 3
5 A Very good 2.6 – 3.5 2
4.5 B Good 0 – 2.5 1
4 C Good
Lincoln Quality Index 3.5 D Moderately
3 polluted
2.5 E Moderately
2 polluted
1.5 F Polluted
1 G Polluted
H Very polluted
I Very polluted

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Simplified Identification Key

(Based on and pictures taken from “Save our streams monitor’s Guide to macro invertebrates”, by
Loren Larkin Kellogg, ( Izaak Walton League of America 1992 ))

1. The aquatic macro invertebrate has segmented (jointed) legs ----------------go to-> 2
The aquatic macro invertebrate does not have segmented legs -------------go to->10

2. The aquatic macro invertebrate has more than six legs -------------------------go to-> 11
The aquatic macro invertebrate has six legs ---------------------------------------go to-> 3

3. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body longer than it is wide ------------go to-> 4

4. The aquatic macro invertebrate has no tail or one tail consisting of a single long filament
----------go to-> 5
The aquatic macro invertebrate has two or three tails that are either hairlike or broad (like
oars)
-------------go to->8

5. The aquatic macro invertebrate has an abdomen that is soft, not plated -----go to-> 6
The aquatic macro invertebrate has an abdomen that is hard plated ----------go to->7

6. The aquatic macro invertebrate has pairs of filaments that extend from the abdomen
----------go to-> 9
The aquatic macro invertebrate has no filaments extending from the sides of the abdomen

------------------------> Caddisfly (Trichoptera) [Very sensitive]

7. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a wide abdomen and large eyes

------------------> Dragonfly (Odonata) [Somewhat sensitive]

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body that is hard and stiff, its tail may have tiny hooks
and filaments extending

--------> Riffle Beetle (Coleoptera: Elmidae) [Somewhat sensitive]

8. The aquatic macro invertebrate has no gills on the abdomen -----------------go to->9
The aquatic macro invertebrate has gills on the side of its abdomen

-------------------------------> Mayfly (Ephemeroptera) [Very sensitive]

9. The aquatic macro invertebrate has three broad tails

------------------> Damselfly (Odonata) [Somewhat sensitive]

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

The aquatic macro invertebrate has two hairlike tails

--------------------------> Stonefly (Plecoptera) [Very sensitive]

10. The aquatic macro invertebrate does not have a distinct head ---------------go to->11
The aquatic macro invertebrate has a distinct head -----------------------------go to->14

11. The aquatic macro invertebrate has no legs or leg-like appendages ----------go to->12
The aquatic macro invertebrate has legs or leg-like appendages and it does not have a head

----------------------------------> Watersnipe Fly [Somewhat sensitive]

12. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body with hard shell(s) ---------------go to->13
The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body with no hard shell ---------------go to->15

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 REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

13. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a shell

--------------------> Lunged Snail (Mollusca: Gastropoda) [Not sensitive/Tolerant]

14. The aquatic macro invertebrate has one or more tiny leg-like appendages and has a body that
widens at the back end

---------> Blackfly Larva (Diptera: Simuliidae) [Very sensitive]

The aquatic macro invertebrate is the same width at both ends of the body

------> Midgefly (Diptera: Chironimidae) [Not sensitive/Tolerant]

15. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a segmented body ------------------------go to->16

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16. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a soft, plump, caterpillar-like body

-------------------> Cranefly (Diptera: Tipulidae) [Somewhat sensitive]

The aquatic macro invertebrate has a worm-like body ----------------------go to->17

17. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a long, segmented worm-like or thread-like body

-------> Aquatic Worm (Oligochaeta: Tubificidae) [Not sensitive/Tolerant]

The aquatic macro invertebrate has a segmented body with suckers at each end

-----------------------------> Leech (Hirudinea) [Not sensitive/Tolerant]

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